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Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition, characterized by altered social communication and repetitive behavior. Typically diagnosed in early childhood, screening and diagnosis at a later age can be challenging, particularly in girls who exhibit a wider range of behaviors and characteristics. This study aimed to examine the Childhood Autism Spectrum Test--Hebrew version in a clinically referred Israeli sample, and to identify items that best discriminate between autistic and non-autistic boys and girls. Parents of 211 autistic (retrospectively reviewed) and 192 non-autistic children, aged 4-12 years, completed the Childhood Autism Spectrum Test--Hebrew version. Results indicated good discriminatory power, with an area under the curve of 0.93. A cutoff of 9 offered optimal sensitivity of 0.93 and specificity of 0.82. The addition of a more focused sex-specific analysis using items that best discriminated autistic from non-autistic boys and girls significantly improved the overall identification rate of autism, particularly in girls. The Childhood Autism Spectrum Test--Hebrew version was positively correlated with the Autism Diagnostic Interview--Revised but not with Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-2. Findings underscore the importance of considering sex differences in autism screening and the potential value of sex-specific screening. Future research should focus on replicating these findings in a larger, diverse, prospective study.

According to the multidimensional view of reading comprehension (RAND), reading comprehension (RC) is influenced by three components?: the reader, text, and task. A broader perspective considers factors beyond the cognitive and linguistic dimensions and incorporates the contribution of emotional condition. The present study examined individual differences in readers' literacy and emotional involvement in the RC process, including ?the reader, text, and task components. A total of 230 Hebrew-speaking students in the fourth and fifth grades received a battery of emotional and non-emotional vocabulary, word reading, RC measures (simple and mental inferencing questions), and comprehension of different text types. The students were classified as typical readers (TRs), poor readers (PRs), minority-language (ML) students, and students with learning disabilities (LDs). In monitoring the reading fluency measure, an analysis of variance revealed that students with LDs performed significantly lower in all variables than the TRs and PRs. They also performed lower than the ML students in emotional factors such as comprehension of narrative texts and the theory of mind task. The findings highlight the language-specific nature of gaps in ML students vis-à-vis the complex multicomponent nature of deficits in students with LDs.

Toddlers with smaller vocabulary than expected for their age are considered late talkers (LT). This study explored the effects of characteristics of words on vocabulary acquisition of 12- to 24-month-old LT children compared with an age matched (AM) and a vocabulary matched (VM) group of typically developing peers. Using the Hebrew-MacArthur-Bates-Communicative Development Inventory questionnaire, words were rated by adults for babiness, concreteness and iconicity and scored for phonological complexity. The effects of the characteristics of the words on their acquisition were examined. Results showed that the vocabulary of the toddlers from all three groups consisted of words that are more relevant to a child's world and experience (babiness), more concrete, more phonologically simple, and more iconic. When LT children were compared to AM children, the characteristics of their vocabulary were different in terms of structure (e.g., iconicity) and meaning (e.g., concreteness), but similar in phonological complexity and babiness. When they were compared to VM peers, the vocabulary characteristics of LT children were similar, though they used words that were less related to babies' world. The parallel patterns found for LT and VM children versus AM children suggest that LT children's vocabularies differ from those of their age-matched peers due to their smaller size and not due to structural differences. The implications for theory and clinic are discussed.

Abundant research has tried to understand how games can be designed and used effectively to improve the learning process and to examine the correlations between digital learning games and student motivation, engagement, and knowledge retention. The current study examined the correlation between learning through digital game-based learning (DGBL) and students' achievements, their sense of involvement, and motivation for learning. Using a quantitative approach, data was drawn from questionnaires and exams in two subjects: literature and language. Participants were 320 male and female students aged 12-14 attending a single middle school participated in the study. The students were randomly divided into three groups, each group was given a unique teaching and learning method. Group 1 studied and practiced using the traditional method (a teacher who teaches in the classroom and worksheets for practice), Group 2 studied with the traditional method but practiced with a digital game and Group 3 learned and practiced using a digital game. The findings showed that the students' attained significantly higher achievements in the group that was taught traditionally but practiced with a digital game. It was also found that when digital learning games are integrated into teaching and learning, the students' motivation and involvement in the class increased.

Both participation and argumentation (OECD, 2022) are important keywords in educational contexts. While participation is seen as a crucial prerequisite for education and collaborative learning in general, argumentation as a discursive practice serves to convey and negotiate--also school-specific--knowledge. This paper explores repetition in argumentative events as a technique of establishing--or even hindering--participation in terms of alignment and affiliation. It can serve as a strategy for participation by signalling responsiveness and thematic coherence--and thus inclusion. At the same time, however, studies show that repetition can also signal contradiction and rejection--and thus exclusion. So far, we know little about how exactly these functional differences are produced--especially in younger children. Therefore, the paper explores how children use repetition as a resource for negotiating participation in argumentative events. Using authentic data in the form of observations and transcriptions of audio and video recordings from child-child-interactions of 15 Hebrew- and 31 German-speaking children aged 3-6 years, we identify oral argumentative events and investigate different forms of repetitions and their respective relevance for enabling participation. Our results show that, on the one hand, minimal and partial repetitions are used by the children in an inclusive way, creating closeness between the participants. On the other hand, children use complete repetitions more as an excluding technique, displaying misalignment and disaffiliation, in order to challenge and mock each other. The findings suggest that this line of research has significant potential to provide new insights into the formation of social relationships between peers, into the prevention or establishment of participation, which itself is a prerequisite for joint learning, as well as insights into the acquisition of argumentative competence.

The present study examined elicited written English as a foreign language (EFL) narratives produced by 6th grade Hebrew and Arabic speakers in their 4th year of learning EFL. We examined the use of correct verb morphology and morphosyntactic structures, in relation to supporting L1/EFL skills. Fifty-eight pupils (29 Arabic speakers) participated in this study. Assessment tasks included Hebrew and Arabic (L1) morphological awareness (MA), EFL vocabulary, MA and reading comprehension (RC). Arabic speakers were also tested in second language (L2) Hebrew MA. English written narratives were coded for total words, verbs, nouns, correct and complex sentences, and use of verb morphology ("past tense", "present progressive", "3rd person singular", "copula") in obligatory context. Both groups found "3rd person singular" the most challenging, despite between group differences in EFL proficiency. Neither group showed crosslinguistic transfer of MA from L1 to EFL, however, Arabic speakers showed strong associations between HMA and EMA, suggesting possible indirect crosslinguistic influence. Hebrew speakers had strongest associations between EFL RC and MA with all aspects of EFL morphosyntactic use, while Arabic speakers relied on English MA for all aspects of correct morphosyntactic production. Regression analyses showed Hebrew speakers relied solely on English RC for verb and sentence production, whereas Arabic speakers drew on English MA. Results have theoretical and practical implications regarding typological considerations in cross-linguistic transfer, as well as point to specific difficulties and patterns in acquisition of EFL morphosyntax among speakers of Semitic languages, highlighting the role of L1 and EFL contributors to EFL written output.

Background: "Screen inferiority" refers to a well-established phenomenon observed among adults and teenagers, wherein they demonstrate higher reading comprehension when reading from paper compared to screens. However, there is limited research focusing on readers in the initial stages of reading development. The current study aims to investigate reading comprehension in both screen and paper settings, as well as modality preferences, among young typical and struggling readers in the second and third grades. Methods: The study included 342 second graders and 284 third-grade Hebrew readers. Their reading comprehension performance in both modalities and their preferences for a particular modality were assessed. Results: The results suggested no differences in reading comprehension between the two modalities in the second and third grades. The only group that showed numerically higher performance on paper over computer was struggling readers in the second grade. The numeric proportion of modality preferences was higher on the computer rather than on paper. Conclusions: The current study did not find an effect of modality on reading comprehension in the second and third grades. We did find that children in these grades prefer to read on screens. It is essential to examine the specific characteristics of the digital task to determine when it benefits young readers and when it may be detrimental to them.

Research on first language (L1) reading has long since established the link between the proficiency of the reader and their efficiency in oculomotor control. More proficient readers make longer saccades and land closer to the word's center, which is a word's optimal viewing position, and make fewer refixations. Eye-tracking studies of second language (L2) reading have so far provided little evidence in this regard. This study analyzes spatial oculomotor measures in the Multilingual Eye-movement Corpus, which contains data on English text reading and its component skills from 543 participants representing 12 different L1s. Our analyses establish a strong role of proficiency in English, both for L1 and L2 readers of English. While most effects replicated ones observed in L1 reading, we also found that more proficient readers of English were less accurate in targeting optimal viewing positions. We link this finding to Fitts' law of motor control for aimed movements. This article discusses the theoretical implications of the novel findings for reading research.

While it is known that heritage speakers diverge from the homeland baseline, there is still no consensus on the mechanisms triggering this divergence. We investigate the impact of two potential factors shaping adult heritage language (HL) grammars: (1) cross-linguistic influence (CLI), originally proposed for second language acquisition (SLA), and (2) background factors associated with input. To assess the role of CLI and input we compared two groups of adult heritage speakers of Russian (n = 66) with two typologically distinct societal languages (SLs), Hebrew and American English. Their production was evaluated for three morphosyntactic phenomena: adjective-noun agreement, accusative case morphology, and numerical phrases. Using self-rating and baseline vocabulary tasks as proficiency measures, we conducted controlled experiments to assess mastery of the target phenomena. Our results show that, while CLI is the main mechanism behind HL grammar maintenance, increased input and proficiency can modulate performance in the absence of grammatical similarities between the HL and SL. An analysis of non-target responses revealed systematic patterns, including reliance on default, or unmarked, forms in both groups, in line with previous research. These findings contribute to the literature on the mechanisms of HL grammar formation and maintenance.

Subject relative clauses (RCs) have been shown to be acquired earlier, comprehended more accurately, and produced more easily than object RCs by children. While this subject preference is often claimed to be a universal tendency, it has largely been investigated piecemeal and with low-powered experiments. To address these issues, this meta-analysis follows an established and rigorous scientific method to test the generalizability of the subject preference in RC acquisition by evaluating the collective evidence. While the results show a significant crosslinguistic subject preference, there is a large amount of heterogeneity in the data. The manifestation of this subject preference may not be uniform across languages, depending on typological properties such as language headedness, RC headedness, and main clause similarity. The true impact of these features, however, requires research on more typologically diverse languages.

Purpose: We studied the role of gender in metacognition of voice emotion recognition ability (ERA), reflected by self-rated confidence (SRC). To this end, we guided our study in two approaches: first, by examining the role of gender in voice ERA and SRC independently and second, by looking for gender effects on the ERA association with SRC. Method: We asked 100 participants (50 men, 50 women) to interpret a set of vocal expressions portrayed by 30 actors (16 men, 14 women) as defined by their emotional meaning. Targets were 180 repetitive lexical sentences articulated in congruent emotional voices (anger, sadness, surprise, happiness, fear) and neutral expressions. Trial by trial, the participants were assigned retrospective SRC based on their emotional recognition performance. Results: A binomial generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) estimating ERA accuracy revealed a significant gender effect, with women encoders (speakers) yielding higher accuracy levels than men. There was no significant effect of the decoder's (listener's) gender. A second GLMM estimating SRC found a significant effect of encoder and decoder genders, with women outperforming men. Gamma correlations were significantly greater than zero for women and men decoders. Conclusions: In spite of varying interpretations of gender in each independent rating (ERA and SRC), our results suggest that both men and women decoders were accurate in their metacognition regarding voice emotion recognition. Further research is needed to study how individuals of both genders use metacognitive knowledge in their emotional recognition and whether and how such knowledge contributes to effective social communication.

Studying Biblical Hebrew is increasingly considered a viable option for students with dyslexia. This presents particular challenges not just for the students but also for their teachers, because the pedagogical methods for teaching ancient languages have traditionally depended on strategies that create difficulties for dyslexic students. This paper outlines the particular challenges of Biblical Hebrew for teachers of students with dyslexia and makes some proposals for addressing those challenges. Responding to dyslexia research, this paper considers the effects of phonological, morphological, and other deficits; outlines teaching and assessment strategies; and argues that learning Biblical Hebrew can be a transformative experience for students with specific learning difficulties.

This study examines East Jerusalem teachers' perceptions of and attitudes toward acquiring and communicating in Hebrew as a second language. The context of the study is a complex education system dominated by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. East Jerusalem's education system is divided between schools supervised by Israel's Ministry of Education and those supervised by its Palestinian Authority counterpart. Israel's Ministry of Education requires that teachers in its East Jerusalem public schools learn basic Hebrew language and communication at an Israeli institute of higher education. This research seeks to examine a sampling of East Jerusalem teachers' perceptions and attitudes toward acquiring Hebrew as a second language and communicating in it with the majority Jewish society. Study participants, all Arab teachers from East Jerusalem who had studied Hebrew at an Israeli college, were asked about their command and usage of Hebrew in several open-ended questions provided on a structured questionnaire that offered the respondents the ability to elaborate on their thoughts. The responses were subsequently assessed qualitatively. The study found that the participants' willingness to learn Hebrew for daily communication purposes was motivated primarily by instrumental and pragmatic considerations. According to the findings, the participants' communication in Hebrew was accompanied by feelings that in the process of acquiring and using the language, they were jeopardizing their sense of Palestinian identity as Palestinian citizens under Israeli rule. These perceptions arose in the context of the precarious status of East Jerusalem. The finding that national identification appears to impede second language acquisition has important implications for national language policy in similar regions.

By investigating the first thirty minutes of ten initial student group meetings (cf. Rampazzo & Aranha, 2019), this study explores the interactional resources that participants display during online talk-ininteraction. Multimodal Conversation Analysis is applied to the data consisting of "Gesprächsanalytisches Transkriptionssystem 2" (GAT2) transcriptions of recorded Zoom video conferences. Virtual Exchange (VE), also referred to as Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL), is a method of intercultural online learning in which groups of learners collaborate with partners from another culture or geographical area in an authentic and immersive setting. Despite the collaborative and immersive nature of virtual exchanges, microanalytic studies regarding interaction in this field are still underrepresented (Dooly, 2017). This is also and particularly true for the concept of interactional competence (IC) (Kramsch, 1986) which has hardly been considered in VE research so far. IC is a competence model that comprises interlocutors' interactional resources such as turn-taking, repair, sequence-organization, multimodal resources and other. This paper depicts the interactional strategies that EFL students adopt in online video team meetings. Further, it argues that some L2 IC features, such as turn-taking and multilingual resources, come with particular dynamics and characteristics in a VE context and provides examples for these practices.

This article describes how to help students connect what they learn in the language classroom to the outside world as they learn to understand, produce, and analyze spoken, written, visual, and cultural information in their second language (L2). As learners make connections between course material and the physical and virtual spaces where the L2 is used, they are introduced to the concept of "linguistic landscape" (LL), which refers to language on signs, advertisements, in graffiti, and other public venues. The examples come from a Hebrew class, where students gain deeper understanding of diverse intercultural realites in Israel and are prepared to function in authentic communicative situations. Colleagues in other languages could also use LL as a basis to explore intercultural realities of any multilingual space--from Berlin to Québec or in students' own environments.

This study proposes "grounding" as a theoretical approach to studying linguistic landscape (LL). Grounding is the positioning or sequencing of languages in a multilingual 'text' to reveal the languages' relevance or a community's association with the languages. The study explores language grounding in church names which constitute part of the Ghanaian LL, in general, and namescape in particular. The multilingual church names in a self-compiled Church Names Corpus - Ghana (CNCorpus Ghana) were, therefore, collected for the study. The study generally adopted the corpus-driven approach where the data were analysed with no predetermined theoretical or conceptual framework. The study found that the languages in the church names are grounded as meaning-making semiotic resources. The study further discovered three language inputs in multilingual church names, culminating in foregrounded, midgrounded and backgrounded languages. Further, the study found that global, glocal, and local languages are multi-grounded to make the languages more visible and prominent. It is argued that the grounding of languages is informed by the nexus between language and identity. The language grounding model is a modest contribution to linguistic landscape (LL), multilingualism and onomastic theorisations.

Research conducted on emotionality in bilinguals suggests that language use modulates emotional expression. The current study examines bilingual disadvantaged minority members' emotional experience and expression as shaped by the group relations in a conflict area. We hypothesised that, in general, greater emotionality will be found in one's native language. Moreover, since the second language is imposed and acquired in a negative context, there may be differential effects on negative and positive language. A novel ecological paradigm was used: Twenty-eight Palestinian citizens of Israel were videotaped while recounting emotional stories in both Arabic (L1) and Hebrew (L2), resulting in 212 videos. Two studies followed: In Study 1 we compared participants' emotional ratings (1a) and analyzed the content of emotional expression (1b). In Study 2, American participants rated emotional expressiveness. In Study 1, an interaction effect was found between language and valence, with less positive emotions and expressions in L2. In Study 2, a general difference in expressiveness was found in favour of L1. These studies show an effect of power disparities on the emotional load of the second language, thus highlighting the emotional costs of using a second language acquired in a conflict area.

The research on language dynamics in the context of migration and integration has been dominated by applied linguists and educators, who described and measured native language attrition and emerging bilingualism among immigrants and their children. In parallel, sociolinguists discussed the role of language ideology/policy of the host society and family language milieu. Adopting a macro sociolinguistic view, the current article explores the social mechanisms of "native" language attrition across immigrant generations, thus becoming a "heritage" language. Our empirical data embrace national surveys and qualitative studies among adult immigrants to Israel from the USSR/FSU (Generation 1.0) and their children born before and after migration (Generations 1.5 and 2.0) collected over 20+ years. We show how the Hebrew-only language policy and stigmatising public discourse around Russian/Soviet legacies compelled immigrant adolescents to take distance from their origins. Russian's absence from the school curriculum caused L1 literacy attrition and its relegation to the status of secret/home language, increasingly passive over time. Generations 1.5 and 2.0 manifest shrinking interest in all things Russian and weak ties with Russia/FSU. Drawing upon the critical sociological perspective, this article illuminates social forces that may facilitate or thwart effective transmission of native languages across immigrant generations.

This paper speaks to translation as a powerful window into students' developing religious literacy practices. It considers how 10- and 11-year-old North American Modern Orthodox Jewish students read and translate the Hebrew Bible refracted through their own cultural and religious expectations: in other words, how students use translation to negotiate their knowledge of biblical Hebrew with their lived experiences of family and gender in the context of modern Jewish life, ritual, and practice. In a Modern Orthodox Jewish school setting, Hassenfeld conducted interviews with 12 students. With each student, she used a task-based interview, asking the students to read and translate a single biblical verse (Genesis 16:15) into English. In completing the translation task, the students applied their technical knowledge of biblical Hebrew and their religious expectations of the ancient text. While translation is perceived in many Modern Orthodox educational contexts as primarily technical (i.e., the precursor to any interpretive activity), this case study suggests that student translation work cannot be separated from interpretive work. While the data set is small and the results only suggestive, the study raises an important theoretical question for future consideration: how can translation be better framed by religious educators who teach sacred texts in their original languages to allow students to understand the necessary interpretive demands it entails?

The main goal of this tutorial is to promote the study of children with developmental language disorder (DLD) across different languages of the world. The cumulative effect of these efforts is likely to be a set of more compelling and comprehensive theories of language learning difficulties and, possibly, of language acquisition in general. Benefits to children and local societies are also likely to accrue. After presenting some of the initial considerations involved in the cross-linguistic study of children with language disorders, we provide examples of the types of questions that might be asked. The examples are informed by our own collaborative work studying children DLD across the languages of Cantonese, Finnish, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, and Turkish, as well as English. Examples from investigators' work on other languages are also included. We discuss within-language comparisons of children with DLD and their same-age and younger typically developing peers as well as between-language comparisons of children with DLD. Examples concern issues of morphophonology, prosody, syntactic movement, verb paradigm complexity, and underlying mechanisms, among others. These examples--tied as they are to current theories and hypotheses--are necessarily limited to the types of languages already receiving investigative attention. Through the participation of child language scholars from a wider set of disciplines we can expand the number and types of languages studied and, as a consequence, greatly enhance our understanding of childhood language disorders.

The research aimed to identify pull and push factors motivating the applications of Palestinian-Jerusalemite students (hereafter: PJS) to study a training program for Hebrew teaching in an Israeli university. Semi-structured interviews and an open questionnaire elicited the students' motivations and learning experiences, to reveal how they coped with political and academic challenges. The findings show that the students' choice of this program has become a preferred, prestigious option assuming that it serves as a tool for personal and professional empowerment. Additionally, some students saw their decision as enabling them, as Hebrew teachers in the Palestinian education system in Jerusalem (hereafter: PESJ), to act as agents of change for the future economic and academic benefit of their society. Moreover, studying in the Hebrew University in Jerusalem (hereafter: HU), the divided city constitutes a sort of temporary 'migration' or 'exile' to acquire an education. The Israeli academia (hereafter: IA) space creates an opportunity for them to redesign their personal and professional identities. 'Hybrid identity', characterised by cultural flexibility, appears to facilitate PJS wandering between different cultural contexts for educational purposes, while maintaining their culture and national identity. The research contributes to previous literature concerning the integration of minorities in higher education (hereafter: HE).

Large-scale assessments have become a basic national policy for educational improvement encouraging standards, decentralisation and school accountability. The current study focuses on the pedagogical dimension of large-scale assessments, examining its uses as a policy instrument for effecting pedagogical change. The paper presents and discusses the case of the Israeli NLSA (national large-scale assessment) regime--the Meitzav (Hebrew acronym for: Growth and Effectiveness Measures for Schools) tests. Although it aimed to design a low-stakes testing regime, its implementation was a top-down procedure which, in practice, restricts principals' and teachers' autonomy. Using qualitative and quantitative methods, the findings showed that the Meitzav test results are barely used as a means leading to pedagogical change to improve learning. Teachers considered these tests an unreliable assessment tool that in the main, does not reflect the school curriculum or student learning, while producing a high level of pressure on the teaching routine. In consequence of the Meitzav test results, the most common pedagogical change in practice chosen by teachers was: "teaching to the test". Other pedagogical changes following the Meitzav were implemented to a minor extent. Policy implications are discussed.

Purpose: We compare right-to-left and left-to-right orthographies to test the theory, derived from studying the latter, that small temporal asynchronies between the two eyes at the beginning and end of every fixation favor ocular prevalence for the left eye in the left hemifield and the right eye in the right hemifield. Ocular prevalence is the prioritizing of one eye's input in the conscious, fused binocular percept. Method: We analyze binocular eye-tracking data from the reading of multiline Arabic and Hebrew text by 28 Arabic (M = 28.7, SD = 7.2 years, 71% female) and 16 Hebrew (M = 30.1, SD = 7.9 years, 50% female) native speakers, respectively. Results: Critically, the complex pattern of asynchronies in Arabic and Hebrew resembles that reported for the left-to-right orthographies, English and Chinese, but with some particular differences that we attribute to left hemisphere specialization in word recognition. Conclusion: We conclude, first, that the oculomotor musculature plays an "embodied" role in the perception and cognition associated with reading. We further discuss how the evident hemispheric asymmetries in parafoveal lookahead may be reflected in the nature of the conventions of right-to-left scripts. We articulate the claim that the orthographic conventions of a language tend to reflect reading direction and hemispheric differences.

Purpose: This study aimed to explore "why and how" the teachers' personal funds of knowledge and identity are connected to their classroom beliefs, knowledge, and practices. Design/methodology/approach: The study lasted one academic year (October 2021 - July 2022). We used multiple data sources, including semi-structured individual interviews and focused group discussions with the teaching staff, monthly classroom observations, a teacher's reflective journal, and documents. By applying the thematic analysis, we identified the following three themes: (1) Teachers' personal life experience as a basis for their language education policy; (2) Collective agency in enacting language education policy, and (3) Teachers as models of their funds of knowledge and identity. Findings: We found that the teachers, as a collective, implemented linguistically and culturally responsive teaching on the concrete and symbolic levels. Their personal immigration history was a motivating force for establishing language education policy while working with immigrant children. Originality/value: The significance of this study is in its provision of insights into the role of the life experience of multilingual, multicultural teaching staff in shaping language education policy. In addition, the study highlights a significant role of teachers as collective agents who model their funds of knowledge and identity and by doing so, empower young children.

Oral retelling portrays what one understands from reading or listening to a text. The retold stories of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often show macrostructural (overall story structure) difficulties. The study's purpose was to compare macrostructure oral story retelling, after reading (visual modality) or listening (auditory modality) to a story, among 20 children with ASD versus 20 children with typical development and to examine correlations with theory of mind (ToM). The study measures included story retelling and second-order ToM. The ASD group exhibited difficulties in one essential macrostructure aspect. No differences emerged between modalities for both groups. ToM correlated positively with macrostructure measures in both groups. False belief significantly correlated with the ability to retell essential characteristics in the visual modality for ASD. Implications are discussed.

The war in Ukraine, which began on February 24, 2022, has led to a significant civilian involvement in Israel, particularly among immigrants from the former Soviet Union, who began to provide humanitarian assistance, including interpreting. Highlighting the interrelation between translation and migration, I argue that the war strongly affects multiple hybrid identities of immigrant-interpreters who along with interlingual translation engage also in processes of cultural (self-re)translation. Scholarly attention for such experiences has been relatively limited, since most research on interpreting in war and conflict has prioritized interpreter experiences within war struck regions. Little attention has also been devoted to the work of (conference) interpreters who are themselves immigrants. In this autoethnographic study therefore, I present my own experience during the war as both an immigrant from Russia and a conference interpreter who works with Russian and Hebrew. I discuss several aspects pertinent to the immigrant-interpreter experience within and beyond the interpreting practice: being part of a collective of immigrants, involved in humanitarian assistance; negotiating the devaluation of Russian(ness); facing challenges to the (in)visibility, implied in the interpreter's role; and moving in-between the origin and the host countries.

This paper investigates how Hebrew is taught and perceived at American part-time Jewish schools, based on surveys of 519 school directors, classroom observations, and 376 surveys of parents, students, teachers, and clergy. We found misalignment of rationales and goals for Hebrew education among these stakeholders. Most schools emphasize Liturgical and Biblical Hebrew decoding and recitation without comprehension for ritual participation, especially b'nai mitzvah. Many schools infuse Hebrew, and a small percentage teach Modern Hebrew conversation. Findings are discussed in historical context and compared to language education and metalinguistic communities in immigrant and indigenous groups.

In this article, we explore how people in conflict-affected societies use language to navigate the affective constraints that political conflicts impose. Specifically, we consider the role of multilingualism in enabling sexual and romantic intimacy between Jewish and Palestinian Israelis in Israel/Palestine. Our data are drawn from a close examination of the speech of Fadi Daeem, one of the protagonists in the 2015 documentary "Oriented." Building on studies of (in)securitization and everyday bordering, we show how the ongoing armed conflict between Israel and Palestine serves to instantiate a regime of affective checkpoints, a space in which sexual and romantic relations between Jewish Israelis and Palestinians are discursively blocked. We describe how Fadi and his friends use strategic instances of code-switching between Arabic, Hebrew, and English to navigate this ideologically fraught terrain. Our primary goal is to demonstrate how multilingualism can be employed as a resource for managing affect and desire in a conflict-ridden context like Israel/Palestine. In doing so, we further highlight how the intimate domain of romantic desire is inevitably situated within a broader matrix of power and constraint.

This study examines the role of age of arrival (AoA) in immigrant students' perceived multilingual proficiency. Additionally, the study investigates the demographic, linguistic and social-psychological variables distinguishing young-arriving immigrants from their middle and older-arriving peers. The sample included 274 eleventh grade Russian (L1) speaking immigrants acquiring Hebrew as a second language (L2) and English as a third language (L3), divided into three groups according to arrival ages in Israel: 0-6; 7-9 and 10-12 years. The instruments included a 'can-do' questionnaire measuring multilingual self-assessment, (SA) and a background questionnaire. The results indicated a strong relationship between AoA and students' SA in L2 and L3 extending research, based primarily on language tests, demonstrating that AoA is an important factor explaining multilingual proficiency. Further, the findings revealed that students' self-assessed listening in L2 and L3 distinguished the young-arriving immigrants from their middle and older-arriving peers. Current use of L3, parental encouragement to study L2 and an inverse integrative orientation to study L3 distinguished the older-arriving group from the other two groups. These results highlight the role of the sociolinguistic context and the specificity of each language as a source of variation in L2 and L3 acquisition besides individual characteristics.

Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to explore the ability of Hebrew-speaking children with childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) to produce lexical stress. Method: A total of 36 children aged between 4 and 7 years, 18 children with CAS, and 18 typically developing (TD) children participated in the study. All children completed language and speech assessments. The children imitated 20 weak-strong and strong-weak target words within short sentences and in isolation. Acoustic analysis of the vowels in the stressed and unstressed syllables of the target words and perceptual judgment of the words by six speech-language pathologists were conducted. Results: The acoustic analysis showed significant differences in duration, fundamental frequency, and amplitude between stressed and unstressed vowels in weak-strong and strong-weak words and in both groups of children. The total duration for both the stressed and weak syllables was longer in children with CAS compared to TD children. Rated on a Likert scale of 1-5, where 5 indicates correct production, the productions of lexical stress in the CAS group were judged as above 4 on average but were significantly worse compared to the TD group. The target productions of children with CAS were judged as including excessive, equal, or misplaced stress in 10.8% of the productions, whereas 5.8% of the target productions of the TD children were judged as having inappropriate stress. Conclusions: The present findings suggest that Hebrew-speaking children with CAS produce the acoustic characteristics of lexical stress similarly to their peers, and their productions are perceived as having relatively good lexical stress (above 4), although not as good as TD children.

Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, only 23 Queer literary works have been published for children and adolescents in Hebrew. This paper examines the characteristics of these works in light of the ambivalent and controversial status of the LGBTQ+ community in Israel. The findings show that the few works that have been published and that present same-sex families or LGBTQ+ characters, and the manner in which Queer themes are presented in those texts, are in line with how these issues are perceived and addressed by Israeli society. Moreover, this article divides the Queer Israeli literature for children and youth into three categories: implied Queer literature that hides the Queer existence through the allegoric genre; Queer-phobic literature that seemingly presents the Queer family but in actual fact promotes homophobic stereotypes; and Queer literature that places the LGBTQ+ character or family in the center of the story without passing judgment or criticism.

This qualitative study explored the relationship between creativity, time, age, and the literary world among 16 award-winning Israeli writers in the second half of their lives. Based on data collected through in-depth interviews with the participants, the findings indicate that the writers' creativity in the second half of life was linked to "Preservation, Growth," and "Decline," leading to four interrelated dimensions: (a) preserving youth through creativity, (b) enhancing creativity over time, (c) navigating creativity, acclaim, and ageism, and (d) managing creativity amidst a changing world. The study found that the writers' creativity was enhanced over time, as they gained experience and developed their skills. However, some writers experienced a decline in stamina or their ability to write long novels. The study also found that the writers' experiences of acceptance from the literary world and the audience changed over time. Some writers continued to receive acclaim and attention, while others experienced ageism and a decline in the audience's interest in their work.

The correlation between linguistic literacy and geometric thinking was investigated in this study, which was conducted among 99 native Hebrew-speaking 2nd-graders. Current results suggest a positive correlation between the study measures. Higher linguistic literacy achievement was linked to higher geometric thinking achievement. Significant differences were found in most literacy measures between children with low and medium-high geometric thinking, in favor of the latter group. The findings suggest that students with a lower level of geometric thinking are also at literacy risk, and that the two processes share cognitive aspects. These relationships appear in 2nd grade, a relatively young age, which can be critical for children's future development in both domains. Identifying children at risk for developing literacy and geometry difficulties can be essential in planning an integrated curriculum that refers to literacy in all its aspects, as a tool to prevent future failure both in geometry and language arts.

Given the rich bound morphology of Spoken Arabic, an attempt was made here to construct a developmental measure corresponding to the mean length utterance (MLU) in English and to morpheme-per-utterance (MPU) in Hebrew. The adaptation to Arabic resulted in a new measurement termed Arabic-MPU, that was experimentally tested on a sample of 98 typically developing (TD) Arabic-speaking preschoolers aged 2;6 to 5;0. We report here on the internal consistency of Arabic-MPU against different types of elicitation procedures, and its external validity. We show that the new tool is developmentally sensitive and hence can be utilized for the assessment of the language growth in Spoken Arabic. This new tool should contribute to further research and development of measures for language assessment. In addition, it can be used for language screening in preschoolers for the purpose of identifying young speakers of Arabic who exhibit delays in early language development.

Reading numbers aloud, a central aspect of numerical literacy, is a challenging skill to acquire, but the origins of this difficulty remain poorly understood. To investigate this matter, we examined the performance of 127 third- and fourth-grade children who read aloud, in Hebrew, numbers with 2-5 digits. We found several key observations. First, we observed a substantial variation among the 3rd graders--7% and 59% errors in the top and bottom deciles, respectively. Second, the task difficulty stemmed from syntactic processing: Most errors were distortions of the number's syntax, as opposed to digit substitutions or transpositions, and the main factor affecting a specific number's difficulty was not its magnitude, as is commonly assumed, but rather its syntactic structure. Third, number reading performance was not predicted by a school-like task that assessed syntactic-conceptual knowledge of the decimal system structure, but rather by knowledge of specific syntactic-verbal rules, suggesting that the syntactic-verbal knowledge is separate from the syntactic-conceptual knowledge. Last, there was a double dissociation between 4-digit numbers and 5-digit numbers, which in Hebrew have completely different syntactic structures: Half of the children showed a significant advantage in one number length compared to the other, with equal numbers of children preferring either length. This indicates that the different syntactic-verbal rules are learned relatively independently of each other, with little or no generalization from one rule to another. In light of these findings, we propose that schools should specifically teach number reading, with focus on specific syntactic-verbal rules.

Israel's population includes over a million Russian-speaking immigrants and more than 300,000 native English speakers. These groups differ in social integration and in the status of their heritage languages in Israel. We compared children's and parents' perceptions of children's identities, language abilities, and language preferences among Russian-Hebrew and English-Hebrew bilinguals via sociolinguistic questionnaires. Forty-six Russian-Hebrew (RH) and 15 English-Hebrew (EH) bilingual children and their parents participated. Analyses addressed inter-generational (children vs. parents) and inter-group (RH vs. EH) differences. Identity ratings revealed both child--parent and group differences. Identity. RH parents and children differed regarding perceived Home and Societal identities. EH children and parents agreed about Home identity but not about Israeli identity. RH parents gave higher ratings to their children's HL/Russian abilities than their children did, while EH parents and children both rated HL abilities as higher than Societal language abilities. Both RH and EH parents expressed greater preferences for the SL/Hebrew than their children, but parents' and children's ratings of preferences for the Home language differed for the two groups. Examining relations among perceived identity, language abilities, and preferences in children and their parents, the study sheds light on the children's patterns of socialisation, acculturation, and maintenance of home language identity.

This study examined affix letter spelling among 6th grade Hebrew-speaking children with dyslexia compared with chronologically age-matched and reading level-matched controls. As different languages are characterized by multiple dimensions of affix spelling complexity, we specifically targeted the following unique dimensions relevant to Hebrew: (1) affix envelope transparency; (2) affix letter prevalence; (3) internal morpho-phonological competition; (4) overtness of the phonological-orthographic link; and (5) phono-morpho-orthographic consistency. The research instrument was a spelling task of 244 words containing affix letters, covering all non-root morphological roles, both inflectional and derivational. Results show that for both frequent and infrequent words, 6th graders with dyslexia perform similarly to reading age-matched controls when spelling involves morphological competition or when the phonological morphological and orthographic link is inconsistent. In frequent words the similarity in performance between the groups extends to the overt phonology criterion as well. In addition, 6th graders with dyslexia were assisted by affix letter prevalence but not by demarcation of the affix envelope, compared with reading age-matched controls. Regarding these criteria, the discrepancy between regular and irregular affix spelling was different between dyslexic children and non-dyslexic controls. These findings indicate that morphological knowledge in dyslexia is not a unified system, and while some morpho-orthographic regularities are acquired more easily, other morpho-orthographic regularities are quite challenging.

Few instruments screen for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among kindergarteners and older children. The Autism Screen for Kids and Youth (ASKY) is a 30-item parental questionnaire for 4- to 18-year-old children and adolescents available in Arabic, English, and Hebrew. We examined the sensitivity, specificity, and temporal stability of the Hebrew ASKY's categorizations ("probable ASD" versus "probable non-ASD") of 167 autistic and non-autistic 4- to 18-year olds. Algorithm-based categorization following "The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Fifth Edition" (DSM-5) rules demonstrated 91.8% sensitivity, 71.7% specificity, and excellent test--retest reliability ([kappa] = 0.783, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.583-0.983, p < 0.001). Total score-based categorization using a cutoff of 9 demonstrated high receiver operating characteristics area under the curve (AUC = 0.874) and high sensitivity (93.4%), specificity (78.3%), internal consistency (Cronbach's [alpha] = 0.954), and test-retest reliability ([kappa][subscript scores] = 0.674, [kappa][subscript instrument] = 0.783). Discussing both categorization approaches, we show that the ASKY is a promising instrument for ASD screening of older children.

Studies have shown that dialogic instruction can promote reading comprehension, but its contribution to lower-level skills like reading fluency is not as well understood. The paper reports on a dialogically oriented small group intervention for struggling second-grade Hebrew readers, targeting both comprehension and fluency. Rather than top-down instruction, the program focused on providing ample opportunities for students to engage with literacy in enriching and meaningful ways. Nine schools from the same Israeli city were randomly assigned to the intervention or business-as-usual control conditions. Sixty students from the five intervention schools were selected as participants based on RTI Tier 2 criteria. The control group comprised 39 students from the remaining four schools. The groups were matched on measures of reading and reading comprehension. The intervention was administered by participants' teachers, each working with five children twice weekly for a total of 18-20 sessions. Teachers followed specially designed lesson plans while receiving guidance from the research team. Post-intervention assessments showed that the groups did not differ in reading comprehension, but the intervention group had a significantly higher average reading rate coupled with lower accuracy. Considering the well-known phenomenon in Hebrew reading development, where transitioning from piecemeal decoding to higher-order strategies results in a phase of faster but less accurate reading, these results point to an improvement in participants' reading fluency. The intervention's effect on reading fluency and lack of effect on reading comprehension are discussed, as well as the implications of dialogic instruction for broader aspects of literacy and student well-being.

The purpose of the current study was to examine whether morphological awareness measured before children are taught to read (Kindergarten in Israel) predicts reading accuracy and fluency in the middle of first grade, at the very beginning of the process of learning to read pointed Hebrew -- a highly transparent orthography, and whether this contribution remains after controlling for phonemic awareness. In a longitudinal design, 680 Hebrew-speaking children were administered morphological and phonemic awareness measures at the end of the preschool year (before they were taught to read) then followed up into first grade when reading was tested in mid-year. The results indicated that even at this early point in learning to read a transparent orthography, preschool morphological awareness contributes significantly to both reading accuracy and reading fluency, even after partialling out age, non-verbal general ability, and phonemic awareness. The current results extend the Functional Opacity argument (Share, 2008) which proposes that at the initial stages of reading acquisition, when children still have incomplete mastery of some aspects of the spelling-sound system, non-phonological sources of information about word identity such as morphology can assist in the decoding process. The practical implications of these results with regard to early reading instruction are discussed.

Because both spelling and reading abilities tap orthographic knowledge, improvements in one ability may lead to improvements in the other. Here, we test whether spelling performance in a second-language (L2) can be improved by a short L2 reading task, as brief exposure to an L2 can increase the activation of L2 representations, making orthographic conventions more available. Participants were 89 adult native Hebrew speakers who were advanced learners of English as an L2. They performed a dictation task on 80 English words, before and after a brief exposure phase. In the Reading Aloud condition participants orally read two stories during the exposure phase, whereas in the Reading while Listening condition, participants silently read the same stories while listening to a recorded narration of the text. Of relevance, words targeted in the dictation task did not appear in the text, such that exposure effects could not be the result of item-specific learning. Results showed better spelling performance post-exposure than pre-exposure in the Reading Aloud condition. Further, analysis of spelling errors revealed that participants in the Reading while Listening condition preserved the phonology of the spelled words, more so post-exposure than pre-exposure. Critically, participants in a control nonlinguistic condition, who were not exposed to English during the exposure phase, did not show such spelling gains. Together, the findings reveal that spelling performance may be dynamically modulated by brief language exposure and suggest that brief reading experience may affect subsequent access to orthographic knowledge required for spelling.

Language separation policies in two-way bilingual education (TWBE) reflect ideologies of double monolingualism (Heller, 1995) and ignore the sociolinguistic realities of bi/multilingual students (García & Lin, 2017). This case study investigates the design and implementation of collaborative multilingual identity text projects (Prasad, 2018) in a Spanish-English two-way immersion (TWI) school. Identity text pedagogies (Cummins & Early, 2011) that engage bilingual students in creating dual-language multimodal texts have been taken up across a wide variety of contexts. Few studies in the United States, however, have examined how TWI teachers can use multiliteracies pedagogy (New London Group, 1996) with a critical multilingual language awareness (CMLA) focus to move beyond the frame of Spanish-English through the creation of collaborative multilingual and multimodal class books. A thematic analysis of classroom data from our case study demonstrates that implementing critical multilingual multiliteracies projects fostered students' CMLA while building positive bi/multilingual identities, leveraged students' linguistic repertoires beyond the language of instruction, and encouraged linguistic risk-taking. This empirical study highlights the possibilities for adopting a collaborative, critical, and creative multilingual multiliteracies approach in TWI settings.

This paper examines the acquisition of demonstratives (e.g., "that," "there") from a cross-linguistic perspective. Although demonstratives are often said to play a crucial role in L1 acquisition, there is little systematic research on this topic. Using extensive corpus data of spontaneous child speech, the paper investigates the emergence and development of demonstratives in three European (English, French, Spanish) and four non-European languages (Japanese, Chinese, Hebrew, Indonesian) between age 1;0 and 6;0. The data show that, across languages, demonstratives are among the earliest and most frequent child words, but their frequency decreases with age and MLU. As children grow older, they tend to use other types of referring terms (e.g., anaphoric pronouns) and other types of spatial expressions (e.g., adpositions). Considering these results, we hypothesize that children shift from using a body-oriented strategy of deictic communication to more abstract and disembodied strategies of encoding reference and space during the preschool years.

Higher education organizations in countries where English is not the native tongue must function in a multilingual mode, using English as their primary language for scientific exchange and academic publication and relying on the native language for instruction and administration. When operating in a multilingual mode of communication and identity expression, a higher education organization runs the risk of becoming a "tower of Babel"; however, by operating solely in single-language mode, it may become an "ivory tower." Investigating Israeli higher education organizations and focusing specifically on their mission statements, we analyzed the built-in tension of this multilingual self-identification through how they introduce themselves in the lingua franca of global academe, namely English, and in the local language, Hebrew. In our analysis, we found: (a) differences between the English- and Hebrew-language mission statements in length, style, and context; (b) differences in thematic emphases and thus in the narration of organizational identity; and (c) that such thematic differences patterned according to the three categories of state-mandated higher education organizations and, to some degree, time. We conclude that multilingualism serves both as an arena for the negotiation of organizational identity and as a state of being for higher education organizations in non-English-speaking countries.