Search

This article introduces the Special Issue 'Re-reading the OECD and education: the emergence of a global governing complex'. Its distinctive contribution is related to its dual epistemological aims: to explore how different conceptual lenses and methodological approaches add to our understanding of the OECD as an intergovernmental organisation; and second, to understand the ways in which the strategic activities and priorities of the OECD have been constructed, historically and contemporarily, and the implications in terms of governance and education on a global scale. Broadly, this dual dynamic – of 'seeing the OECD' and 'seeing like the OECD' – has generated the papers included in this Special Issue. Our Introduction outlines the specific foci and contributions of these papers with reference to four thematic lines of analysis in the research literature: (i) the changing capacities and positions of the OECD in global governance; (ii) the main ideas and styles of reasoning underpinning OECD governance; (iii) the formal and informal processes and workings of OECD's policy formation; and (iv) the impact and wider implications of the OECD in education policy and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the evaluation of any political strategy, it is essential to carry out the collection and analysis of the available data. The presentation of a complex phenomenon by means of synthetic measures can improve both the political actors' understanding of the situation and the design of new measures. In this paper, we deal with the problem of the construction of a multidimensional composite indicator for the evaluation of educational systems in OECD countries. In our proposal, not only are those indicators included that measure the academic outcomes, but also a group of indicators that measures the social dimension of the educational system. A variation of a methodology based on Data Envelopment Analysis is developed to construct a composite multiplicative indicator that enables inter-temporal comparison and the detection of the sources of the variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the idea that the future is inherently unpredictable has gained considerable currency in educational policymaking. In this paper, we seek to critically examine and analyze the implications that stem from embracing this concept of the future. To do so, we focus on current discussions of 21-century skills, and more specifically on the work of the OECD. First, we offer a brief introduction to the prevailing conceptualization of the future as uncertain and risky, and the ensuing emphasis on the development of skills needed to adapt to this increasingly volatile future. We then explain why the emphasis on future uncertainty leads to conceptualizing education as adaptation, while disregarding the importance of the past. We argue that this results in an impoverished conception of education and the skills it should develop. Next, we focus on how the idea of an unpredictable future marginalizes the role of values in education. We maintain that this not only leads to a narrow vision of education, but also undermines the cultivation of skills heralded by 21st-century skills frameworks. We conclude by offering some remarks on the importance of attention to the past and values as the basis for a meaningful vision of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the expansion of the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA) and associated growth in the influence of the OECD's education work. PISA has become one of the OECD's most successful 'products' and has both strengthened the role of the Directorate for Education within the organization and enhanced the significance of the organization in education globally. We provide an overview of the OECD, including organizational changes in response to globalization and the changing place of the Directorate for Education within the organization, particularly with the development of PISA in the late 1990s. We show how the OECD is expanding PISA by broadening the scope of what is measured; increasing the scale of the assessment to cover more countries, systems and schools; and enhancing its explanatory power to provide policy-makers with better information. The OECD has also developed the Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies ( PIAAC) and PISA-based Tests for Schools, which draw on the PISA template to extend the influence of its education work to new sites. The paper draws on data from 33 interviews with past and present personnel from the OECD, the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement ( IEA) and the English and Australian education systems, as well as analysis of relevant OECD documents. We argue that PISA, and the OECD's education work more broadly, has facilitated new epistemological and infrastructural modes of global governance for the OECD in education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using panel data from 102 countries in 1975-2010, this paper explores the dynamic interaction among health, education and growth by applying panel VAR techniques. Empirical findings reveal that the predictive pattern among health, education and economic growth is not stable in the cross section of countries. While health has positive contribution to growth for all countries, education has benefited only higher middle income and high-income OECD countries. Economic growth has predictive power for the components of human development in the high-income OECD countries. Further, econometric evidence reveals that bi-directional relationship between health and education should be supported to reap the benefits of human development on economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is now an extensive body of research concerning the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), and its recent additions and variations. Despite this, we argue that there is a paucity of theory-informed empirical research on the ways in which the PISA results about a nation's education system both circulate within, and are engaged by, educators and policymakers at different levels of the education system. This paper reports on a large multi-scalar, multi-method and multi-actor dataset on the Mexican education system, where we explore what actors located at different scales know about PISA, and whether and how they use it in education policy and practice decisions. From a set of different vantage points we show the highly contingent and unpredictable 'life of numbers' – from teachers in schools who barely know about and engage with PISA data, to politicians who use PISA to legitimate their own political purposes, or policymakers who draw upon much earlier renditions of PISA so that it now enters into Mexican education policymaking and shapes practices through a metaphoric back door. We reflect theoretically on these processes and practices, arguing for a more complex and nuanced reading of large-scale assessments like PISA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper traces the complexities, contingencies and tensions involved in the creation of a new, 'scientific' assessment in what we call Prefecture A in Japan. We start with a thick, granular description of the complicated and ongoing narrative of a new policy emergence. This descriptive account serves as a precursor to our application of an Actor Network Theory (ANT) approach, particularly the concepts of assemblage and assembling, while at the same time eschewing its depoliticising effect of a flat ontology. Our account details that much work and strategising went into achieving the new assessment but also into holding it in place. This included, strategising inside and across the Prefecture, with the National Ministry, with edu-businesses that had psychometric expertise, with politicians and the board of education and with the OECD and the Director of its Education and Skills Directorate. The analysis illustrates the complex, multi-directional and topological cartographies of power that now work in contemporary education policy processes. As such, we suggest a way to transcend the binary of methodological nationalism and methodological globalism evident in much policy sociology in education work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Designing well-being policies often requires the use of qualitative data. In fact many dimensions of well-being have to be appraised through the use of an ordered status: that is the case with health, happiness and educational attainments. While it is important to look at the mean levels achieved by society, distributional features are also salient aspects for any evaluation exercises, as it is likely that strong disparities in achievements among the population will prevail in those dimensions. Nonetheless, standards tools for inequality analysis, essentially mean-based and thus scale-dependent, are not applicable in this context, as any choice of scale in an ordinal framework is likely to be arbitrary and subject to change. Relying on the median-based approach developed by Allison and Foster (J Health Econ 23:505-524, ) for the measurement of self-reported health status inequality, this paper applies scale-invariant measures to subjective well-being and educational attainments in OECD countries using the 2010 round of the Gallup World Poll. This scale-invariant approach, applied to the case of three-category ordinal variables with identical median states, generates an unambiguous inequality and welfare ordering. This ranking is further completed by the computation of a scale-invariant inequality index. Both these measures aim to provide a robust picture of inequality and welfare in an ordinal context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children need a balanced set of cognitive, social and emotional capabilities to adapt to today's demanding, changing and unpredictable world. OECD countries and partner economies recognise the importance on the holistic development of individuals. However, there are big gaps between stakeholders' knowledge, expectations and practices on how to foster such skills. This paper presents evidence on the importance of social and emotional skills; on how policy makers and schools are currently enhancing and monitoring such skills; and, on the existing gaps between knowledge, expectations and practices to mobilise these skills. The paper concludes by pointing ways in which education stakeholders can do more to better develop and mobilise the skills that drive individual's well-being and social progress. The paper draws on findings and frameworks that are being published in a full OECD report entitled ' Skills for Social Progress: the Power of Social and Emotional Skills' in the first half of 2015. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper brings together data on national policies for improving reading achievement with student reading outcomes according to the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA) 2009 data. It is based on a two-step analysis. Firstly, the prevalence of national policies for improving reading achievement (i.e., specialist reading teachers, national tests for identifying individual learning needs and curriculum guidelines on reading comprehension strategies) is described in 32 European countries. Secondly, a three-level regression analysis is performed in order to assess the relative impact of the analysed national policies. The results indicate that the provision of reading specialists for providing targeted support to students with difficulties and advice to teachers seems to be the most important measure. Moreover, central level regulation by education authorities can be an effective way to assure the right to a reading specialist for every student in need. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports on a particular strand of the outcomes of the English contribution to an Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development comparative study,ICT in Initial Teacher Training, which aimed to develop insights into how courses of initial teacher training prepare student teachers to use information and communications technology (ICT) effectively in their teaching. The paper extracts from the broader dataset the views of practitioners who were identified as being particularly ‘expert’ in their use of ICT, on what strategies and interventions are most helpful in developing teachers who are able to use ICT to enhance learning in their subject teaching, and also what itmeans‘to be good at ICT’ as a subject teacher. Although some findings confirm research elsewhere on the importance of Technological and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) frameworks, other aspects of the study question some of the assumptions which have been made about teacher induction in this field in England, which may have implications for the training of pre-service teachers in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of Journal for Labour Market Research is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Research in the social sciences has focused extensively on the relationship between family background, educational attainment and social destination, on the one hand, and on the processes of skills creation and skills use, on the other. This paper brings these two branches of the literature together by examining the correlation between a range of social factors. The methodology we adopt provides a comprehensive approach to the study of the channels through which literacy skills are acquired, taking into account the interrelation of family background, educational attainment, and the use of skills at work and at home. We use the Programme of International Assessment of Adult Competences (PIAAC) dataset and apply a structural equation model (SEM). Our results show that family background and education play an important role in the configuration of adult skills and skill practices. Unequal family access to resources has a strong impact at later stages in life and strongly affects educational attainment and skills outcomes. Additionally, skills use has a positive and direct impact on adult skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Emerging Economies & Policy is the property of JOEEP: Journal of Emerging Economies & Policy and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The paper revisits regression-based inequality decomposition, derives further theoretical results on the factor shares and applies them in an empirical setting. Noting that the approach based on Shorrocks and Fields is not directly applicable to an important welfare-based inequality index, namely Atkinson's inequality index, we generalise it to derive shares for this index. We also derive the asymptotic distribution of all share estimators for obtaining their standard errors necessary for drawing inference. Finally, we use our theoretical results to examine the major factors that contribute to income inequality in India. Our results show that education and household size are the two most dominant factors contributing to income inequality in both rural and urban areas, followed by employment status and regional differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender differences in the STEM (Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics) disciplines are widespread in most OECD countries and mathematics is the only subject where girls tend to underperform with respect to boys. This paper analyses the gender gap in math test scores in Italy, which is one of the countries displaying the largest differential between boys and girls, according to the latest Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). We use data from an Italian national level learning assessment, involving children in selected grades from second to tenth, and analyse the gender gap in mathematics test scores using OLS, school fixed effects, quantile regression, metric free and dynamic pseudo-panel models. Our results show that girls systematically underperform boys, even after controlling for an array of individual and family background characteristics. The average gender gap increases with children's age, is larger among top performing children, and girls keep losing ground relative to boys when progressing in the education system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Education is one of the most important determinants of occupational attainment, and country-comparative scholars have increasingly focused their attention on the stratification of education systems, that is, the extent to which students are differentiated into different groups for instructional purposes. This article introduces a new microlevel risk ignored by previous theories, that is, the risk of productivity loss. I argue that the criterion guiding the first selection into different schools or curricula within a school reduces skill heterogeneity and employers' risk of productivity loss, strengthening the link between education and occupation. Data of the European Social Survey are complemented with new indicators of education systems' characteristics coming from an expert survey that involved more than 200 experts in 34 OECD countries. Findings show that as the first selection is increasingly based on students' ability, the educational gradient in occupational attainment increases for those respondents who achieved an academic upper-secondary degree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the contribution of human capital to health in 23 countries worldwide using the OECD Survey of Adult Skills, a unique large-scale international assessment of 16–65 year olds that contains information about self-reported health, schooling, cognitive skills and indicators of interpersonal trust, which represents the cognitive dimension of social capital. We identify cross-national differences in education, skill and social capital gradients in self-reported health and explore the interaction between human capital and social capital to examine if and where social capital is a mediator or a moderator of years of schooling and cognitive abilities. We find large education gaps in self-reported health across all countries in our sample and a strong positive relationship between self-reported health and both literacy and trust in the majority of countries. Education and skill gradients in self-reported health appear to be largest in the United States and smallest in Italy, France, Sweden and Finland. On average around 5.5% of both the schooling gap in self-reported health and the literacy gap in self-reported health can be explained by the higher levels of interpersonal trust that better educated/more skilled individuals have, although the mediating role of trust varies considerably across countries. We find no evidence of a moderation effect: the relationships between health and years of schooling and health and cognitive skills are similar among individuals with different levels of trust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the construction of updated series on the educational attainment of the adult population for a sample of 22 OECD countries covering the period 1960–2010. These series are then compared with (the OECD subsample of) the latest available version of other cross-country data sets on average years of schooling that are commonly used in the literature. Finally, statistical measures of the information content of the different series are constructed using the procedure developed by Krueger and Lindhal (K&L, 2001) and de la Fuente and Doménech (D&D, 2006). The exercise shows that there are important differences in quality across data sets and suggests that successive revisions have succeeded in increasing their signal to noise ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Level of postsecondary schooling and field of study remain significant markers of social stratification. However, the extent to which these various types of postsecondary schooling influence the labor market outcomes of recent male and female graduates is unknown. Drawing on data from Statistics Canada's 2013 National Graduates Survey, we examine the employment status and gender gap in earnings among recent Canadian male and female graduates at different levels of postsecondary education and various fields of study, three years after graduation. The findings indicate substantial gender disparities in employment status across all types of postsecondary education. The gender gap in earnings is highest among trades and community college graduates, but effectively disappears for graduates with earned doctorate degrees. With respect to field of study, the gender wage gap is smallest among liberal arts graduates and largest among graduates with math-, computer science-, or engineering-related credentials. The policy implications associated with these findings should be of interest to international researchers as pay equity among men and women in the workforce remains a priority for all OECD countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on archival sources, interviews, and research literature, this article offers new insights into the making, structure and long-term effects of the International Educational Indicators (INES) programme of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The article argues that INES was crucial in setting the OECD on the path to becoming a global education policy actor. Although science has informed policy making for centuries, the 1980s mark the start of a much closer imbrication of evidence-making for policy. By focusing on those renewed encounters of education science with policy-making, the article examines the INES indicators as a boundary infrastructure. It shows the ways that INES materialised many of the OECD ambitions at the time. In other words, through INES, the OECD gained the unique confidence, expertise, and reputation in the field to deliver large international comparative works on a global scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the last 30 years international assessments have become more widespread and systematic, and their influence on education policy has increased: the OECD through the PISA tests has played a major role in this process. This article reflects on the case of the countries of the Southern Cone: Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile. It analyzes the relationship between the OECD, PISA and the education policy agenda setting as part of the process of internationalization of schooling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concern about the efficiency of education emerged as soon as education education specialists calculated the costs of non-education or the benefits of excellence in education, using data and social indicators translated into costs and benefits to highlight the need for investment in education, and on the other hand the need to maintain a minimum level of quality in education. According to the risk factors identified by OECD and confirmed most of them by Romanian Agency for Quality Assurnace in Preuniversity Education (ARACIP), there is a huge influence of learning outcomes . In this concern, according to the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development in Australia, when the student: does not attend classes (is uninterested or even absent), has a low level of procurement, manifests a clear intention to leave school, disagreeable with colleagues, show violence, aggressive behavior, attitudes, or performance, school should use tools to identify these symptoms, analyzing information about the family environment, educational history and personal information, data about the results obtained, related assessments the student's health, behaviors, attitudes, deviations. What really happens in Romanian schools? is this suitable to our school principal's mentality? The research reveals the perception of school principals form Romanian school and the issues that appear in this context are specific to an ex-communism country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When analysing the Welfare State-economic growth nexus, the importance of health and education expenditures and their impact on human capital accumulation is often neglected. In this study, we claim that the Welfare State composition matters for growth, making it necessary to assess the impact of education and health (public) expenditures on educational attainment and health status, as well as their effect on the real output across countries. To better account for the influence of differences across countries we consider three groups over the period 1960-2012: high income (non-EU) OECD countries, the EU member states before the 2004 enlargement and the EU enlargement (2004 and 2007) new member states. The contribution of the study is twofold. First, we identify long-run relationships for the main variables using the DOLS estimator corrected for cross-sectional dependence. Secondly, we estimate short-run relationships that include an ECM term from the associated long-run equation by applying fixed effects and pooled mean group estimators and identify the direction of causality. The results of the estimation of the long-run equilibrium relationships point to a positive, direct or indirect, influence of (public) education expenditures and (public, private or total) health expenditures on the output in all the groups. However, causality analysis presented mixed results concerning our policy variables, education and health expenditures, within and between country groups. These results can have important implications for Welfare State policy design in the EU and its OECD partners. For the high-income OECD (non EU) group, the results unequivocally support the use of social policy variables as a means to foster economic growth. However, for both EU country groups, educational and health expenditures react to disequilibrium relative to the long-run equilibrium path, so that they are endogenously determined with output, which undermines their use as growth enhancing policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we compare the mechanisms for funding higher education institutions across a set of OECD countries. First, some data on public and private funding levels are presented. The article then discusses two important trends: (i) the increased presence of cost sharing and (ii) the move towards performance-based funding. We show where countries differ in terms of the fees paid by students and the financial support received by students. Using the degree of output orientation and the degree of centralization as dimensions to classify the various countries' funding mechanisms, differences may be shown between countries. Reforms in funding approaches, inspired by new public management thinking, are discussed. One such reform is the introduction of performance agreements that increasingly underlie the public budget of universities. We focus on the drivers of the reforms and the question of whether these reforms actually matter for the performance of national higher education systems--for instance on the issue of student completion rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many policy systems and education systems have grown more complex in the last three decades. Power has moved away from central governments in different directions: upwards towards international organisations, sideways towards private institutions and non-governmental organisations and downwards towards local governments and public enterprises such as schools. Where once we had central government, we now have governance, which can be defined as the processes of establishing priorities, formulating and implementing policies, and being accountable in complex networks with many different actors. Steering in such complex education systems emerges from the activities, tasks and responsibilities of state and non-state actors, operating at different levels and from different positions and often has un-deliberate, un-intentional and un-foreseen consequences. There are many conceptual models that encapsulate this complexity, but this article suggests that there is a real need for empirical research. Without empirical research it remains unknown whether and how steering in complex networks works out in practice, what are its effects and for whom. Moreover, it is only through empirical research that we can find out whether central government has become less dominant, or rather whether its appearance has changed and it has become less visible, but not necessarily less influential. Foucault's governmentality perspective is a useful notion on which to build such a framework for empirical research which allows for a careful study of the interactions that signify steering. Inspired by Foucault, this article develops a trilogy of assumed conditions for steering to take effect in modern societies. Following this reasoning, 'something' first needs to be made thinkable, calculable and practicable by different actors for steering to occur. This trilogy is a promising starting point for empirical research into very specific phenomena which can help us to understand how steering in complex education systems works. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, European education policy, research and administration is dominated by a specific concept of reform, namely so-called output governance, whose rise to prominence in national contexts in the 1990s coincided with the advance of international tests of school performance such as PISA. In this article it is argued that there is much more to this form of governance than a phenomenon that arose “naturally” after the fall of the Iron Curtain. This is brought out by tracing the development of output governance within the OECD – which publishes the PISA reports – and highlighting the key factors, events and structures in its dissemination from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. It is contended that output governance’s epistemological roots lie in military research on war and that it was professionalised during the cold war by institutions that were trying – by setting specific goals – to compensate for their negligible capacity to pursue input governance. The OECD is a textbook case of such an institution. Specifically, it is argued that the OECD professionalised and disseminated a form of output governance – forged chiefly in and catalysed by the United States – that promised to give the organisation greater control over national policies and administrative bodies and thus help it enforce its education policy agenda. In light of these insights it is concluded that – despite there being no compelling reason to do so – European states are increasingly embracing a form of educational governance that is fostering an expertocratic, decontextualised approach to school administration. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article analyses the relationship between equality of opportunity and the characteristics of the educational system, jointly considering country- and school-level policies. Because school social environment represents a fundamental channel in shaping educational opportunities, we consider all policies, recorded in PISA 2012 dataset, that affect the sorting of students to schools. We show that including sorting policies enriches the explanation of the socio-economic gradient, that is, the association between students’ performances and parental background, with respect to previous studies including only country-level features. The negative impact of early tracking on equality of opportunity is overvalued without including other sorting policies, while grouping students’ within-school by ability increases the socio-economic gradient and a greater students’ heterogeneity in the school reduces the gradient. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We estimate how parenthood affects hourly wages using panel data for Norwegian employees in the years 1997-2007. Though smaller than for most other OECD countries, we find substantial wage penalties to motherhood, ranging from a 1.2 % wage reduction for women with lower secondary education to 4.9 % for women with more than four years of higher education. Human capital measures such as work experience and paid parental leave do not explain the wage penalties, indicating that in the Norwegian institutional context, mothers are protected from adverse wage effects due to career breaks. We do however find large heterogeneity in the effects, with the largest penalties for mothers working full time and in the private sector. Contrary to most studies using US data and to previous research from Norway, we find a small wage penalty also to fatherhood. Also for men, the penalty is greater for those who work full time and in the private sector. A substantial share of the fatherhood wage penalty is explained by paternity leave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Just over a decade ago, an OECDStarting Strongteam reviewed the system of early childhood education and care (ECEC) in Germany. Regarding the staffing of early childhood provision and referring in particular to resistance at the political level to raise the formal qualification level of educators in alignment with European trends, the evaluative report noted in 2004 that the chosen approach may be overlooking the issue of the sustainability. The article explores key discourses and paradigmatic shifts which have shaped early years professionalisation initiatives and workforce developments since this time. One of the most notable changes has been a remarkable growth in the size of the workforce, which has almost doubled over the past eight years. What are the reasons for this fast-paced expansion, and can it be sustained? Have qualification requirements been lowered, and has the composition of the workforce changed? What are current challenges facing the sector? As ECEC provision develops across Europe, other countries face similar issues. Exploring how they are played out in one particular country context may help to stimulate critical analysis in others. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

How has Latin America's well-being evolved over time? How does Latin America compare to today's developed countries (OECD, for short)? What explains their differences? These questions are addressed using an historical index of human development. A sustained improvement in well-being can be observed since 1870. The absolute gap betweenOECDand Latin America widened over time, but an incomplete catching-up—largely explained by education—occurred since 1900, but faded away after 1980, as Latin America fell behind theOECDin terms of longevity. Once the first health transition was exhausted, the contribution of life expectancy to human development declined. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of EUL Journal of Social Sciences / LAÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi is the property of EUL Journal of Social Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)