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Identity development is a key task during emerging adulthood. The goals of the present study are to validate the Spanish version of the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS) and to explore the relationship between identity dimensions and adjustment (flourishing and distress), from a gender perspective. The sample comprised 1502 Spanish university students (60.1% women). The results reveal that the DIDS is valid in the Spanish context and that significant gender differences were observed in some dimensions of identity development, with men scoring higher for identification with commitment and women scoring higher for exploration in depth and ruminative exploration. Finally, both dimensions of commitment and ruminative exploration had a stronger effect on men's than on women's adjustment, suggesting that the integration of the self has more impact on men's outcomes than on women's. These findings highlight the need to include the gender perspective in all future research in order to gain deeper insight into the relationship between the identity development process and adjustment during emerging adulthood.

Introduction: There is a gap in the literature on the romantic relationships of adopted adolescents. To address this issue, the present study has three aims: (1) to explore differences between adopted and non‐adopted adolescents in terms of their involvement in and the length of their romantic relationships; (2) to explore the quality of these relationships; and (3) to analyze associations between affective relationships and well‐being in both groups. Method: The sample comprised 276 adopted (64.5% girls; mean age 16.3 years, 73.9% international adoptees) and 276 non‐adopted (48.3% girls; mean age 16.3 years) adolescents, all of whom participated in the Spanish Health Behaviour in School‐aged Children survey. Results: Similar romantic relationship rates and lengths were found among adoptees and non‐adoptees, as well as between international and domestic adoptees. Adoptees reported more emotional support and conflicts in their romantic relationships than their non‐adopted peers. Finally, associations between the quality of the romantic relationships and well‐being were similar for both groups, with more conflicts being linked to lower levels of well‐being, and more emotional support and affection correlating with higher levels of well‐being. Discussion: The data suggest more similarities than differences between adopted and non‐adopted adolescents. However, although this indicates that romantic relation- ships are yet another example of recovery for adopted boys and girls, further research is required, with larger and more diverse samples from multiple countries, to explore the differences observed in more detail

Mental disorders constitute one of the population’s principal health problems, especially among undergraduates. This quantitative study compared levels of depression, anxiety and stress in a sample of emerging adult university undergraduates from a gender perspective (1) during the initial and intermediate years of emerging adulthood, and (2) in two different cohorts. 383 Spanish emerging adult university undergraduates were monitored longitudinally (2015-2018) and two cohorts were compared (2015-2020). Participants completed the validated Spanish version of the DASS-21. Mean-level and rank-order stability was found across the two waves of the longitudinal study in relation to levels of depression, anxiety and stress. Significant differences were found between the two cohorts, indicating higher levels of psychological distress in 2020 than in 2015. Women were found to have higher levels of psychological distress, particularly stress, than men in both waves and cohorts. Results are discussed in relation to the negative effects of the COVID-19 health crisis on the emotional health of emerging adults. The present study highlights the need to establish measures designed to improve the mental health of emerging adults, which was more severely affected by the COVID-19 crisis than by the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis. It also underscores the need to develop interventions designed to alleviate the greater degree of stress suffered by women.

Background: Intergenerational solidarity between parents and emerging adult offspring requires more substantial attention at the present time. Changing demographic structures and transformations in family dynamics over recent decades have increased both opportunities and the need for parent-child interactions and exchanges of support and affection during emerging adulthood. Purpose: The study had two aims: first, to explore patterns in intergenerational solidarity in accordance with different sociodemographic characteristics of emerging adults; and second, to analyse associations between intergenerational solidarity and emerging adults’ psychological distress and satisfaction with life. Methods: Participants were 644 emerging adult university students from Southern Europe (Spain and Portugal), aged between 18 and 29 years, who completed a self-report questionnaire designed to assess variables linked to sociodemographic aspects (gender, country of residence, sexual orientation, living status, family income), intergenerational solidarity, psychological distress and satisfaction with life. Results: The results indicated some differences in intergenerational solidarity patterns in accordance with a range of sociodemographic characteristics. They also revealed significant associations between intergenerational solidarity dimensions and emerging adults’ satisfaction with life and psychological distress. Moreover, affective solidarity was found to fully mediate the relationship between associational, functional and normative solidarity and emerging adults’ adjustment. In the case of conflictual solidarity, affective solidarity was found to partially mediate the relationship between this dimension of intergenerational solidarity and emerging adults’ distress and to fully mediate the relationship between this same dimension and emerging adults’ satisfaction with life. Conclusion: The results indicate that it is important to take sociodemographic diversity into account when e

El estudio surge de la necesidad de estudiar la adultez emergente (periodo comprendido entre los 18 y 29 años) en España, debido a que se trataba de un tema de reciente aparición y no había estudios al respecto en nuestro país. Para ello, se realizó un estudio transversal en el que se recogieron datos de 1,502 estudiantes universitarios (903 mujeres y 599 hombres) en 2015 (entre 18 y 29 años; M = 20.32; SD = 2.13) y 1,715 estudiantes universitarios, (1,116 mujeres y 599 hombres) en 2020 (entre 18 y 29 años; M = 20.60; SD = 2.49). Además de esto, con los participantes cuyos datos se recogieron en 2015, se llevó a cabo un estudio longitudinal, recogiéndose por segunda vez los datos en 2018, con un total de 383 estudiantes (259 mujeres y 124 hombres), que en 2015 tenía entre 18 y 28 años (M = 20.31; SD = 2.04) y en 2018 tenían edades comprendidas entre los 21 y 32 años (M = 23.66; SD = 2.08).

Antecedentes: Los estilos de identidad buscan conocer cómo las personas se manejan diariamente en las situaciones buscando un compro-miso identitario. En este trabajo se propone conocer si los estilos de identidad varían según la edad y el sexo, y analizar la relación entre estos y la fuerza del compromiso con variables de bienestar y malestar psicológico. Método:278 participantes (M = 22.03; DT = 2.65) reclutados a través de un muestreo no probabilístico por bola de nieve cumplimentaron los cuestionarios. Resultados: Las mujeres puntuaron más alto en fuerza del compromiso y ellos adoptaron más un estilo difuso-evitativo. El estilo informacional correlacionó positivamente con las variables de bienestar (optimismo y florecimiento); el estilo normativo con depresión y ansiedad y el estilo difuso-evitativo correlacionó positivamente con las variables de malestar (depresión, ansiedad y estrés) y negativamente con las de bienestar. Finalmente, a mayor fuerza del compromiso más bienestar y menos malestar. La fuerza del compromiso media parcial o totalmente la relación entre estilos identitarios y las variables de bienestar/malestar. Conclusiones: Se deduce la importancia de la fuerza del compromiso en el bienestar personal y la necesidad de favorecer el desarrollo de la identidad de nuestros jóvenes., Background: Identity styles seek to know how people handle themselves daily in situations looking for an identity commitment. This article aims to find out whether identity styles vary according to age and sex, and to analyze the relation between these identity styles and the strength of commitment with variables of well-being and psychological distress. In addition, it investigates whether commitment mediates between identity styles, well-being and psychological distress. Method:278 participants (M = 22.03; DT = 2.65), recruited through a non-probabilistic snowball sam-pling, completed the questionnaires. Results:Women scored higher in strength of commitment and men adopted a more diffusive-avoidant style. Age did not relate to identity style. The informational style correlated positively with well-being variables (flourishing and optimism); the normative style with depression and anxiety and the diffuse-avoidant style correlated positively with psychological distress (depression, anxiety and stress) and negatively with well-being. Finally, the greater the strength of commitment found, the more flourishing and optimism and the less psychological distress there was. The strength of commitment partially or totally mediated the relationship between identity styles and the variables of well-being / psychological distress. Conclusions: The importance of the strength of commitment in personal well-being and the necessity to favour the develop-ment of young people ́s identity is observed / deduced.

Identity development is a key task during emerging adulthood. The goals of the present study are to validate the Spanish version of the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS) and to explore the relationship between identity dimensions and adjustment (flourishing and distress), from a gender perspective. The sample comprised 1502 Spanish university students (60.1% women). The results reveal that the DIDS is valid in the Spanish context and that significant gender differences were observed in some dimensions of identity development, with men scoring higher for identification with commitment and women scoring higher for exploration in depth and ruminative exploration. Finally, both dimensions of commitment and ruminative exploration had a stronger effect on men's than on women's adjustment, suggesting that the integration of the self has more impact on men's outcomes than on women's. These findings highlight the need to include the gender perspective in all future research in order to gain deeper insight into the relationship between the identity development process and adjustment during emerging adulthood.

Purpose: The present study analyzes differences in self-perceived employability (SPE) among Spanish university and vocational education and training (VET) students. It also aims to determine whether factors such as gender, work experience and perceptions of the precariousness of the job market have a differential effect on SPE in accordance with the training pathway chosen by emerging adults. Design/methodology/approach: A total of 1,715 university students (64.7% women) and 488 VET students (37.1% women) aged between 18 and 29 years completed a self-administered questionnaire that included measures of perceived employability and precarious employment. Findings: The results indicate higher SPE among VET students than among their university counterparts. Female university students scored lower also than their male colleagues, an effect that was not observed among VET students. Prior work experience improved internal SPE among students on both training pathways. However, among university students, work experience and precarious employment reduced external SPE, an affect that was not observed among VET students. Practical implications: The analysis of differences in SPE between university and VET students highlights the importance of an educational curriculum that includes practical competences for enhancing employability. The results also reflect the negative consequences of precarious employment on feelings of employability during this life stage, particularly among those studying at university. Originality/value: This is one of the first studies to analyze the perceived employability of emerging adults on two different training pathways in Spain.

La relación entre familia y salud mental ha sido uno de los focos de estudio clave en las investigaciones sobre adultez emergente de la última década. En el presente estudio se analizó la relación entre variables de funcionamiento familiar y la presencia de síntomas clínicos de depresión, ansiedad y estrés durante la adultez emergente en España. Este estudio contó con un diseño transversal y una muestra de 1502 estudiantes de 18-29 años (M= 20,32; DT= 2,13) de dos universidades españolas, que fueron evaluados a través de cuestionarios en papel. Los resultados indican que altos niveles de implicación, cariño y apoyo parental se relacionan con una menor sintomatología clínica, mientras que el control psicológico se relaciona con una mayor sintomatología. Estos hallazgos demuestran la relación que existe entre el funcionamiento familiar y la presencia de síntomas clínicos, así como el papel protector -o de riesgo- que siguen teniendo las relaciones familiares durante esta etapa., The relationship between family and mental health has been one of the cornerstones of research into emerging adulthood over the last decade. In the present study, we analyze the relationship between variables linked to family functioning and the presence of clinical symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress during emerging adulthood in Spain. The study had a cross-sectional design and the sample comprised 1,502 students aged 18-29 years (M= 20,32, DT= 2,13) from two Spanish universities. Participants completed questionnaires in pencil-and-paper format. The results indicate that high levels of parental involvement, warmth and autonomy support are associated with a lower presence of clinical symptoms, whereas psychological control is associated with a higher level of said symptoms. These findings demonstrate the relationship between family functioning and the presence of clinical symptoms, as well as the protective -or risk enhancing- role played by family relationships during this life stage.

Flourishing is a concept that combines hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Flourishing is advantageous for both individuals themselves and the society in which they live. The present study analyses the stability, predictors and correlates of flourishing during the initial years of emerging adulthood, along with gender differences. The sample comprised 400 emerging adults (268 women) who completed a questionnaire at two time points: Wave 1 (Mage = 20.31; SD = 2.04) and (3 years later) wave 2 (Mage = 23.66; SD = 2.08). The results indicate that flourishing is stable during this time period and that emerging adult women flourish more than their male counterparts. This high level of stability notwithstanding, the results indicate that having a romantic partner and enjoying social support from parents, friends and one’s partner Foster flourishing and cause it to increase over the course of this period. The findings reveal how important it is for young people to feel supported, since although they are engaged in a search for autonomy and independence, they continue to need social support.

El consumo de drogas en la adolescencia es un tema que ha suscitado un elevado interés tanto en el campo de la investigación como a nivel social en las últimas décadas. En el marco del Estudio HBSC, estudio colaborador de la Organización Mundial de la Salud, esta Tesis Doctoral analiza el fenómeno del consumo de drogas en nuestro país con muestras representativas de adolescentes de 15 a 18 años desde 2002 a 2018. Los objetivos de esta investigación son: (1) examinar la evolución de diversas conductas relacionadas con el consumo de drogas en adolescentes de 15 a 18 años en España entre 2002 y 2018; (2) analizar factores individuales y contextuales asociados con las diferentes conductas de consumo de drogas en adolescentes en 2002 y en 2018; y (3) comparar indicadores de salud psicosocial en cuatro grupos de adolescentes con distintos patrones de consumo de drogas. Los resultados de esta Tesis Doctoral revelan: (1) En referencia a la evolución, se ha producido un descenso generalizado en los comportamientos relacionados con las drogas (prevalencias en la vida, consumos frecuentes, episodios de embriaguez e inicios precoces) en la población adolescente en España en lo que llevamos de siglo XXI. Estas tendencias se detectan en mayor o menor grado en todos los grupos concretos por sexo y edad, solo con algunas excepciones. Este fenómeno parece ser específico de la población adolescente en comparación con la población adulta española, pero no sucede únicamente en nuestro país, sino que posee un carácter transnacional, lo que indicaría que algunos de los factores asociados a este descenso han operado a través de las fronteras específicamente en este grupo de edad. A pesar de que se están investigando diversas hipótesis para intentar comprender las causas de dicho descenso, relativas a los propios chicos y chicas, a sus contextos de desarrollo y a la sociedad en general, la complejidad del fenómeno no permite una conclusión simple y clara, con algunas hipótesis teniendo alg

Introduction: Self-Perceived Employability (SPE) is composed of (1) the internal dimension, which includes self-efficacy, knowledge, skills, and individual motivation to find and keep a job; and the external dimension, which depends on the perception of the general state of the labour market, i.e., how a person perceives the demand for his or her professional profile at a given moment and time (Rothwell & Rothwell, 2017). Identifying which variables, affect the construction and maintenance of a healthy SPE is an interesting topic. It is especially interesting during emerging adulthood when the own perceptions of abilities to get a job will be a key part of emerging adult identity development (Arnett, 2004). Gender-based employment discrimination has been documented in a Spanish context (INJUVE, 2016, 2020), so it is interesting to know if there exist differences in self-perception of employability between men and women, especially in Spain where the youth unemployment rate is much higher than in other European countries, as well as the rate of job insecurity (Eurostat, 2020). Aim: To study the relationship between self-perceived employability and gender during emerging adulthood. Considering precarious employment, especially for emerging adults in Spain, this variable precarious employment was also introduced. Method: The sample was composed by 2919 emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 29 years. 1703 were university students (64.7% women; Mage = 20.61 SD = 2.49). 506 participants were VET students (37.9% women; Mage = 20.21, SD = 2.48). To measure SPE, we used the Spanish version (Vargas et al., 2018) of SPE’s Original Scale (Rothwell et al, 2008). To evaluate precarious employment, we create an ad hoc subscale. Descriptive analysis and regression analysis were carried out. Results and discussion: Among university students, female emerging adults scored significantly lower than men for internal, external and total employability, an overall score which is the s

Esta tesis doctoral se ha realizado dentro del proyecto La Transición a la Adultez en España: Estudio Sobre las Claves del Ajuste Psicosocial y Fundamentos para su Intervención Preventiva (TAE) (EDU2013-45687-R) financiado por la Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) y el Estudio Longitudinal Secuencial Sobre la Transición a la Adultez en España (TAE II) (RTI2018-097405-B- I00) financiado por la Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) y el Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER). El proyecto TAE es el primer proyecto de investigación sobre el periodo de la adultez emergente desde el ámbito de la Psicología sobre una muestra de estudio española. El objetivo central de esta tesis es el estudio del florecimiento en una muestra de estudiantes de dos universidades españolas, Universidad de Sevilla y UPV/EHU (nombre completo) durante su desarrollo a lo largo de la adultez emergente. Se analizan las variables de distintos contextos (socio económico, educativo y relacional) y variables particulares de esta etapa del desarrollo que se asocian con el florecimiento de hombres y mujeres. El análisis contempla, además, las diferencias de género, así como el seguimiento longitudinal de los jóvenes durante su transición a la edad adulta. Aspectos todos ellos fundamentales para comprender como se configura y afectan al florecimiento y al desarrollo positivo de los adultos emergentes. Para lograr dichos objetivos, en este trabajo se analizaron dos muestras, una primera muestra de 1502 personas adultas emergentes, estudiantes universitarias, de edad comprendida entre 18 y 29 años, y una segunda muestra de 400 participantes que supuso el seguimiento longitudinal de parte de los que participaron en la primera recogida. Esta tesis doctoral comprende tres artículos de investigación publicados en revistas de impacto internacional indexadas en JCR que, a través de diferentes análisis estadísticos, tanto transversales como longitudinales, permitieron alcanzar los objetivos del estudio.

En España existe una amplia investigación psicológica orientada a analizar el desarrollo de los chicos y chicas durante su adolescencia. Estos trabajos han aportado vastos conocimientos sobre cómo orientar la intervención sobre este sector de la población para potenciar y optimizar su desarrollo. Sin embargo, son prácticamente inexistentes los trabajos en nuestro país que, desde un punto de vista psicológico, abordan el bienestar y el ajuste de los jóvenes adultos. Jóvenes que en España y en otros países occidentales han dejado de ser adolescentes y ya no se sienten como tales, pero que no han alcanzado aún los requisitos que socialmente se les exige para ser personas adultas, caso por ejemplo de la independencia económica del hogar familiar. De hecho, cada vez son más los autores que consideran que en los países occidentales industrializados ha surgido una nueva etapa en el desarrollo, una etapa denominada adultez emergente, que se sitúa entre la adolescencia y la adultez, más o menos entre los 18 y los 30 años, y que exige un análisis profundo y singular. Insistiendo en la carencia de investigaciones en España que, desde un punto de vista psicológico, aborde el adecuado desarrollo de los jóvenes adultos, el proyecto de investigación que presentamos tiene tres objetivos generales. En primer lugar, describir a los adultos emergentes españoles de dos contextos geográficos y económicos muy diferentes, Andalucía y el País Vasco, desde una perspectiva psicológica. A través de auto informes examinamos variables relacionadas con cuestiones demográficas; variables relacionadas con la definición de la etapa de la adultez emergente y con las tareas evolutivas que se deben resolver durante estos años; variables vinculadas a la competencia personal; variables vinculadas a las relaciones interpersonales y, por último, variables vinculadas al ajuste social. Nuestro segundo objetivo es explicar qué aspectos de la vida de los jóvenes promueven su bienestar y su capacidad de adapta

Flourishing is when an individual perceives that their life is going smoothly. It encompasses the hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being: feeling good and functioning well (Huppert & So, 2013; Keyes & Annas, 2009). The correlation of the construct with indicators of adjustment and positive development makes it an attractive concept to assess well-being (Huta & Ryan, 2010; Keyes, 2007; Keyes et al., 2012). Emerging adulthood is a developmental stage that has arisen in western countries as a result of social and economic changes in recent decades. It describes a period that begins in late adolescence and lasts well into the third decade of life (Arnett, 2000). Studies focused on this stage, considered crucial in the determination of people's health and well-being pathways (Chen et al., 2019), have found an association between the adjustment of emerging adults and positive family relationships. It seems that family continues to have a major influence on young people's development (Fingerman & Yahirun, 2016) during emerging adulthood as well. Specifically, positive family relationships are associated with high levels of psychological well-being during the third decade of life (Zupančič et al, 2014). The main objective of this study is to examine the association between flourishing and family variables during emerging adulthood from a gender perspective and using longitudinal analysis. Therefore, this work has two specific goals: first, to examine the stability of the flourishing of emerging adults throughout the initial years (Wave 1) and intermediate years (Wave 2) of emerging adulthood, and second, to analyze whether family relationships were associated with the flourishing of emerging adults. A longitudinal study was carried out at two time points: wave 1 (Mean: 20.31; SD: 2.04) and (three years later) wave 2 (Mean: 23.66; SD: 2.08). The sample comprised 400 emerging adults (268 women) from the Transition to Adulthood in Spain research project (TAE) who complet

Bullying and cyberbullying have rarely been studied among the adoptive population, although the few studies available show adopted students frequently experience these phenomena. To address this research gap, this paper examined potential differences in bullying and cyberbullying between domestic adoptees, intercountry adoptees and non adopted students, paying separate attention to frequent and occasional victimisation and perpetration experiences. In addition, the aims of the paper include analysing student teacher connectedness in these groups and exploring its potential protective role for the aforementioned bullying and cyberbullying experiences. The sample consists of 541 adopted adolescents (67.1% intercountry adoptees and 32.9% domestic adoptees) and 582 non-adopted adolescents aged 11 to 18 years who had participated in the 17/18 edition of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study in Spain. Results show that the likelihood of involvement in bullying and cyberbullying (either victimisation or perpetration) was lower for the non-adopted group, whereas domestic adoptees were significantly more likely to report these experiences. Furthermore, student-teacher connectedness was lower among domestic adoptees compared to their non-adopted peers. Finally, teacher connectedness was consistently associated with a lower likelihood of frequent bullying and cyberbullying victimisation, and of both occasional and frequent cyberbullying perpetration. Overall, our findings are consistent with an increased risk of bullying and cyberbullying among domestic adoptees and a predominantly consistent protective role of student-teacher connectedness, although differences depending on the specific kind of experience deserve further examination in future research.