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Designing a sounding rocket is an interdisciplinary activity, involving many domains and many stages. The alignment between the disciplines and life cycle stages is not straightforward. Much effort is required in life cycle model management and tailoring processes. In this article, an objective was set to make a comparative study and analysis of life cycle concepts related to Malaysian university‐scale sounding rocket development, to assist in any future life cycle tailoring. Toward that goal, a comprehensive review and analysis of the related life cycle models was performed. The review covered three dimensions: engineering standards, aerospace vehicle design (AVD), and actual sounding rockets projects. Many reviewed models were re‐prescribed using model‐based systems engineering (MBSE) diagrams. This allowed greater insight and better assistance for any future tailoring. This expedition stresses the importance of the proposed three‐dimensional reviewing of life cycles. Unconventional life cycle models (e.g., Western vs. Eastern) have also been included. It is argued that mapping the standards onto actual projects improved insight. One of the important outcomes is the demonstration of the importance of the concept of the centrality of the values in the development process, which shall govern the stakeholders’ requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Solar eruptioN Integral Field Spectrograph (SNIFS) is a solar-gazing spectrograph scheduled to fly in the summer of 2025 on a NASA sounding rocket. Its goal is to view the solar chromosphere and transition region at a high cadence (1 s) both spatially ( 0.5 ″ ) and spectrally (33 mÅ) viewing wavelengths around Lyman alpha (1216 Å), Si iii (1206 Å), and O v (1218 Å) to observe spicules, nanoflares, and possibly a solar flare. This time cadence will provide yet-unobserved detail about fast-changing features of the Sun. The instrument is comprised of a Gregorian-style reflecting telescope combined with a spectrograph via a specialized mirrorlet array that focuses the light from each spatial location in the image so that it may be spectrally dispersed without overlap from neighboring locations. This paper discusses the driving science, detailed instrument and subsystem design, and preintegration testing of the SNIFS instrument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blade antennas are used as transmitters in telemetry system of the sounding rocket RX-450 of Research Center for Rocket Technology - National Research and Innovation Agency to send rocket information to the ground station. For 360° coverage, the rocket needs two blade antennas connected with a splitter device which necessitates provision of additional power on the rocket payload. We designed a circular polarization conformal 2.4 GHz antenna to avoid both aerodynamic disturbances due to antenna shape and data transmission loss due to polarization loss with the ground station. The antenna material is Roger 6010LM and good antenna parameters were determined by simulation. The antenna bandwidth is 71 MHz (2412-2483 MHz). The maximum and minimum gain 7.8 dB at 2.43 GHz and 4.5 dB at 2.47 GHz respectively. Because of its conformal shape, we get an omnidirectional radiation pattern. Further, using the Hilbert curve method with a U-slot on the ground plane, circular polarization with an axial ratio = 2 dB is obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Suborbital rockets that fly focal-plane cameras that need to be cooled to optimize their operation face a series of challenges around their operation. These include maintaining a high-quality vacuum and the cooling of the detectors in a controlled way. These challenges are further heightened by the requirement that no current flows through the payload systems while the rocket motors are being armed. This paper discusses the novel pumping and cooling system implemented for the 2022 launch of the Rockets for Extended-source X-ray Spectroscopy (tREXS), including the use of a magnetic umbilical to connect the vacuum foreline to the rocket skin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We made observations of magnetic field variations in association with pulsating auroras with the magneto‐impedance sensor magnetometer (MIM) carried by the Loss through Auroral Microburst Pulsations (LAMP) sounding rocket that was launched at 11:27:30 UT on 5 March 2022 from Poker Flat Research Range, Alaska. At an altitude of 200–250 km, MIM detected clear enhancements of the magnetic field by 15–25 nT in both the northward and westward components. From simultaneous observations with the ground all‐sky camera, we found that the footprint of LAMP at the 100 km altitude was located near the center of a pulsating auroral patch. The auroral patch had a dimension of ∼90 km in latitude and ∼25 km in longitude, and its major axis was inclined toward northwest. These observations were compared with results of a simple model calculation, in which local electron precipitation into the thin‐layer ionosphere causes an elliptical auroral patch. The conductivity within the patch is enhanced in the background electric field and as a result, the magnetic field variations are induced around the auroral patch. The model calculation results can explain the MIM observations if the electric field points toward southeast and one of the model parameters is adjusted. We conclude that the pulsating auroral patch in this event was associated with a one‐pair field‐aligned current that consists of downward (upward) currents at the poleward (equatorward) edge of the patch. This current structure is maintained even if the auroral patch is latitudinally elongated. Key Points: Magneto‐impedance (MI) sensor was carried by a sounding rocket and first applied to magnetic field measurement in spaceMagnetic field variations were observed when the footprint of the payload was located near the center of an auroral patchThe magnetic field variations are thought to be caused by field‐aligned currents flowing at the edges of the pulsating auroral patch [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sounding rockets must be equipped with a proper recovery system enabling the safe return of all rocket modules to the ground. This requirement is achieved by a parachute recovery system triggered by various types of deployment mechanisms. The paper presents the process of designing and implementing a low-cost parachute deployment mechanism for use in sounding rockets. The design of the mechanism is based on commercially available CO2 cartridges, electric igniter and the original housing structure made using 3D printing technology. As a result of a number of experimental tests, the design details of the device were improved. Finally, successful verification tests were carried out on the operation of the developed parachute deployment mechanism on the finished sounding rocket structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sounding rockets constitute a class of rocket with a generally simple layout, being composed of a cylindrical center-body, a nosecone, a number of fins placed symmetrically around the longitudinal axis (usually three or four), and possibly a boat-tail. This type of flying craft is typically not actively controlled; instead, a passive stabilization effect is obtained through suitable positioning and sizing of the fins. Therefore, in the context of dynamic performance analysis, the margin of static stability is an index of primary interest. However, the classical approach to static stability analysis, which consists in splitting computations in two decoupled domains, namely, around the pitch and yaw axis, provides a very limited insight to the missile performance for this type of vehicle due to the violation of the classical assumptions of planar symmetry and symmetric flight conditions commonly adopted for winged aircraft. To tackle this issue, this paper introduces a method for analyzing static stability through a novel index, capable of more generally assessing the level of static stability for sounding rockets, exploiting the same information on aerodynamic coefficients typically required for more usual (i.e., decoupled) static stability analyses, and suggests a way to assess the validity and shortcoming of the method in each case at hand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space Concordia is launching the biggest student built Canadian rocket with the aim of passing the Karman Line. Launching from Churchill, Manitoba, a former military airbase used in the 1950s for suborbital sounding rocket launches, Space Concordia's ambition is to reinstate the zone as a launch site. Being the first launch out of Churchill in decades, safety is mandatory and must follow the established safety protocols and regulations for suborbital launch vehicles. Space Concordia must structure its own guidelines and requirements leveraging expertise from the Federal Aviation Administration and various agreements with local authorities. To ensure safety, the Flight Performance team runs wind weighting optimization algorithms using Astos, a 6 degree of freedom flight simulation software utilizing wind data from a weather balloon. Launch simulations in Astos are done using historical wind data through a combination of Python and A programming and numeric computing software (MATLAB) analysis scripts. Casualty expectation plays a significant role in the launch safety analysis since the launch site is situated next to a national park and multiple small communities. The probability of casualty is calculated to be 2.61E−8, which is smaller than the 30E-6 Federal Aviation Administration requirement. Establishing a strict set of guidelines while building a rocket creates many difficulties in terms of both design and regulations, however they permit a clearer structure for future launches made by Space Concordia as well as augment predefined understanding of the weather effect on Churchill suborbital rocket launches. • Launch of a Liquid Sounding Rocket. • Wind weighting optimization using Astos Solutions. • Establishment of unguided sounding rockets launch requirements. • Influence of weather conditions on the trajectory of an unguided launch vehicle. • Development of prediction models for the trajectory of an unguided launch vehicle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The three-stage rocket configuration of the hypersonic experiment STORT with several scientific payloads concerning hypersonic technologies was launched successfully from the Andøya Space launch site in northern Norway on June 26, 2022. The third stage performed a suppressed trajectory to increase integral heat load on the payload structures. The vehicle traveled at speeds above Mach 8 at altitudes between 30 km and 38 km for more than 60 s. The nose and forebody section of the payload was made of CMC structures. Three canards with a CMC thermal protection were equipped with thermal management experiments to verify the thermal efficiency of these methods. All engineering science experiments like aerothermal heating of the nose and forebody, CMC material response at temperatures above 2200 K, hypersonic thermal management, shock wave boundary layer interaction, CFRP module with cork coating for high temperature applications, high temperature fin leading edge and radiometer sensors provided unique flight data. A reduced in-flight 3 DoF trajectory simulation running on the flight computer determined the ignition time of the third stage which allowed improved experiment conditions in terms of Mach number and apogee altitude even in the presence of external perturbations. • Long duration hypersonic flight experiment has been performed using a three-stage sounding rocket configuration. • Suppressed flight trajectory with an apogee below 40 km at Mach numbers up to 8 leads to high integral aerothermal loads. • Advanced aerothermal flight instrumentation and modular data acquisition system gather reliable flight data. • High conductive carbon fibers in CMC structures allows efficient passive thermal management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report on the design and the construction of a sounding rocket payload capable of performing atom interferometry with Bose-Einstein condensates of 41 K and 87 Rb. The apparatus is designed to be launched in two consecutive missions with a VSB-30 sounding rocket and is qualified to withstand the expected vibrational loads of 1.8 g root-mean-square in a frequency range between 20–2000 Hz and the expected static loads during ascent and re-entry of 25 g. We present a modular design of the scientific payload comprising a physics package, a laser system, an electronics system and a battery module. A dedicated on-board software provides a largely automated process of predefined experiments. To operate the payload safely in laboratory and flight mode, a thermal control system and ground support equipment has been implemented and will be presented. The payload presented here represents a cornerstone for future applications of matter wave interferometry with ultracold atoms on satellites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An integrated campaign "Suryagrahan‐2019" with multi‐institutional support was conducted by launching a series of radiosondes/ozonesondes over 6‐different locations in India along with the operation of ST/MST radars and launching of RH‐200 rockets during the annular solar eclipse of 26 December 2019. We present the eclipse‐induced changes in the thermal structure, dynamics and trace gases in the lower and middle atmosphere. One of the novel findings is the formation of three step‐like isothermal structures in the lower stratosphere with a layer height of 1.4, 2.5, and 4 km, which is attributed to the adiabatic compression and expansion of the air parcel. These structures have both warming and cooling effect of the order of ±6 K. A significant increase of ozone by 20% in post‐eclipse scenario between 29 and 32 km is observed over Cochin. Strong downdrafts of ∼−0.25 m s−1 are observed between 12 and 16 km during the eclipse event, which is attributed to the atmospheric compression due to the sudden cooling during the eclipse event. Due to the changes in thermal structure, the atmospheric circulation changes are observed in the meridional wind. During the maximum obscuration, there is a sudden decrease in near‐surface and boundary layer ozone by 12–15 ppbv. The present study reiterates that the eclipse‐induced perturbations depend on the local time of the eclipse event and place of observations. It is envisaged that the results discussed in the study will improve our understanding of the eclipse induced perturbations in the Earth's atmosphere. Plain Language Summary: Solar eclipse provides a well‐characterized reduction in solar radiation for a few hours, which provides a natural laboratory to understand and quantify the atmosphere's response to the abrupt cut‐off in the solar radiation. In this context, an integrated campaign "Suryagrahan‐2019" was conducted in India by launching a series of radiosonde/ozonesonde along with the operation of ST/MST radars during the annular solar eclipse event occurred on 26 December 2019. Several isothermal structures, followed by warming and cooling effect in the different stratospheric heights were observed. Alter in the ozone profile, especially in the lower stratosphere was one of the causative mechanism behind the modulations of thermal structure. Adiabatic compression and expansion of the air parcel in the lower stratosphere are explained in term of solar eclipse induced effects. Change in meridional circulation due to sudden solar cut‐off is reported. Key Points: Solar eclipse induced isothermal structure and adiabatic compression and expansion in the lower stratosphere were observedIncrease in ozone in the lower stratosphere during post‐eclipse scenario, whereas spontaneous decrease of surface ozone were reportedChange in meridional circulation due to sudden cut‐off of solar radiation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the development process of the solid rocket boosters (SRBs) separation system of the ILR-33 AMBER 2K rocket. A redesign of the system was required due to the development of new, larger SRBs. The main system requirements were transmission of forces and moments between the SRBs and the main stage, execution of the separation process at a given moment in flight and mechanical integration simplification. A set of aerodynamics calculations were performed. With the use of computational fluid dynamics software, forces acting on the booster during separation for several angles of attack, as well as the critical booster deflection angle, have been determined. Next, a mathematical model was created to define the load spectrum acting on the system during the flight and separation phases, covering both static and dynamic loads. All the internal and external force sources were considered. A series of motion dynamics simulations were conducted for representative flight cases. Then, the system operational parameters were verified with the use of dedicated ground test facilities. Necessary calibrations of the mathematical model were then implemented, leading to a high level of confidence with the empirical data obtained, thereby leading to a successful system qualification for the flight campaign. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract An integrated campaign “Suryagrahan‐2019” with multi‐institutional support was conducted by launching a series of radiosondes/ozonesondes over 6‐different locations in India along with the operation of ST/MST radars and launching of RH‐200 rockets during the annular solar eclipse of 26 December 2019. We present the eclipse‐induced changes in the thermal structure, dynamics and trace gases in the lower and middle atmosphere. One of the novel findings is the formation of three step‐like isothermal structures in the lower stratosphere with a layer height of 1.4, 2.5, and 4 km, which is attributed to the adiabatic compression and expansion of the air parcel. These structures have both warming and cooling effect of the order of ±6 K. A significant increase of ozone by 20% in post‐eclipse scenario between 29 and 32 km is observed over Cochin. Strong downdrafts of ∼−0.25 m s−1 are observed between 12 and 16 km during the eclipse event, which is attributed to the atmospheric compression due to the sudden cooling during the eclipse event. Due to the changes in thermal structure, the atmospheric circulation changes are observed in the meridional wind. During the maximum obscuration, there is a sudden decrease in near‐surface and boundary layer ozone by 12–15 ppbv. The present study reiterates that the eclipse‐induced perturbations depend on the local time of the eclipse event and place of observations. It is envisaged that the results discussed in the study will improve our understanding of the eclipse induced perturbations in the Earth's atmosphere.

In the context of the AHRES (Advanced Hybrid Rocket Engine Simulation [1]) program of the German Aerospace Center (DLR), an upper stage for the Brazilian sounding rocket VSB-30 is designed. This third stage is based on the hybrid rocket engine VISERION. The pre-design is mainly focused on the fluid and pressurization system using common European design standards. Real gas simulations were conducted to quantify the required pressurant mass and to analyse operating parameters. Subsequently, all additional subsystems are described and analysed. Initial requirements such as the maximum outer diameter and limits of the overall mass were given due to the launch system. Further requirements for each module and the main components are identified and examined. Available modules for the service or recovery system and commercially off-the-shelf components were considered to reduce the overall complexity and costs. Preliminary flight stability and aerodynamic loads were evaluated using numerical fluid simulations on different characteristic ascent points. The dimensioned system demonstrates the ability of hybrid rocket engines to be used as propulsion modules for upper stages. This enables the combination of several advantages of common propulsion systems as the main intention in hybrid rocket development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper describes how the attitude of a sounding rocket, launch vehicle or satellite with respect to the Earth can be estimated from camera images of the Earth horizon. Details about detecting the horizon in the camera image, fitting hyperbolae or ellipses to the detected horizon curve and deriving the Earth nadir vector and the corresponding error covariance from the fitted conic section are given. The presented method works at low heights, where the projected horizon mostly appears to be hyperbolic, as well as at large heights, where the projected horizon mostly appears to be elliptic and it is irrelevant if the Earth is fully or only partially in the field of view of the camera. The method can be universally used to estimate the direction vectors and attitude with respect to any spherical celestial body such as the Sun or Moon. Using the example of a sounding rocket mission with two cameras aboard, it is illustrated how the estimates of the Earth nadir and the Sun direction vectors are fused with the measurements of a strapdown inertial measurement unit and a GPS receiver to obtain an accurate and continuous estimate of the three-dimensional orientation of the sounding rocket with respect to the Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Meridian Project's sounding rocket mission uses a mass spectrometer to conduct in-situ atmospheric detection. In order to assess the influence of surface material outgassing and the attitude control jet on the spectrometer's detection, a sounding rocket platform was modeled and simulated. Using the physical field simulation software COMSOL and the Monte Carlo method, this study investigated whether the gas molecules from the two cases could enter the in-situ atmospheric mass spectrometer's sensor sampling port after colliding with the background atmosphere. The simulation results show that the influence of surface material outgassing on the in-situ atmospheric detection is very small, even under the conditions of medium solar activity and medium geomagnetic activity, while the influence of the attitude control jet on the in-situ atmospheric detection is large but can be reduced by reducing the low-altitude attitude control operation and decreasing the transmission probability. Through simulation optimization and according to engineering needs, increasing the nozzle outlet cross-sectional area, increasing the temperature of the gas used for attitude control, increasing the nozzle rotation angle, increasing the nozzle outlet angle, or increasing the nozzle center height can reduce the transmission probability. This model can simulate and analyze the influence of both surface material outgassing and attitude control jets on in-situ atmospheric detection, optimize relevant parameters, and provide new ideas for relevant work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents scientific merits and design challenges associated with a novel idea to perform rocket sounding of the Martian atmosphere. Limited data sets of the Mars atmosphere profile are available, while ambitious exploration plans for the next years and decades require achieving game-changing capabilities in terms of extensive atmospheric data acquisition. Planetary landers, orbiters or rovers have limited capabilities regarding gathering data of the atmosphere. Aircraft and rotorcraft are among other solutions for Mars exploration, but they enable conducting soundings only at relatively low altitudes. It is therefore of uttermost importance to ensure the capability for further data acquisition supporting safe and sustainable exploration of Mars. This paper proposes the concept of use of Mars-dedicated sounding rockets. Unlike other concepts, considering rocket propulsion on vehicles capable of doing tasks including i.e. descent and landing, bringing samples of Martian soil to orbit and serving as a long-range Mars surface transportation system, the proposed concept is focused only on conducting ballistic flights with the main purpose of atmospheric research, aiding exploration and potential future activities. Rocket design drivers are discussed and compared with the state-of-the-art approach regarding Earth atmospheric sounding. Means for propelling suborbital flights on Mars are discussed. Optimization of vehicles for a reference mission is described and effects of sizing rockets for Martian application instead of Terrestrial utilization are given. Finally, recommendations for future dedicated Martian sounding rocket developments and a technical scenarios outlook are provided. • Mars atmospheric research history and its current exploration-related objectives. • Growing need of Martian atmospheric research using in-situ measurements. • Rocket payload mass fractions and propulsion system trade offs. • Performance of dedicated sounding vehicles on Mars and on Earth. • Mars mission concept utilizing dozens of sounding rockets within a single lander. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accurate modelling and simulation of vehicle dynamics is a fundamental prerequisite for the design and experimental flight testing of aerospace vehicles. In the case of high-altitude supersonic sounding rockets, it is critically important to produce realistic trajectory predictions in a representative range of operational and environmental conditions as well as to produce reliable probability distributions of terminal locations. This article proposes a methodology to develop high-fidelity flight dynamics models that accurately capture aeroelastic, turbulence, atmospheric and other effects relevant to sounding rockets. The significance of establishing a high-fidelity model and of addressing such a problem in the context of developing a digital twin are discussed upfront, together with the key tools utilised in the analysis. In addition to state-of-the-art computational methods to determine the aerodynamic forces, moments and mass changes in various flight regimes (including parachute release), a detailed methodology for incorporating the dynamic aeroelastic response of the rocket is presented. The validity of the proposed method is demonstrated through a simulation case study, which utilises data from an existing rocket prototype. Results corroborate the correct implementation of the proposed algorithms and provide foundations for future research on virtual sensing and digital twin for autonomous navigation and guidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Micro-X is an X-ray sounding rocket payload that had its first flight on July 22, 2018. The goals of the first flight were to operate a transition edge sensor X-ray microcalorimeter array in space and take a high-resolution spectrum of the Cassiopeia A supernova remnant. The first flight was considered a partial success. The array and its time-division multiplexing readout system were successfully operated in space, but due to a failure in the attitude control system, no time on-target was acquired. A re-flight has been scheduled for summer 2022. Since the first flight, modifications have been made to the detector systems to improve noise and reduce the susceptibility to magnetic fields. The three-stage SQUID circuit, NIST MUX06a, has been replaced by a two-stage SQUID circuit, NIST MUX18b. The initial laboratory results for the new detector system will be presented in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solid rocket boosters are commonly used for launching sounding rockets due to their simplicity and power-ness. The shape and geometry of the propellant grain determine the thrust-time profile which has a significant effect on rocket performance. In practical application, the thrust profile has three typical curves; regressive, neutral, and progressive. A great deal of studies has been focused on optimizing the trajectory based on various state variables in which the profile of the thrust-time curve was not among those variables. In this research, design variables were the thrust profile, the object function was maximizing the altitude subjected to constraints of a fixed amount of fuel. The trajectory was found by solving the equations of motion. For comparison purposes, the trajectory was also found using JSBSim, an open-source flight dynamic simulator. In the results of the optimization process, the input thrust-time curve was evolved into an unusual shape, the letter "V" shaped. In this type of profile, the thrust curve starts regressively until reaches zero value at the middle of the burning time and then continues progressively until the end. This behavior can be satisfied only by two-stage boosters. Thus, these results show that two-stage boosters perform better than single-stage. The improvement is obtained by consuming the solid propellant more efficiently allowing fewer energy losses. This reason is added to the fact that two-stage boosters allow reducing the total masses due to the cassette separation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Micro-X sounding rocket is a NASA funded X-ray telescope payload that completed its first flight on July 22, 2018. This event marked the first operation of Transition Edge Sensors (TESs) and their SQUID-based multiplexing readout system in space. Unfortunately, due to an attitude control system pointing failure, the rocket was spinning during its 5 min observation period and no scientific data was collected. However, data collected from the internal calibration source marked a partial success for the payload and offers a unique opportunity to study the response of TESs and SQUIDs in space. Of particular interest is the magnetic field response of the NIST MUX06a SQUID readout system to tumbling through Earth's magnetic field. We present a model to explain the baseline response of the SQUIDs, which lead to a subset of pixels failing to "lock" for the full observational period. Future flights of the Micro-X rocket will include the NIST MUX18b SQUID system with dramatically reduced sensitivity to magnetic fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photoelectrons are crucial to atmospheric physics. They heat the atmosphere, strengthen planetary ambipolar electric fields, and enhance the outflow of ions to space. However, there exist only a handful of measurements of their energy spectrum near the peak of photoproduction. We present calibrated energy spectra of pristine photoelectrons at their source by a prototype Dual Electrostatic Analyzer (DESA) instrument flown on 11 July 2021 aboard the Dynamo‐2 sounding rocket (NASA № 36.357). Photopeaks arising from 30.4 nm He‐II spectral line were observed throughout the flight above 120 km. DESA also successfully resolved the rarely observed N2 absorption feature. Below 10 eV observations were in good agreement with the GLOW suprathermal electron. Above 10 eV fluxes substantially deviated from the model by as much as an order of magnitude. Plain Language Summary: We designed, built, and flew a new scientific instrument for the measurement of photoelectrons which are created when sunlight shines on the upper atmosphere. The instrument was launched on a suborbital rocket from NASA Wallops Flight Facility just before 2 p.m. on 11 July 2021. The rocket flew to an altitude of 131 km before splashing down in the Atlantic Ocean 8 min later. The instrument gathered scientific data during the flight, measuring the energy spectrum of electrons in Earth's ionosphere. Historical observations of electron spectra at these altitudes are extremely rare, and are often uncalibrated and/or not archived. We present calibrated observations of the pristine spectra of Earth's electrons near their source as a reference for future computer modeling and exploration of Earth's ionosphere. Key Points: We present in situ observations from a plasma spectrometer flown on a rocket to 131 km in the daytime mid‐latitude ionosphereThe instrument returned calibrated measurements of the energy spectra of pristine photoelectrons near the peak of productionThe N2 absorption feature and He‐II photopeaks were partially resolved. Observations are compared with the GLOW electron model [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Photoelectrons are crucial to atmospheric physics. They heat the atmosphere, strengthen planetary ambipolar electric fields, and enhance the outflow of ions to space. However, there exist only a handful of measurements of their energy spectrum near the peak of photoproduction. We present calibrated energy spectra of pristine photoelectrons at their source by a prototype Dual Electrostatic Analyzer (DESA) instrument flown on 11 July 2021 aboard the Dynamo‐2 sounding rocket (NASA № 36.357). Photopeaks arising from 30.4 nm He‐II spectral line were observed throughout the flight above 120 km. DESA also successfully resolved the rarely observed N2 absorption feature. Below 10 eV observations were in good agreement with the GLOW suprathermal electron. Above 10 eV fluxes substantially deviated from the model by as much as an order of magnitude.

NASA's Endurance sounding rocket (yard No. 47.001) will launch from Ny Ålesund, Svalbard in May 2022 on a solid fueled Oriole III-A launch vehicle. Its ∼ 19 minute flight will carry it to an altitude of ∼ 780 km above Earth's sunlit polar cap. Its objective is to make the first measurement of the weak "ambipolar" electric field generated by Earth's ionosphere. This field is thought to play a critical role in the upwelling and escape of ionospheric ions, and thus potentially in the evolution of Earth's atmosphere. The results will enable us to determine the importance to ion escape of this previously unmeasured fundamental property of our planet, which will aid in a better understanding of what makes Earth habitable. Endurance will carry six science instruments (with 16 sensors) that will measure the total electrical potential drop below the spacecraft, and the physical parameters required to understand the physics of what generates the ambipolar field. The mission will be supported by simultaneous observations of solar and geomagnetic activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new type of design domain for a sounding rocket is suggested in this study, which is more intuitive, simplified, and conducive to a single-stage sounding rocket development process. Among the various operation parameters, this study identifies several effective variables, which are also among the most practical in a sounding rocket design process. Of the many design variables considered for peak altitude optimisation, arguably the three most effective in shaping the whole system and conferring the most practicality in the design process of a sounding rocket were determined. A simulation-based study was conducted to establish: the effect of the selected parameters on flight performance, and the optimum design conditions of a single-stage sounding rocket in terms of its peak altitude. The simulation result was compared with randomly chosen experimentally tested flight data and validated. With the clear performance curves varying depending on the variables, the combination of the considered design inputs was effective. The new type of design domain and design procedure proposed is expected to constitute a useful reference and deliver practical benefits to the development process for a target-altitude-optimised single-stage sounding rocket. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of CubeSats and more frequent launch chances of sounding rockets are a total game changer to the space program, and it allows us to build space instruments that are technologically feasible and affordable. Therefore, it gives us a good opportunity to build a small cosmic-ray detector which has capabilities to measure the flux, direction, and even energy of cosmic rays at an altitude above the limitation of balloon experiments, and it may open a new door for building a constellation of detectors to study cosmic-ray physics. Compact Scintillator Array Detector (ComSAD) is a funded sounding rocket mission of Taiwan's National Space Organization. In this paper, we present the concept, design, and performance of ComSAD which is also suitable for future CubeSat missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An altitude profile of Nitric Oxide (NO) in the 80–110 km altitude range was measured in the polar night from a sounding rocket on 27 January 2020. The observations were made using the technique of stellar occultation with a UV spectrograph observing the γ (1,0) band of NO near 215 nm. The tangent point for the altitude profile was at 74° latitude, a location that had been in darkness for 80 days. The retrieved slant column density profile is interpreted using an assumed four‐parameter analytic profile shape. Retrievals of the fitting parameters yield a profile with a peak NO concentration of 2.2 ± 0.7 × 108 cm−3 at 93.5 ± 4.1 km. The observations were made during a time of minimum solar and geomagnetic activity. The NO maximum retrieved from the rocket profile is significantly larger in abundance and lower in altitude than other observations on the same day at nearby latitudes just outside the polar night. These rocket‐borne results are consistent with NO that is created over the course over the polar winter and is confined to high latitudes in the polar night by the mesospheric polar vortex. During the course of that confinement the abundance increases due to the lack of photodissociation, allowing the NO to descend. We show that the observed descent can be explained by eddy diffusion‐driven transport, though vertical advection cannot be ruled out. Plain Language Summary: A sounding rocket is used to obtain an altitude profile of Nitric Oxide (NO) in the polar night. The measurement is performed by observing the attenuation of light from a star by NO. The location of the observation had been in darkness for 80 days. This long duration is important because in the absence of sunlight, NO lasts longer in the atmosphere and therefore has more time to grow to a greater abundance and to descend to lower altitudes. We find that the observed polar night NO is larger in abundance than most previous observations of NO outside the polar night, even though the level of solar activity which creates NO was at a minimum. We also find that the maximum NO density is observed at a lower altitude than many previous measurements. We show that the observed descent of NO is consistent with that caused by turbulent mixing in the atmosphere, though we cannot rule out the possible role of vertical winds. Key Points: The altitude profile of Nitric Oxide (NO) in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere was made from a sounding rocket in polar night conditionsThe NO density, observed at very low solar activity, was larger in abundance and at a lower altitude than most non‐polar night observationsThe observed NO profile is consistent with NO produced above 100 km and then transported, likely by eddy diffusion, to the upper mesosphere [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Meridian Project’s sounding rocket mission uses a mass spectrometer to conduct in-situ atmospheric detection. In order to assess the influence of surface material outgassing and the attitude control jet on the spectrometer’s detection, a sounding rocket platform was modeled and simulated. Using the physical field simulation software COMSOL and the Monte Carlo method, this study investigated whether the gas molecules from the two cases could enter the in-situ atmospheric mass spectrometer’s sensor sampling port after colliding with the background atmosphere. The simulation results show that the influence of surface material outgassing on the in-situ atmospheric detection is very small, even under the conditions of medium solar activity and medium geomagnetic activity, while the influence of the attitude control jet on the in-situ atmospheric detection is large but can be reduced by reducing the low-altitude attitude control operation and decreasing the transmission probability. Through simulation optimization and according to engineering needs, increasing the nozzle outlet cross-sectional area, increasing the temperature of the gas used for attitude control, increasing the nozzle rotation angle, increasing the nozzle outlet angle, or increasing the nozzle center height can reduce the transmission probability. This model can simulate and analyze the influence of both surface material outgassing and attitude control jets on in-situ atmospheric detection, optimize relevant parameters, and provide new ideas for relevant work.

The accurate modelling and simulation of vehicle dynamics is a fundamental prerequisite for the design and experimental flight testing of aerospace vehicles. In the case of high-altitude supersonic sounding rockets, it is critically important to produce realistic trajectory predictions in a representative range of operational and environmental conditions as well as to produce reliable probability distributions of terminal locations. This article proposes a methodology to develop high-fidelity flight dynamics models that accurately capture aeroelastic, turbulence, atmospheric and other effects relevant to sounding rockets. The significance of establishing a high-fidelity model and of addressing such a problem in the context of developing a digital twin are discussed upfront, together with the key tools utilised in the analysis. In addition to state-of-the-art computational methods to determine the aerodynamic forces, moments and mass changes in various flight regimes (including parachute release), a detailed methodology for incorporating the dynamic aeroelastic response of the rocket is presented. The validity of the proposed method is demonstrated through a simulation case study, which utilises data from an existing rocket prototype. Results corroborate the correct implementation of the proposed algorithms and provide foundations for future research on virtual sensing and digital twin for autonomous navigation and guidance.

This paper identifies an incorrect drag formulation that exists in numerous papers concerning solution to the Goddard problem. Two constants of this formulation are erroneous. The first one is used to model the atmospheric density decay and its incorrect value has led to an overestimation of the atmospheric drag. The second constant was driven by a rocket's mass-to-cross section area ratio, and its value would only be possible for rockets with extremely low densities, not achievable in reality. The paper explains why these constants are not correct and proposes new values to be used in future formulations of the Goddard problem. • Constants in a dimension-free frag formulation in the Goddard problem used in numerous research papers are erroneous. • Evidence for erroneous nature of these constants is shown. • New, correct constants in a dimension-free drag formulation in the Goddard problem are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]