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The article focuses on a research concerning water management in Africa funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development and has been prepared for the Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation (ILSSI). The study focuses on gardens, whose main purpose is the production of food, as well as growing herbs and spices for home consumption. Other information related to water management for home gardens in the region is provided.

Freshwater systems are adversely affected disproportionately by the ongoing, global environmental crisis. The effective and efficient water resource conservation and management necessary to mitigate the crisis requires monitoring data especially on water quality. This is recognized by Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, particularly indicator 6.3.2., which requires all United Nations (UN) member states to measure and report the 'proportion of water bodies with good ambient water quality'. However, gathering sufficient data on water quality is reliant on data collection at spatial and temporal scales that are generally outside the capacity of institutions using conventional methods. Digital technologies, such as wireless sensor networks and remote sensing, have come to the fore as promising avenues to increase the scope of data collection and reporting. Citizen science (which goes by many names, e.g., participatory science or community-based monitoring) has also been earmarked as a powerful mechanism to improve monitoring. However, both modern digital technologies and citizen science approaches have drawbacks and limitations. The synergy between the power of automated, verifiable data collection using modern technologies, and the power of citizen science to improve the spatial and temporal resolution of data collection while engaging and empowering communities, presents an opportunity to use the best features of each mechanism to mitigate the shortcomings of the other. Smartphones, sometimes in conjunction with other sensors, present such a nexus point, providing a method for citizen scientists to engage with and use sophisticated modern technology for water quality monitoring. Smartphones are widely accessible and equipped for objective, comprehensive and accurate data collection. The data can also be uploaded (via internet connections) to large cloud-based databases with cloud-based computing for data management and reporting. This paper presents a research synthesis of technological upgrades or innovations in citizen science water quality monitoring in developing countries, with a particular focus on exploring the current status of modern, smartphone-based, or smartphone-assisted citizen science tools, and how those tools can be validated or expanded for SDG reporting in developing countries. Essentially, the paper aims to briefly summarize the current standing, reiterate the urgent need for research and action in water resource monitoring and management, and urge further engagement with citizen science water quality monitoring using digital innovations; digital innovations for smartphones are being rapidly developed, but the scientific validation for their use in specific circumstances or regions, as well as their uptake and upscaling, are still widely lacking. Globally, there are many options and developments relevant to citizen science smartphone-based or smartphone-assisted water quality monitoring. However, not all modern developments are suitable for deployment or testing across all socio-ecological environments. Innovations in smartphone water quality monitoring in low and middle-income country contexts need to be low-cost (requiring minimal input costs beyond having a smartphone), easy-to-use, easily scalable, commercially available, suited to use by minimally skilled people in rural and developing areas. Moreover, monitoring all the parameters (physical, chemical and biological) that contribute to water quality is highly complex and outside the scope of what is achievable by most people, organizations, or even governments. As a result, it is sensible that water resource monitoring and management efforts are primarily directed toward addressing the SDG indicators to align with global goals. The SDG water quality indicators were chosen as a result of extensive consultation and research. They are designed to provide a snapshot of water quality suitable for most regions and socioeconomic situations worldwide. The SDG 6.3.2. indicator method employs a water quality index that integrates basic core water quality parameters; oxygen, salinity, nitrogen, phosphorus and acidification. Monitoring algae, temperature and clarity also presents useful options since they are highly relevant to ambient water quality and can be monitored cheaply and easily by citizen scientists. This paper summarizes a non-exhaustive list of examples of smartphone-based or smartphone-assisted applications (mobile apps) that are suggested or recommended for research and implementation in developing countries. Research and development regarding these options should aim to validate the accuracy of data collection, accessibility, ease of use, cost, and the feasibility of contributing to pathways from data collection to citizen mobilization and decision-making. Ultimately, once these options are validated, they can be used to design and implement monitoring networks around the globe. Welldesigned citizen science water quality monitoring apps on smartphones can increase community engagement regarding environmental issues and policy, build awareness and scientific literacy, and generate large amounts of data, all at a greatly reduced cost compared to conventional and modern technological methods. It is suggested that smartphone-based or smartphoneassisted citizen science water quality monitoring has the potential to address critical data and knowledge gaps that contribute towards reporting on at least SDG 6.3.2 while fulfilling SDG 6b 'procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management' - a potential which is still often not realized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the conclusion of a working paper that talks about the proposal of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) of pipelining the Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) water distribution system on the Narmada River in Gujarat, India. It relays the reasons for Gujarat officials to consider the IWMI proposal. It mentions that pipeline-based lift irrigation systems require intensive management.

There are over 900 small reservoirs (SRs) constructed by the federal and state governments for rural water supply and irrigation across Nigeria. Many of them are currently not performing to their full potential. The Ogun-Osun River Basin with four sub-watersheds (Ogun, Osun, Ona and Sasa) has many SRs. The Ogun sub-watershed is a major hydrological basin with over 25 small dams and reservoirs constructed under various government programs. These reservoirs, however, are poorly maintained and poorly managed and lack the required institutional and governance structures to ensure realization of their potential. Nevertheless, farmer-led irrigation (FLI) practices are growing around these reservoirs as farmers have taken over the structures (albeit informally) through private irrigation efforts such as investing in water lifting, conveyance and crop production practices. This study evaluated the condition and utilization of 20 SRs in the Ogun sub-watershed to answer several questions: What are the prevailing issues responsible for the low productive use of the SRs? How does the state of hydraulic infrastructure, maintenance and management affect overall productivity? How can water productivity be enhanced? What is required to improve the productive use of these SRs? This paper reports on the state of selected reservoirs and makes recommendations to achieve more sustainable management of these resources. Five major issues were investigated: the dams' structural elements and reservoir capacities; maintenance and management of the dams, including institutional and governance structures; agricultural and irrigation practices; agronomy and farming systems; and marketing and related socioeconomic issues. The research methods we followed included field and infrastructure assessments, focus group discussions and key informant interviews with the relevant stakeholders. The capacities of the reservoirs included in our study ranged from 0.09 million cubic meters (Mm2) to 2.025 Mm2, with 90% of the reservoirs having less than 1 Mm2 capacity. The combined capacity of these SRs was 9.75 Mm3 with a total irrigable area of 152 hectares (ha), of which 97 ha (64%) are currently cultivated largely by FLI actors. Eroded and overgrown embankments, fractured spillways, sedimentation and high levels of weed infestation were observed in these reservoirs. Overall, 70% of the SRs are in a poor state and need urgent revamping. Although about 80% of the 780 farming households in the study area are currently active in irrigated crop production, they face many constraints, including limited irrigation management capacity, extension support and access to necessary inputs. Farmers themselves coordinate the management of these reservoirs on an ad hoc basis. Most of them consider irrigated agriculture profitable, especially as they can produce during the dry season when vegetables command better prices. However, the poor state of the dam structures and reservoir storage limits the advantages that can be derived from irrigation. To sustain the SRs' storage capacity, overhauling the dam spillways and embankments and dredging the reservoirs are critical solutions. Furthermore, inefficient irrigation practices resulting from low technical capacity, inadequate irrigation equipment and the challenge of securing a good return on investment in the context of poor market access are the other issues that need to be addressed. Building the capacity of farmers in irrigation management practices is important for the success of FLI efforts. There is also a need to strengthen the governance of reservoirs with appropriate and inclusive institutions. The current level of haphazard and poor coordination makes these reservoirs unsustainable. The existing farmer cooperatives and commodity associations can be reorganized to serve as water user associations to coordinate water allocation, utilization and reservoir management. There is also a need for a support mechanism for farmers to access resources such as agricultural inputs, finance, markets and technical support. This can be achieved by creating an enabling environment for public-private partnership arrangements with private sector actors, improving the extension services, and cooperation among the stakeholders. The potential of SRs to support smallholder irrigation in the Ogun subwatershed is high, provided a more sustainable approach is employed, especially by strengthening the capacity of water users to take firm ownership of the systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of IWMI Working Papers is the property of International Water Management Institute and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background Small reservoirs are a critical mechanism to strengthen resilience and enhance rural livelihoods in Africa. They provide a range of benefits, including increased access to water in local communities, improved household food security, diversified livelihood options, female empowerment and enhanced entrepreneurial activities. As a result, governments, development agencies and the private sector have invested significant resources in constructing new or rehabilitating existing small reservoirs. However, a range of factors, including insufficient maintenance, rapid siltation and ineffective institutions, can weaken the performance of small reservoirs. Reconciling mixed evidence to generate a balanced picture - Despite existing data on various benefits and costs of small reservoirs in Africa, no comprehensive assessment of their impacts has been undertaken. Case studies yield important insights, but cannot be used individually to confidently generalize. This paper responds to the lack of comprehensive examination of the impacts of small reservoirs by undertaking a stock-take of available evidence to understand the frequency of reporting of various impacts, benefits and costs. A survey of available evidence provides the basis for more conclusive guidance on how to improve the performance of small reservoirs in Africa. Objectives and methods - This paper synthesizes available literature on the benefits, performance and challenges of small reservoirs, and provides recommendations that can inform future investment. The study compiled and classified more than 80 documents concerning about 4,000 small reservoirs in Africa, according to a set of basic, descriptive and explanatory parameters. Basic parameters describe a reservoir's name, location and investment status. Descriptive parameters capture the impacts of a reservoir (what happened) and explanatory parameters capture the determinants of the impact (why it happened). In addition, the study included field-based research on the conditions around a set of 10 small reservoirs in southern Zambia, which enabled more nuanced analysis and discussion of key findings. Field-based data were collected through conducting interviews on a set of key parameters including benefits, costs, degree of functionality, institutions and maintenance. Results from document analysis - Results from the desktop study show a range of benefits derived from small reservoirs. These benefits include improved reliability of access to domestic water and expanded irrigation water supply, as well as increased livestock watering and greater entrepreneurial activities. Further, positive impacts realized include improved household food security, increased household income, reduced out-migration and the empowerment of women. Identified costs were relatively fewer than benefits. Costs were limited to conflicts in communities on water and land use, membership fees for users, and negative health impacts arising from water-related diseases. The performance of small reservoirs is generally rated as mixed to poor. Operational lifespans of less than 10 years, and high water loss rates in small reservoirs illustrate this poor performance. Reasons for the poor performance include weak institutions, sedimentation, poor siting and inadequate maintenance. Results from fieldwork - The case study based on fieldwork in southern Zambia confirmed both the benefits and challenges of small reservoirs that emerged from the document analysis. Further, fieldwork identified that the short-term planning horizon for investments in small reservoirs, often driven by emergency response, contributes to a rapid decline in the functionality of small reservoir infrastructure, the primary factor for such an outcome being sedimentation. However, the advocacyoriented nature of investments in small reservoirs may create a positive narrative that eclipses their generally poor performance. More significantly, fieldwork provided evidence that suggests that reinvesting in old infrastructure might be more cost-effective than building a new reservoir, particularly since the structural quality of new small dams seems to be declining. Key messages - The results point to five key messages. First, small reservoirs produce a range of benefits that provide practical value to rural communities. Second, the performance of small reservoirs - measured through economic analysis, reservoir longevity or other means - is generally not spectacular. Third, the primary factor explaining the temporal decrease in reservoir lifespan is sedimentation - explained by a host of factors, including institutions. Fourth, rehabilitation appears to be a better investment than new dam construction. Fifth, the quality of small dam infrastructure may be declining. Conclusions - Ultimately, findings from this study suggest that rehabilitating existing reservoirs may be more efficient than building new infrastructure to gain the benefits of small reservoirs. At the same time, findings also point to broader lessons on the need to change the approach to small reservoir development and management. In other words, to consider adopting a long-term, more holistic approach (or model) to the construction and maintenance of small reservoirs that match the challenges associated with sustainably tapping the benefits of the water that they store. The following three points are worth mentioning in this regard: • It is time to adapt the design of advocacy-based, disaster-responsive investments in small reservoirs, by drawing more evidence-based, practically informed approaches. In practice, this may mean insistence on the achievement of certain benchmarks by local institutions, such as provision for the collection and management of recurring costs of controlling sedimentation. • The long-term approach needed for investments in sustainable small reservoirs will require formal institutions, presumably national small reservoir programs, to ensure sustainability by managing and maintaining infrastructure. • Regular monitoring of reservoirs after investment is critical to the success of a long-term approach to investments in small reservoirs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the evidence available on the provision of financing for African smallholder farmers to purchase irrigation equipment such as pumps, pipes and drip irrigation systems. It sets the scene by first reviewing the literature on experiences with providing microcredit and other microfinance services as a poverty reduction strategy. Based on both case studies and several systematic reviews of the literature, it finds that the outcomes and impacts on poverty, gender equity and broader economic development are mixed at best. Microcredit is not a silver bullet solution to poverty, but it can often help poor households improve their lives. The paper then reviews the demand for and supply of financing for smallholders to purchase irrigation equipment. In surveys, farmers express a strong demand for equipment such as pumps, but often point to the lack of affordable and appropriately designed credit as a critical impediment to gaining access to such equipment. Even where microfinance institutions offer agricultural credit, it is usually short-term seasonal credit to purchase seeds and fertilizer. Credit on these terms is not useful to purchase equipment costing several hundred dollars. Focusing on programs specifically aimed at enabling farmers to purchase irrigation equipment, no credible detailed studies were found documenting the impacts and lessons learned. However, there are currently (as of 2018) numerous promising pilot studies and small projects offering a variety of approaches to enable smallholders to make such purchases. The paper reviews what information is available on these. A major recommendation of this paper is that a research project should be designed to carry out studies of these various experiments to identify what works under what conditions, as a basis for scaling out programs to offer financial services aimed at assisting smallholders to gain access to small-scale irrigation equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Freshwater in both natural stores (i.e., glaciers, permafrost, groundwater, lakes, wetlands, and soils) and man-made stores (i.e., small and large reservoirs, and paddy fields) is critical for coping with spatial and temporal variations in water supply and demand. Its importance has grown as human populations have risen and socioeconomic development advanced. As a major component of many national adaptation strategies, the importance of water storage will continue to increase as the impacts of climate change become more pronounced. However, in large part because of the complex distribution over large spatial scales, and difficulties in monitoring, the aggregate volumes of water in terrestrial stores and the rates at which they are changing have, until recently, remained largely unknown. Recent advances in Earth observation and computer modeling enable greater disaggregation and better quantification of different storage elements. Based on literature and extrapolation, this paper provides a summary of estimates of different components and trends in terrestrial water storage. Such estimates are a useful starting point for more strategic thinking about how to manage and protect the Earth's freshwater sources in the future. Results indicate that, at the global level, direct human impacts on water storage remain very small compared to the total volumes stored, but are now approximately the same order of magnitude as climate-induced changes. Cumulative reduction in terrestrial water storage from 1971 to 2020 is estimated to be of the order of 27,079 Bm3 (more than annual total global freshwater use by humans). Excluding ice caps, the greatest depletion is in mountain glaciers (8,666 Bm3), groundwater (7,041 Bm3) and wetlands (3,920 Bm3). Although these changes are insignificant at the global scale, human impacts on 'operational' freshwater storage (i.e., the proportion of water storage that is sustainably utilizable by people) are much more significant. A conservative estimate is that there has been a decrease of more than 3% in operational freshwater storage since 1971. Declining water storage is a major contributor to local/regional water crises that ultimately threaten billions of people and many ecosystems worldwide. In many places, both natural and man-made water storage are declining simultaneously and exacerbating water stress. Decades of degradation of lakes, wetlands and soil, and sedimentation of reservoirs, as well as overabstraction of groundwater complicate future water resources management, reduce adaptive capacity, and undermine the resilience of 'thirsty' societies that are increasingly under threat from the impacts of climate change and increasing variability in freshwater availability. Actions to stop and reverse the loss of water from both natural and man-made water storage would help enhance water security, and buffer the negative impacts of multiple pressures, not only climate change, on ecosystems and society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is an almost annual phenomenon in Sri Lanka, occurring at varying degrees of severity and affecting many parts of the country. These droughts cause significant damage to agriculture and other economic and social activities. This paper assesses the effectiveness of satellite-based weather Index insurance (WII) bundled with real-time climate and agronomic advisory services provided to farmers' mobile phones. The aim is to enhance the drought resilience of diverse groups of farmers by providing solutions and strategies to extend bundled insurance products to more people and address equity issues. In this pilot, an insurance product was introduced to farmers in a village in the North Central Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. WII products are seen as a part of the solution to reducing farmers' risk to climate change. However, in many places, the structure of insurance schemes in the agriculture sector has failed to reach small-scale and marginal farmers who are most in need of risk transfer mechanisms. Based on a farmer survey, we extracted lessons from implementing a bundled insurance scheme as a pilot project to explore the utility of farmer organizations as an entry point for engaging different farmer groups and ensuring they can understand the WII insurance products and can make informed choices. The survey results show that efforts made at the outset to understand contextual issues and challenges contributed to an effective product design and rollout approach. The rollout was more effective due in part to a partnership with an established local organization while adopting an aggregator model. Covid-19 mobility restrictions prevented full implementation of the rollout. Index insurance bundled with mobile weather and agronomic advisories increased farmer resilience and reached diverse groups. Farmers emphasized that being able to assess the costs and benefits based on understanding how key elements of the product work is key to their future engagement with such products, which highlights the importance of investing in awareness raising through a blend of print, verbal and visual tools that make complex products understandable to stakeholders with low levels of literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses how the Huruluwewa tank (HWT) irrigation system in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka adapts to climate variability. Irrigation systems contribute to more than 90% of the staple food production in Sri Lanka. It is a country that bears one of the highest climate risks in the world. Further, in the North Central Province, recurrent droughts are the bane of agriculture. In the HWT, the fifteenth largest canal irrigation system in the country, adaptation to climate variability happens on two fronts: changes made by the irrigation management to the water release regime; and changes in the cropping patterns practiced by farmers in the command area. Such adaptation measures ensure that the available water supply in the reservoir is adequate for 100% cropping intensity in each of the two cropping seasons, which, when combined with diversification of cropping patterns, enhances economic water productivity in terms of value per unit of consumptive water use. Such cropping patterns also increase farmers’ incomes and resilience in low rainfall years. With proper conjunctive water management practices, the available tank storage can lead to high water-use efficiency and provide considerable socioeconomic benefits in the command area. The adaptation patterns implemented in HWT demonstrate how water-scarce irrigation systems in Sri Lanka can achieve higher economic water productivity, i.e., generate ‘more income per drop’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water cooperation has received prominent focus in the post-2015 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While proposals for measuring water cooperation appear to be converging toward a small set of indicators, the degree to which these proposed indicators draw on past work is unclear. This paper mines relevant past work to generate guidance for monitoring the proposed SDG target related to transboundary water cooperation. Potential measures of water cooperation were identified, filtered and applied in three countries (Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe). Six indicators were ultimately determined as being suitable for measuring water cooperation. As the SDG process turns its focus to the selection of indicators, the indicators proposed in this paper may merit consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Koshi Basin, spread across China, Nepal and India, is perceived as having high potential for hydropower and irrigation development, both seen as ways to promote economic development in the region. As climate change (CC) is likely to impact future water resources, it is very important to consider CC in future planning. This paper quantifies and assesses the past and projected future spatial and temporal water balances in the Koshi Basin. A Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was set up, calibrated and validated using measured daily flow data from the basin from 1999 to 2006. The CC analysis is based on the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) "Representative Concentration Pathways" (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5). The delta change approach was used to generate daily future time series climate data for 2021-2050, considering historical data from 1998-2008 as reference. Results show that the annual average precipitation, actual evapotranspiration (ET) and net water yield for the reference period are 1,720 mm, 520 mm and 1,124 mm, respectively, with over 75% of precipitation and flow occurring during the monsoon season. The precipitation and net water yield are lowest in the transmountain region and the Tibetan plateau. The values are highest in the mountain region, followed by the hills and Indo-Gangetic Plains. Approximately 65% of average annual precipitation is converted to flows, indicating high water availability. Actual ET, which indicates water use by plants, is highest in the Indo-Gangetic Plains region due to the presence of irrigated agriculture and a few forested mountain watersheds. There is, therefore, a clear mismatch between the area where water availability is highest (mountains) and where water use is highest (Indo-Gangetic Plains). As most of the water from the mountain and hill regions eventually flows down to the plains, the mountain and hill regions in Nepal are important for maintaining agriculture in the plains in both Nepal and India. Flow analyses show that high-flow pulses (exceeding 75% of daily flows) occur two to five times annually and last for 2 to 20 days during the monsoon season. Extreme low flows occur two to nine times annually and last up to 25 days during the dry season. These results indicate the high temporal variability of flows in the basin. The information on these extreme weather events could be very useful in water-induced disaster management in this region, and also for planning longterm hydraulic structures. The frequent occurrences of both high- and low-flow events demonstrate the existing vulnerability of the region to both floods and droughts, leading to a very risk-prone livelihood system. The CC projections show an increasing trend in precipitation and net water yield for most of the basin, except the transmountain region. Actual ET also shows an increasing trend for both CC pathways (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5) throughout the basin. Comparison of flow ranges between the past and projected data indicates that future changes during the dry season are within the past data ranges. However, the future monsoon flows will be higher than the past as demonstrated by higher averages as well as maximum flows. An increasing trend is seen in the high-flow pulse frequency, and occurrences of high flows are shifting towards the latter part of the monsoon. Therefore, flooding occurrences in the monsoon are expected to increase with CC. Results also show that the seasonal variation in contribution to annual flow volume at the outlet of the Koshi Basin for the reference and future periods remained very similar, with over 75% of the total annual flow occurring within the monsoon season. Therefore, the monsoon will remain the main hydrological driver, variability will continue to be high, future dry seasons will be similar to the past dry seasons, and future monsoons will likely be stronger and wetter with increased flood risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a compilation of working papers written by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) on the topic of agricultural water management for farmers in Zambia. The papers presented show the work, methods, and knowledge of the IWMI. The publications included come in the form of papers, case studies and progress reports of ongoing research, among others.

The article presents a working paper in agricultural water management to benefit smallholder farmers in Ghana. The paper summarizes research conducted as part of the AgWater Solutions Project in Ghana between 2009 and 2012. According to the author, researchers from the AgWater Solutions Project conducted studies on the potential for inland valley rice production, groundwater use, and management of small reservoirs and out-grower schemes.

The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Working Paper 146 titled "Investing in Agricultural Water Management to Benefit Smallholder Farmers in Tanzania: AgWater Solutions Project Country Synthesis Report," edited by Alexandra E. V. Evans, Meredith Giordano, and Terry Clayton is presented. The paper forms part of a project that was conducted in Tanzania from 2009 to 2012. The paper discusses management of smallholder agricultural water in the Asian and African region.

Our aim in this paper is to present the details of an economic modelling exercise we conducted on the Musi catchment of the Krishna Basin. This model was connected with a hydrological model and used to simulate various scenarios on the water situation facing users in the basin. The model presented in this paper has the unique characteristic of being able to value the water used on individual crops and in different regions. In addition to the agricultural valuation process, some account is made for the other uses of water and how they should be valued. The assumptions underlying the model, the data used and the results and implications drawn are fully detailed in this paper. In addition, the model is used to simulate a number of scenarios of interest to stakeholders in the Musi catchment. This model is the forerunner of similar modelling attempts on similar problems in other regions of the Krishna Basin and in the Murray Darling Basin of Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This working paper synthesizes knowledge within CGIAR on adaptation measures in agricultural systems, for the benefit of parties and observers preparing submissions to the UNFCCC SBSTA. Experience from CGIAR and partners indicate that adaptation measures covering policy, technological, financial, institutional, and research interventions are being tested and applied in agricultural systems in low-income and middle-income countries. Lessons include the need to ensure context-specificity when designing adaptation measures, engaging farmers in decision-making, and combining indigenous and scientific knowledge. Adaptation measures in agricultural systems are able to generate various added benefits in addition to adaptation benefits. These include enhanced food security, environmental benefits including mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, and positive outcomes for gender and social inclusion. However, good design and implementation of these measures is important, for which capacity enhancement and technology transfer are essential functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The performance of smallholder irrigation schemes are challenged by several factors: among which water insecurity and low land and water productivity are the main ones. This paper evaluates the on-farm management of nine smallholder irrigation schemes from four regional states in Ethiopia. The schemes are diverse in several aspects and we clustered them into three typologies: Modern, semi-modern and traditional. Indicators such as land productivity (LP), crop water productivity (CWP) were used in evaluating performances. Data input to the target indicators was collected through household survey, field observation, measurements (canal water flow monitoring), literature review and focus group discussion (FGD). The result illustrates apparent variability of LP among schemes; scheme typology and reaches. The lowest value of LP was estimated for the traditional schemes and inter-scheme variation was also notable. For example for onion, the value for LP ranged between 7.13 and 14.55 tonnes/ha. For tomato the range was even wider: 0.9-10.29 tonnes/ha. Meki scheme showed the highest land productivity for onion and tomato with the magnitude of 14.55 and 10.29 tonnes/ha respectively. For irrigated cereals (maize and wheat) LP values showed a similar trend as for vegetables. For example the LP value for maize range between 0.65 and 3.92 tonnes/ha and for wheat the range was narrower (0.6 and 1.56 tonnes/ha). Generally these values are less than the values reported as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) regional average suggesting the need to address yield limiting factors in smallholder schemes in Ethiopia. Water productivity by water supplied at field levels (WPf) for cereals was generally on the lower side; it is somewhat on the higher side for vegetables compared to observations from SSA. Schemes and reaches with higher land productivity do not necessarily shows higher WPf. Modern schemes and head irrigators have usually higher land productivity but low water productivity. The opposite holds true for the traditional irrigation and tail irrigators. The traditional schemes and tail irrigator normally suffer from water shortage and most often practicing forced deficit irrigation and also select crops with low water requirement. Hence they save water while trying to minimize impact on the yield through crop selection. Implicitly future direction of improving smallholder irrigation need to acknowledge this reality and put efforts to save water on head irrigators and increase land productivity under traditional and tail irrigators and promote sustainability and equitable share of water in smallholder irrigation. Probably alternatives such as valuation of water and a consumption-based water charge need to be taken into account in efforts to discourage over irrigation and enhance equitable water management by smallholders. It is also important to note that smallholder water management decisions are complex and so are the values for their performance indicators. Therefore, any development efforts dealing with smallholder irrigation need to disentangle and understand this diversity and ensure interventions are context specific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides a working paper from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) on agricultural water management investments for aiding smallholder farmers in Madhya Pradesh, India. It offers an overview of the research conducted as part of the AgWater Solutions Project in the country. It also notes that agriculture answers for 21% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the state while it contributes to the nation's total annual wealth, pulses and production of soybeans.

The impact of climate change (CC) on water resources is likely to affect agricultural systems and food security. This is especially critical in a least developed country (LDC) like Nepal where a high percentage of the population is dependent on agriculture for its livelihoods. It is, therefore, crucial for Nepal's leaders and resource managers to draft and begin implementing national adaptation plans. In order for such planning to be effective, it is critical to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the anticipated impacts of CC and the institutions potentially involved in the adaptation process. This working paper aims to create a more comprehensive understanding of how the impacts of CC will be realized at different scales in Nepal, from household livelihoods to national food security, and the many institutions governing the ultimate adaptation process. Recommendations for adaptation to be effective include a need for a comprehensive effort, involving integrated national planning across all sectors and new infrastructure development (e.g., irrigation, hydropower) to account for longer term impacts of CC. For autonomous adaptation, the focus must be on building and expanding basic infrastructure at the local level which will help provide greater income diversification and access to markets. Such infrastructure will also allow for greater interconnectedness between isolated communities, national government institutions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). For many local communities, adaptation and development will thus be synonymous because as incomes become more diverse and livelihoods improve, so will resilience towards climate shocks. Fundamental failures of governance and institutional effectiveness must be overcome in order for basic development, and especially for effective strategic adaptation planning and implementation, to occur. Capacity building on CC impacts within the various government departments and ministries is advocated. Furthermore, developing water management strategies as well as agricultural diversification plans, which focus on the increasing variability and uncertainly in water supplies, is also seen as being critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the increasing competition for water between various sectors is aggravated by growing demands for water, climate change and environmental degradation. One of the major consumers of water is livestock keeping, which is an important livelihood strategy for smallholder farmers in Africa. The water consumption for livestock production is currently increasing with the growing demands for livestock products. On the other hand, current low returns from livestock, limit its contribution to livelihoods, threaten environmental health and aggravate local conflicts. The objectives of this review are to (1) bring together the available knowledge in the various components of the livestock and water sectors, (2) identify promising strategies and interventions to improve the situation using the "livestock water productivity" (LWP) concept, and (3) identify critical research and development gaps. Improvements in LWP can lead to a positive impact on poverty reduction, resilience and environmental health, provided that interventions are well-targeted, community innovation and empowerment is achieved and appropriate dissemination and communication lead to awareness and adoption. Promising interventions are grouped in two domains. In the biophysical domain, numerous interventions related to feed, water and animal management can be applied to increase LWP. These should be complemented and integrated with interventions in the socio-political-economic domain. Enhancing the capacity of local institutions, improving market incentives and facilitating socioeconomic arrangements form part of the institutional improvements. A conducive policy framework, taking into account equity and gender and geared towards problem-solving local policies, improvements in infrastructure, price signals and land tenure systems, is a prerequisite for the successful application of the LWP concept. However, for the LWP concept to be widely applicable, knowledge gaps have to be filled, in terms of methodologies for quantifying water productivity and integrating animal, herd, farm, water catchment and basin scales. This paper suggests approaches for the integration of technological, policy and institutional interventions that would contribute to making the LWP concept operational. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Africa's agriculture sector is vital for food security, employment, and economic growth. Women and young people, who contribute to innovation, diversification, and income, face limited opportunities in the sector due to social and economic power imbalances. This disparity wastes resources and impedes agricultural value chain development (VCD). Inclusive VCD aims to empower women, men and youth from diverse social groups and strengthen the agriculture sector. However, the literature on inclusive VCD in Africa is limited due to urban biases, and the lack of a framework to address gender inequality and poverty. This study explores how livelihood assets, strategies for accessing the assets, and enabling and discouraging factors in the value chain shapes the inclusion of women and youth in on-farm, off-farm and non-farm activities. It is based on the Safeguarding Sahelian Wetlands for Food Security (SaWeL) program that aims to make the market work for the poor through inclusive VCD in the Ziway-Shalla Sub-basin of Ethiopia, and Wegnia and Sourou basins in Mali. A qualitative dataset of 32 focus group discussions, 48 key informant interviews and 40 in-depth interviews were analyzed. We identified investment and cultivation inclusion strategies that demonstrates how women and youth from diverse social groups actualize business opportunities, overcome challenges and create new opportunities for inclusion. Investment strategies involve women and youth from better-off households with good access to natural, social, political and physical capital for capital-intensive roles. On the other hand, cultivation strategies involve women and youth from resource-poor households who can harness natural, social and political capital to participate in off-farm and non-farm activities. Our results show that women and youth who adopt either one of the strategies are encouraged by good support from social networks, cooperatives, Government Organizations, Nongovernmental Organizations and private sector actors. However, access to productive resources and services for women and youth adopting any strategies is hampered by gender and intergenerational norms, poverty and insufficient institutional capacity. We argue that it is essential to understand how social disparities and local environments interact to inform the design and implementation of inclusive value chains. Additionally, inclusive value chains necessitate building capacities of institutions at different scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the introduction of the research paper concerning the extent of arsenic contamination and its impact on food chain and human health in the Eastern Ganges Basin in West Bengal, India. It notes the population living in rural areas who depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. It mentions poverty in the region where household incomes are low, unassured food security and devastating floods. Other topics including water supply, quality of groundwater and mitigation options.

References for the working paper on agricultural water management (AWM) in Ghana is presented.

References for the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Working Paper 146 titled "Investing in Agricultural Water Management to Benefit Smallholder Farmers in Tanzania: AgWater Solutions Project Country Synthesis Report," edited by Alexandra E. V. Evans, Meredith Giordano, and Terry Clayton are presented.

References for the articles published in the 2011 issue of the International Water Management Institute's Working Papers are presented.

References cited for the working paper "A Case for Pipelining Water Distribution in the Narmada Irrigation System in Gujarat, India" are presented.

An introduction is presented in which the author discusses topics outlined in the working paper "A Case for Pipelining Water Distribution in the Narmada Irrigation System in Gujarat, India" including the proposal of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) that predicts the failure of pipelining under government construction and management, criticism of underground pipelining and the benefits and costs of pipelining.

References for the articles published in the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) working paper "From Mesopotamia to the Third Millennium: The Historical Trajectory of Water Development and Use in the Karkheh River Basin, Iran" are presented.

The cross-cluster analysis identifies common and contradictory patterns between different irrigation interventions such as (i) support for farmer-led irrigation, (ii) small-scale irrigation development, and (iii) large-scale irrigation development. The policy cluster analysis looks for: overall objective of the cluster; policy changes; gaps, overlap and conflicts in cluster policy and implementation mechanisms; and relation to irrigation technologies/solutions/scaling. The cross-cluster analysis identifies common and contradictory patterns between different policy documents and policy clusters, namely gaps, complementarities and conflicts between clusters in relation to irrigation technology and scaling approach. [Extracted from the article]

Agriculture is the mainstay of Ethiopia's economy contributing to 41.5% of the gross domestic product (GDP). Growth of the sector depends on efficient and sustainable use of natural resources such as water and land, which calls for the monitoring of these resources. Hydrometeorological monitoring can provide the information needed for early warning, and preparing and responding to weather-related natural disasters, thereby supporting development of the agriculture sector. In Ethiopia, the Basin Development Authority (BDA) and the National Meteorology Agency (NMA) are the two state organizations responsible for collecting hydrological and meteorological data, respectively. Through a proclamation in 2018, the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy (MoWIE) delegated BDA to collect, process, analyze and disseminate hydrological data. It has been reported that BDA and NMA have limited capacity (financial, technological, human and others) to (i) set up new network stations; (ii) install modern equipment; (iii) rehabilitate existing stations; (iv) cover running costs of network stations; (v) conduct regular supervision of monitoring stations (e.g., to provide feedback and take corrective action on time, if needed); and (vi) monitor several hydrometeorological parameters. For these reasons, network stations under these organizations are sparsely distributed, causing data coverage issues across a country as diverse as Ethiopia. For example, even if BDA is responsible for managing the country's water resources, due to limited capacity, it tends to focus only on monitoring large rivers and does not take into consideration small rivers. However, data from small rivers in micro-watersheds are crucial for people's livelihoods and local water security. Overall, the limited capacities of both BDA and NMA have an impact on the quality and continuity of data. These organizations are not represented at lower administrative levels (e.g., woreda, kebele and community levels), and there are no institutional arrangements in place that could facilitate engagement of the community, both of which lead to hydrometeorological data gaps in the country. Therefore, the authors suggest that institutionalizing engagement of communities (non-scientists) in hydrometeorological monitoring (citizen science approach) has the potential to address part of the data gaps in Ethiopia. This study, therefore, examines the existing institutional arrangements for hydrometeorological monitoring and the practices followed by BDA and NMA. Also, it investigates the possibilities of embedding a citizen science approach into regular monitoring conducted by these organizations for addressing the hydrometeorological data gaps, particularly at micro-watershed levels. Data and information for the study were collected through a literature review, and in-depth discussions held with key informants at federal, regional, basin, sub-basin and network station levels. Based on the assessments, adopting and institutionalizing a citizen science approach for some of the monitoring tasks could address part of the data gap issues in Ethiopia. According to key informants, there is potential to embed the approach into the institutional structure of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) for hydrometeorological monitoring of small rivers in micro-watersheds, due to the following reasons: (i) MoA has a high demand for hydrometeorological data from small rivers to be used for small- and micro-scale irrigation development, and for measuring the impacts of watershed development interventions on water resources; and (ii) MoA has an institutional structure from federal to community level that supports the engagement of communities in development interventions. However, effectively embedding the citizen science approach into regular monitoring of MoA depends on the clear distribution of mandates; developing legal, ethical, methodological and quality frameworks; and developing clear data sharing and incentive mechanisms involving all partners (e.g., MoWIE, NMA, BDA and MoA). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

References for the articles published in the July 1, 2012 issue of "IWMI Working Papers" are presented.

References for the articles published in the May 2012 issue of "IWMI Working Papers" are presented.

The summary of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Working Paper 150, "Investing in Agricultural Water Management to Benefit Smallholder Farmers in Zambia" is presented.

The article discusses the conclusions and recommendations of the research paper on the irrigation systems classification in Ghana by Regassa E. Namara and colleagues of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). It says the 22 irrigation systems managed by ICOUR and GIDA are classified into conventional and emerging systems which are important as compared with other official statistics. Moreover, establishment of apex body is recommended for the emerging irrigation systems development.

Several terms and definitions that relate to articles appeared in the working paper "From Mesopotamia to the Third Millennium: The Historical Trajectory of Water Development and Use in the Karkheh River Basin, Iran" are presented.

A reliable supply of water is critical for agricultural intensification and yield improvement. Technological devices that lift, transport and apply water contribute to increased yield from improved crop varieties and high input cultivation. Using such devices to shift to high-value cultivation has become an important source of wealth accumulation in Asia and Africa. In particular, the increasing use of motor pumps is a significant contribution to the development of small-scale irrigation. The objective of this study was to identify and analyze the trajectories of technological innovations and uptake for agricultural water management in farming systems in Sri Lanka, with a special focus on identifying impacts, emerging issues and potential responses to the rapid proliferation of motor pumps in the intensification of agriculture in the country. The Government of Sri Lanka promoted the rapid adoption of water pumps through interventions such as the development of groundwater wells for agriculture; provision of subsidies and credit facilities for purchasing micro-irrigation equipment; and government policies on tax, tariffs and extension support. At the same time, the high profit margin realized from cash crop cultivation motivated farmers to invest in water lifting and related technologies. Finally, water scarcity and restrictions on the use of surface water, i.e., canals, prompted a shift to using waterlifting technologies to pump groundwater. The use of water pumps in agriculture has expanded the area under cultivation; increased cropping intensity, especially during the dry seasons; changed the cropping pattern from low-return rice cultivation to high-return cash crop cultivation; and enhanced household incomes. Expanded and intensified cultivation has provided more opportunities for women to participate in agriculture, generating additional income, and enhancing their purchasing power and decision-making at the household level. Some farmers do not have groundwater wells and water pumps because they lack the necessary capital to make the initial investment. Smallholder farmers, in particular, are reluctant to risk their limited income on new technologies. This may lead to the further marginalization of poor farmers. Inclusive intensification will require helping farmers to access irrigation technology, for example, through carefully targeted subsidies and access to credit. Using water pumps can provide benefits to both users and non-users, but uncontrolled groundwater extraction may also create new problems by putting enormous pressure on common property resources. The government will need to take on a dual role to both promote the inclusive growth of small-scale irrigation, and to prevent and mitigate its negative environmental impacts. This second role may include establishing a regulatory system, setting standards for well construction, and monitoring and enforcing standards on extraction and water quality. There is an urgent need for institutional measures and governance arrangements to guide and regulate groundwater irrigation, especially in the context of intensive cultivation using shallow aquifers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]