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The paper presents a first global investigation of the longer-term inequality implications of COVID-19 by examining the effect of school closures on the ability of children from different countries and backgrounds to engage in continued learning throughout the pandemic, and their implications for intergenerational mobility in education. The analysis builds on the data from the Global Database of Intergenerational Mobility, country-specific results of the learning loss simulation model using weekly school closure information from February 2020 to February 2022, and high-frequency phone survey data collected by the World Bank during the pandemic to assess the incidence and quality of continued learning during periods of school closures across children from different backgrounds. Based on this information, the paper simulates counterfactual levels of educational attainment and corresponding absolute and relative intergenerational educational mobility measures with and without COVID-19 impacts, to arrive at estimates of COVID-19 impacts. The simulations suggest that the extensive school closures and associated learning losses are likely to have a significant impact on both absolute and relative intergenerational educational mobility in the absence of remedial measures. In upper-middle-income countries, the share of children with more years of education than their parents (absolute mobility) could decline by 8 percentage points, with the largest impacts observed in the Latin America region. Furthermore, unequal access to continued learning during school closures across children from households of different socioeconomic backgrounds (proxied by parental education levels) leads to a significant decline in relative educational mobility. [This report was prepared by the World Bank Poverty and Equity Global Practice & Education Global Practice.]

In 2019, 135 million people in 55 countries were in food crises or worse, and 2 billion people did not have regular access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food. COVID-19 has exacerbated these hardships and may result in an additional 121 million people facing acute food insecurity by the end of 2020. Further, since the beginning of the pandemic, an estimated 1.6 billion learners in 199 countries worldwide were affected by school closures, with nearly 370 million children not receiving a school meal in 150 countries. The paper presents the evidence on the potential negative short-term and long-term effects of school meal scheme disruption during COVID-19 globally. It shows how vulnerable the children participating in these schemes are, how coping and mitigation measures are often only short-term solutions, and how prioritizing school re-opening is critical. For instance, it highlights how girls are at greater risk of not being in school or of being taken out of school early, which may lead to poor nutrition and health for themselves and their children. However, well-designed school feeding programmes have been shown to enable catch-up from early growth failure and other negative shocks. As such, once schools re-open, school meal schemes can help address the deprivation that children have experienced during the closures and provide an incentive for parents to send and keep their children, especially girls, in school.

In spite of advances in recognising that girls and boys, and women and men, do not have to be bounded by traditional roles, gender stereotypes persist in education and beyond. Children and youth are affected by gender stereotypes from the early ages, with parental, school, teacher and peer factors influencing the way students internalise their gender identities. As such, not only is intervening in pre-primary education necessary, but also measures at the primary and secondary levels are key to eradicate gender stereotypes and promote gender equality. Based on the analytical framework developed by the OECD Strength through Diversity project, this paper provides an overview of gender stereotyping in education, with some illustrations of policies and practices in place across OECD countries, with a focus on curriculum arrangements, capacity-building strategies and school-level interventions in primary and secondary education.

Social and emotional learning (SEL) strengthens students' abilities to regulate their emotions, thoughts, and behaviours and to interact successfully with others. There are an array of important social and emotional skills (SES): goal-setting, working to one's potential, resilience, creativity, perseverance, problem solving, and caring about the welfare of others, among them. All students need SEL, but newcomer and refugee students may have particular challenges requiring SES. The beginning of this paper examines the current situation of refugee and newcomer students in OECD countries, SEL, its frameworks and skills and how they apply to newcomer and refugee students. The paper concludes with an examination of SEL policies and practices for newcomer and refugee students in OECD countries.

Since UNESCO's Salamanca Declaration in 1994, inclusive education has progressively attracted attention in international debates around education policy. While some evidence exists on the positive impact that inclusive education reforms can have on the academic and personal outcomes of diverse students -- and in particular of students with special education needs -- limited information is available on the economic sustainability of such reforms. Starting from the literature on the correlations between education and individuals' life outcomes, this paper reviews the existing evidence on the potential benefits and costs of inclusive education reforms. Specifically, the paper discusses the evidence on the shortcomings of current education settings for diverse groups of students -- with specific sections on students with special education needs; immigrant and refugee students; ethnic groups, national minorities and Indigenous peoples; gifted students; female and male students; and LGBTQI+ (which stands for 'lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex') students. It highlights the individual and societal costs deriving from the low academic, social and emotional outcomes of these students and the socio-economic costs these yield for societies. Where possible, the paper also presents evidence on the effects of inclusive education reforms on diverse student groups.

Classrooms have become increasingly diverse places where students from various backgrounds share their learning experiences. To promote inclusive school settings for all, building teacher capacity for inclusive teaching represents a key policy area. Education systems need to ensure that teachers are adequately prepared for inclusive teaching and supported throughout their career. Mechanisms to attract and retain a more diverse teaching body as well as to monitor and evaluate teacher preparation and work with respect to diversity and inclusion should also be developed. While teacher policies have increasingly addressed some of these areas, most education systems lack comprehensive capacity-building frameworks for inclusive teaching. This paper maps policies and practices to build teacher capacity for inclusive teaching across OECD countries. It then presents core elements and competences to design and implement inclusive teaching strategies. Finally, the paper reviews some of the evidence available on teacher diversity and interventions for inclusive teaching.

The traditional apprenticeship model for PhD education involves supervisors mentoring students through a substantive research project and ultimately into academia. Although about half of PhD graduates enter careers beyond academia, this apprenticeship model, with a narrow focus on thesis research has continued to dominate in many countries. While there are variations in terms of coursework requirements, the main assessment continues to be on the PhD thesis, and, in most countries, an oral defense of this thesis. The aims of this working paper are firstly to critique the dominant models of PhD education by using the lens of 'success', and secondly to consider an alternative model of PhD education. A PhD program may be deemed successful if it leads to high employment rates, high satisfaction with types of employment, and graduates who are well equipped for being in the world -- in work and in society. Through examining these indicators of success, I argue that the North American and British PhD models may be failing, and suggest an alternative model based on 'constructive alignment', in which the graduate outcomes are well aligned with teaching and learning methods, and the assessment regime. This alternative model is still based on an apprenticeship approach but requires PhD programs to be tailored to the individual and their desired career pathway, so that alongside and through their research, they can develop a holistic set of graduate attributes -- for 'doctorateness', for possible careers, and for global citizenship. This model has implications not only for the learning opportunities available to PhD students, but also for how we assess PhDs. Universities may need to develop programs to better support the career planning and professional development of PhD students. A portfolio or digital badge assessment approach, whether summative or formative, would allow PhD graduates to demonstrate the depth and breadth of knowledge and skills they have acquired through doctoral study, and better equip them for their chosen career pathway.

Digital technologies offer immense potential for transforming teacher learning and the delivery of professional development activities throughout teachers' careers. As the COVID-19 pandemic has made face-to­-face professional learning challenging or impossible for teachers to attend in many contexts, online professional learning options for teachers have been receiving renewed attention. This paper puts forward research evidence on the effectiveness of various forms of online learning for teachers and adults, and examines prerequisite conditions for enhancing teacher learning through digital technologies. Teachers' engagement in online learning activities, as captured by OECD surveys, remained limited in many OECD countries before the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper provides a basis for investigating how policies can support teachers' engagement in professional learning using digital technologies and help strike a balance between system-level provision of online teacher professional learning opportunities and the facilitation of teacher-led initiatives.

This paper illustrates similarities and differences between two international surveys that assess adults' skills: the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) and the Skills Towards Employment and Productivity (STEP) survey. In particular, the paper highlights the issues that can arise for researchers interested to jointly analyse the data from the two surveys and to compare their results. The paper finds that, in spite of the many similarities, important differences exist between PIAAC and STEP, both in the way the data are collected, and in the way the proficiency of respondents is estimated. These issues can indeed affect the cross-country comparability of results from the two surveys. There is instead little evidence that the literacy assessment used in the two surveys is not adequate to form a basis for a valid assessment of adults' proficiency on a global scale.

This working paper identifies OECD countries' interests in digital innovation in education by analysing their policy papers on digital education. Many OECD countries have adopted a specific strategy on digital education, or integrated the topic in a generic strategy on digital innovation as such. The ideas that are expressed in the strategies differ greatly; some are work in progress, others contain bold envisions of the future. There is a high awareness among OECD countries of the benefits of digitalisation, and the role of government to support digital innovation in education. This paper covers and documents countries' policy focus before the 2020 coronavirus crisis.

The number of countries that regularly participate in international large-scale assessments has increased sharply over the past 15 years, with the share of countries participating in the Programme for International Student Assessment growing from one-fifth of countries in 2000 to over one-third of countries in 2015. What accounts for this increase? This paper explores the evidence for three broad explanations: globalization of assessments, increasing technical capacity for conducting assessments, and increased demand for the microeconomic and macroeconomic data from these assessments. Data were compiled from more than 200 countries for this analysis, for six time periods between 2000 and 2015, yielding more than 1,200 observations. The data cover each country's participation in each of six cycles of PISA as it relates to the country's level of economic development, region, prior experience with assessment, and OECD membership. The results indicate that the odds of participation in PISA are markedly higher for OECD member countries, countries in the Europe and Central Asia region, high- and upper-middle-income countries, and countries with previous national and international assessment experience; the paper also finds that regional assessment experience is unrelated to PISA participation.

The global spread of COVID-19 has led to unprecedented disruptions in schooling around the world that have animated increased interest among policymakers, educators, researchers and the general public in knowing about how education systems have responded to the pandemic and how students' learning experiences have changed. The PISA Global Crises Module was developed to address this need. 62 student questionnaire items (grouped into 11 questions) and 68 school questionnaire items (grouped into 14 questions) were developed following a process that involved input from leading questionnaire development experts, PISA National Centres, as well as small-scale cognitive interview studies in three countries. While all countries were affected by the pandemic in some way, the module seeks to illuminate differential effects on student learning and well-being, and the degree of interruption or changes to education across different education systems. Governing bodies, organisations and researchers can use the instruments and the descriptions of the underlying constructs for adaptation and broader implementation.

Early years are a critical period for skill development. In this sense, the Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) programmes have an important role in promoting children's learning during this period. This study aimed to explore the effectiveness of ECEC programmes by analysing the relationship between students' ECEC attendance and their later academic proficiency using PISA 2015 data. PISA results show that across the OECD countries, students who had attended ECEC tend to have higher scores in academic proficiencies at the age of 15. However, these differences in academic proficiencies between those who attended ECEC versus those who did not attend are almost nil when students' socio-economic status (SES) is considered. This relationship reflects differential access to learning opportunities for children from deprived contexts. Furthermore, results show that entering ECEC programmes earlier than the typical time is associated with lower proficiencies at the age of 15. Therefore, earlier entry to ECEC is not necessarily beneficial. Learning benefits of ECEC provision vary considerably across PISA countries illustrating the importance of a country-specific policy context and the quality of their ECEC provision. The analyses of several quality indicators point out that the improved quality of ECEC programmes is associated with higher academic skills at later stages. These results highlight that mere attendance to ECEC programmes is not enough to ensure better academic performance. The quality of the educational provision, especially concerning those students from disadvantaged backgrounds, should be ensured.

This paper explores the potential the North American community college model holds for Latin America as a means of responding to the expansion of secondary education in this region. The authors propose learning from, not imitating, experiences found in North America and Europe and discuss how these lessons may be of used to inform Latin American educational policy. The paper begins with a brief introduction to the origins of the community college in the United States and highlights a few of the defining characteristics of the community college model: accessibility, accountability, social mobility, and economic benefits for students. The second section of this paper provides a brief introduction to postsecondary education in Latin America and then discusses how insights gleaned from an analysis of the North American community college model might be useful in shaping Latin American educational policy and institutions. The authors conclude that the North American model of community colleges holds very real potential to inspire Latin America to create a similar system tailored to meet the unique demands and needs of the region. Appended is a summary of key descriptive statistics for American community colleges. (Contains 22 references.) (RC)

School choice research mostly focuses on academic outcomes. Policymakers increasingly view entrepreneurial traits as a non-cognitive outcome important for economic growth. We use international PISA-2006 (Programme for International Student Assessment -2006) student-level data to estimate the effect of private-school competition on students' entrepreneurial intentions. We exploit Catholic-Church resistance to state schooling in 19th century as a natural experiment to obtain exogenous variation in current private-school shares. Our instrumental-variable results suggest that a 10 percentage-point higher private-school share raises students' entrepreneurial intentions by 0.3-0.5 percentage points (11-18 percent of the international mean) even after controlling for current Catholic shares, students' academic skills, and parents' entrepreneurial occupation. (Contains 6 tables and 8 footnotes.) [Partial funding for this research was provided by the Fritz Thyssen Foundation.]

Adult continuing education (ACE) can be a major force in human capital development and an integral part of lifelong learning. Although recognition of the importance of ACE in developed countries is increasing, the impact of ACE is not well understood in some middle-income countries (MICs), there is a lack of leadership, and the sector is somewhat underdeveloped. ACE must be viewed as a number of interrelated policies and delivery systems reflecting the needs of different clients and components of ACE. Successful governance of ACE depends on involving key stakeholders. Major issues that need to be addressed include equity, access, and support for career progression for adults. Although individuals and/or employers often bear the financial costs of ACE, there is recognition of the need for investment of some public funds to support ACE programs in literacy and foundation education and for some categories of clients to ensure access and promote equity objectives. MICs that are developing ACE as an integral part of lifelong learning must adopt policy and delivery models addressing learning objectives through a combination of short- and long-term programs to a broad range of clients in what are often nonconventional settings. (Contains 20 tables/figures/boxes and 26 references.) (MN)

The apparently simple question of whether there are commonly accepted "best practices" for infant and toddler care leads to further questions regarding the nature of childhood and the impact of cultural values. This report reviews recent theory, training, and practice in the care of children outside their homes. Section 1 of the report argues that much of current knowledge about infancy is derived from the normative context established in Anglo-North American child development studies. This section considers these predominant assumptions and their implications for practice. The legacy of attachment theory is analyzed, especially the assumption that out-of-home care is less desirable than care by mothers. This section further argues that the child-centered approach and desirability of structured play reinforces individualism. Section 2 of the report explores European traditions of theory and practice. This section describes five parameters of practice, focusing on ideas about: (1) the nature of relationships between adults and very young children; (2) children as learners; (3) health and well-being; (4) training employment for those who work with young children; and (5) ecology and the environment. The report also illustrates the program content in European settings, the importance of language diversity, the concern with the environment and its impact on programming, and the emphasis on developing values of non-aggression and cooperation by promoting interactions between children. (KB)

A substantial amount of money is spent on technology by schools, families and policymakers with the hope of improving educational outcomes. This paper explores the theoretical and empirical literature on the impacts of technology on educational outcomes. The literature focuses on two primary contexts in which technology may be used for educational purposes: i) classroom use in schools, and ii) home use by students. Theoretically, ICT investment and CAI use by schools and the use of computers at home have ambiguous implications for educational achievement: expenditures devoted to technology necessarily offset inputs that may be more or less efficient, and time allocated to using technology may displace traditional classroom instruction and educational activities at home. However, much of the evidence in the schooling literature is based on interventions that provide supplemental funding for technology or additional class time, and thus favor finding positive effects. Nonetheless, studies of ICT and CAI in schools produce mixed evidence with a pattern of null results. Notable exceptions to this pattern occur in studies of developing countries and CAI interventions that target math rather than language. In the context of home use, early studies based on multivariate and instrumental variables approaches tend to find large positive (and in a few cases negative) effects while recent studies based on randomized control experiments tend to find small or null effects. Early research focused on developed countries while more recently several experiments have been conducted in developing countries.

Business use of office paper has declined in the past decade and recycling rates have risen, yet office waste paper remains a major sustainability issue for businesses. The EPA estimates that 90 percent of all office waste consists of paper. Commercial sources generated 35 to 45 percent of the 254 million tons of municipal solid waste produced in the US in 2007, nearly one-third of which consisted of paper or paperboard. Even as recycling increases, millions of tons of recyclable office paper products continue to get landfilled each year. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This report presents the responses of three experts from Canada, Mexico, and the United States to 18 questions concerning issues in business-higher education alliances in the context of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). They address such issues as the need for alliances; the characteristics of successful (and unsuccessful) alliances; the progress in each country toward establishing alliances; the function of government agencies, professional associations, and community organizations in the formation of alliances; the role of technology in furthering alliances; the advantages of alliances; and the prospects for alliances in the future. The questions are grouped into three sections. In the first, responses to the seven questions about smart alliances produce several definitions of alliances, note various types of alliances, and define the characteristics of "smart" alliances. Responses to the five questions in the second section address what is needed for higher education institutions and business to develop successful alliances, and cover issues such as relationship management and the necessary people skills for alliance building. The six questions of the third section address the required framework for these partnerships to prosper, such as mechanisms for measuring the impact of alliances and prospects for binational and trinational collaboration in the context of NAFTA and the global economy. Appendices present reprints of two brief related articles. (DB)

The proposed North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) will result in lower wages, fewer jobs, and generally reduced living standards for the majority of U.S. workers. Substantial costs to the U.S. economy will occur in job and income loss and few off-setting benefits for most workers. Proponents argue that NAFTA will create upward mobility for U.S. workers as low-wage jobs move to Mexico. Available data and past experience show that U.S. workers displaced by trade end up moving down the job ladder to lower-paying jobs or off the ladder to permanent unemployment, not up to better jobs. Most of the conventional studies that have attempted to quantify NAFTA's impact on the U.S. economy have either ignored the shift of investment from the United States to Mexico or have examined only the Mexican side of the equation. The extent to which investment in Mexico replaces investment in U.S. plants clearly will determine NAFTA's overall impact on U.S. jobs. Perhaps the greatest danger to the U.S. economy from adopting NAFTA is that it will encourage U.S. firms to seek a low-wage solution to the challenge of global competition. NAFTA would undercut chances of a "high wage" strategy of investing in the labor force of Mexico or the United States. U.S. interest in a NAFTA should not lie in expanding free trade but in improving living standards for the Nation. (Appendixes include 29 endnotes and 37 references.) (YLB)

Papers on the acquisition and cataloging of serials presented at the 1982 International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) conference include: (1) "CONSER (CONversion of SERials): What It Is and How It Works," a description by Barrie A. F. Burns (Canada) of a North American cooperative serials cataloging project and its origins, management, standards, organization, participants, activities, input conventions, achievements, products, and problems; (2) "ISDS (International Serials Data System): World-wide Serials Control," a discussion by J. Szilvassy of the birth, objectives, and present and future role of ISDS--a machine-readable registry of international data on serials--and the theoretical and organizational aspects involved in the development of an international databank; (3) "NOSP (Nordisk Samkatalog over Periodica)," a description by Annika Salomonsen of the development of a joint Scandinavian union catalog of foreign serials in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden; and (4) "The Work of a Periodicals Agent," a discussion by John Merriman of methods of serial acquisition, reasons for using an agent, subscription agency services and pricing policies, and the automation of serials processing and publishing. (ESR)

The structure and content of continuing education and independent study programs currently being offered in North America (particularly in the United States) were examined from the standpoint of the feasibility of adopting similar practices and developing similar programs at the University of Queensland in Australia. It was discovered that there are currently more than 3,000 universities and colleges with accredited degree programs in the United States alone, with most of them also offering extension or continuing education courses. These courses may be grouped into the following categories: college-level credit courses, noncredit courses of university quality, college-level courses that can be taken either on a for-credit or noncredit basis, and high school credit courses. Policies governing credit courses, courses taken for no credit, and courses audited as well as the fees charged for them and the remuneration of faculty and departments offering such courses varied widely from school to school. Differences between individual universities' practices regarding the development, content, and role of independent study courses were also examined. The authors of the study developed 27 recommendations concerning the development of new programs and revision of existing continuing education and independent study programs at the University of Queensland. (MN)

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Climate change is an ongoing process that, at the current pace of such activities, cannot be avoided. Tools have been proposed to deal with climate change focus on adaptation and mitigation. Strengthening national and international awareness of and commitment to reducing the impact of climate change has become the only viable option to ensure the sustainability of life on Earth. The Paris Agreement entered into force in 2016 with the aim of bringing all nations together in a common goal of combating climate change and adapting to its impacts. According to the Agreement, every party should submit a climate plan laying out its adaptation and mitigation targets. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) has the potential to play significant roles in these plans. The smooth transition to green societies and economies relies on amongst others the knowledge, skills and competencies to promote sustainable development. Effective education and training for sustainable development pivots on governance and vision, and the ability to empower people in an inclusive manner to act in favour of sustainable development. It also relies on the ability to train, upskill, reskill and empower those that can take advantage of the job growth and job creation potential in a changing economy. This discussion paper compiles and reviews relevant information regarding the country submissions (Nationally Determined Contributions and National Communications) which lay out adaptation plans and the policies created in fifty-seven selected countries. The aim is to summarize key information that can help assess the ongoing and potential contribution of TVET to the realization of these plans. The analysis made through this discussion paper has helped to generate a set of approaches for climate change adaption, through the education and training lens. These approaches can be used to advance the discussion in strengthening the technical and vocational skills development component in country climate adaptation plans. [This report was written in collaboration with Uthpala Sankalpani.]

Due to its close links to the labour market, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) can play an important role to improve job opportunities and livelihoods for young people, and in particular for disadvantaged youth. However, this potential is not always fully realized, and relatively little research and evidence has been collected about the barriers disadvantaged youth face when accessing to and progressing through TVET. This paper maps some of the main barriers disadvantaged youth face in TVET and examines available evidence on strategies and approaches that are being used or can be used to meet the needs of disadvantaged youth. The paper discusses these barriers using a framework that looks at '4As': availability, accessibility, acceptability, and adaptability. The report is the outcome of a study conducted in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and other members of the UNEVOC Network.

The field of higher education studies has expanded dramatically in recent years. Notably, research centers/institutes and academic programs devoted to the field of higher education (tertiary education) has increased worldwide to now include peer-reviewed journals, books, reports and publications. Utilizing secondary data from 277 higher education programs, 217 research centers/institutes, and 280 journals and publications from "Higher Education: A Worldwide Inventory of Research Centers, Academic Programs, and Journals and Publications" (2014), this paper examines the policy actors and scholars engaged in higher education studies across 48 countries. The finding of this study suggests that people living the world's wealthiest countries occupies a position of significant privilege and power with regards to access to higher education research, analysis, and trained human capital. As higher education research centers, programs, and journals around the world expand their understanding of their place in a wider global network of similar entities, supporting one another and particularly under-resourced colleagues around the world deserves increasing attention. [For the complete Volume 17 proceedings, see ED596826.]

The notion of integrating reading and writing in L1 and L2 literacy education is not new; however, only until recently has the reading-writing connection received enough attention and been implemented in the teaching of L1 and L2. This paper aims to search for the most current, up-to-dated, approach that best incorporates the idea of reading-writing connection. It first reviews literature and former studies that support that reading and writing mutually reinforce each other in both L1 and L2 literacy development. Furthermore, it discusses the interface where writer meets reader as well as writing meets reading. Next, a survey of the 223 TESOL graduate programs in North America attempts to examine how professional ESL/EFL teacher education institutes are practicing the latest theory of reading and writing, followed by a questionnaire answered by 14 teachers-in-preparation (both native and non-native speakers of American English) who shared their general concept regarding the teaching of reading and writing. Based on the findings, this paper calls for a balanced curriculum in which reading, writing, and reading-writing integration are dealt in three separated, independent courses with individually specific focuses as each of them has a strong impact on the overall proficiency of L2 students' acquisition of English. The following are appended: (1) A Curious Questionnaire; (2) A figure showing the reading and writing courses offered in TESOL programs in the US. (Contains 3 tables.) [This paper was published in: The Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China, (pp. 799-821), Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan.]

This paper and the four commissioned works on which it is based are guided by the important question: How can we start valuing practices and outcomes of teaching and learning that are difficult to reduce to numbers? As the process of developing indicators for the Post-2015 education targets unfolds, some of the targets are at risk of being dropped on account of being 'un-measurable.' However, excluding more holistic but harder to assess educational targets will inevitably remove vital focus from some of the most important aspects of high quality education provision. Three education targets, developed by the Education for All Steering Committee (EFA-SC) and the Open Working Group on Sustainable Development of the U.N. General Assembly (OWG), are the thematic foci of this paper: (1) Relevant Learning Outcomes; (2) Knowledge, Values, Skills, and Attitudes to Establish Sustainable and Peaceful Societies; and (3) Teachers and Safe, Inclusive, and Effective Learning Environments. These three targets are at risk of being excluded from the final formulation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in response to practical concerns about the number of targets being excessive as well as concerns that targets such as these "rely too much on vague, qualitative language rather than hard, measurable, time-bound, quantitative targets." This report also highlights some of the main ideas put forward by the authors of the four commissioned papers. The annex to this document briefly describes the commissioned papers and presents the indicators proposed by the authors. [For the commissioned papers, see "Capturing Quality, Equity & Sustainability: An Actionable Vision with Powerful Indicators for a Broad and Bold Education Agenda Post-2015" (ED610009), "Goals and Indicators for Education and Development: Consolidating the Architectures" (ED609905), "Indicators for a Broad and Bold Post-2015 Agenda: A Comprehensive Approach to Educational Development" (ED609982), and "Indicators for All? Monitoring Quality and Equity for a Broad and Bold Post-2015 Global Education Agenda" (ED609988).]

The purpose of this paper is to review recent developments related to the development of indicators of educational progress in the context of the Post 2015 deliberations to generate a new international architecture for educational investment through to 2030. There have been a plethora of suggestions and several parallel consultation processes since 2012 to revise and replace the goals for education and development agreed at the World Education Forum in Dakar (UNESCO, 2000) and enshrined in the Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000). This process is now converging on the two frameworks that are the subject of this analysis. Specifically, there are now seven goals that the Education for All Steering Committee has developed which were consolidated in the May 2014 Muscat Agreement (UNESCO, 2014); and the ten goals produced by the Open Working Group on Sustainable Development of the U.N. General Assembly (UN General Assembly, 2014). These goal statements overlap and are largely consistent with each other but contain some significant differences. This paper reconciles the differences and develops sets of possible indicators building on the work of the Indicators Technical Advisory Group (TAG-EFA, 2014) and the UN Statistical Commission (UNSC, 2014). The paper is organized in six parts. Part 1 analyses the strengths and weaknesses of the existing goals and targets for education and development to frame subsequent discussion in the context of the evolution of Education for All since 1990. Part 2 offers a necessary clarification of the relationship between goals and objectives, and targets and indicators. Part 3 reviews and discusses the process of developing indicators that are fit for purpose. Part 4 highlights characteristics of different types of indicator. Part 5 develops a list of preferred goal statements from the Muscat Agreement and OWG goals, links these to a discussion of existing and proposed indicators, and consolidates promising indicators that could be used to assess progress. The last part of the paper collects together forward looking conclusions that profile key issues that will shape how new indicators are devised to monitor the sustainable development goals for education.