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This document presents the proceedings of the 28th Annual Research Forum held June 27, 2024, at Wake Forest University in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Included are the following eight action research papers: (1) College Athletics and the High School Athlete: Perspectives of High School Coaches (Michael Goehrig); (2) The Influence of Blogging on Self-Efficacy in Students' Writing (Jayna Palumbo); (3) Impacts of Environmental Justice Topics on Student Perception of their Identity in STEM (Samantha G. Reese); (4) Historical Thinking in Small Group Cooperative Learning (Sam Schectman); (5) The Effect of Adaptation on Student Engagement with Shakespeare (Savannah Smith); (6) Story Maps and Reading Comprehension in Second Grade Students (Emma Stein); (7) Poetic Composition's Influence on Student Attitudes Toward Poetry (Rachel Thomas); and (8) Student Engagement with Graphic Novels (Taylor Whitman). Individual papers contain references, tables, and figures.

For the twenty-eighth year, the Research and Theory Division of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) is sponsoring the publication of these Proceedings. Papers published in this volume were presented at the National AECT Convention in Orlando, Florida. The Proceedings of AECT's Convention are published in two volumes. Volume 2 contains over 100 papers dealing with instruction and training issues. (Individual papers contain references, figures, and tables.) [For Volume 1, see ED499958.]

This paper describes and gives the results of a psycholinguistic experiment investigating the impact of certain surface syntactic structures on the perception and memory of language. The basic assumption is that the content of an utterance must be its most salient aspect in memory. The for of an utterance, its surface grammar and phonology, must have some salience for memory, especially short-term, but nothing like that of content. Amy meaningful grammatical distinctions of markers should, therefore, be more salient in memory than meaningless ones. This experiment focuses exclusively on different varieties of one surface distinction: sentences whose underlying predicate surfaces as a verb versus those where the same predicate surfaces as some nominalization of that verb. The experiment consisted of administering to the subjects pairs of synonymous sentences, differing in the above manner and referred to as Critical Pairs (CP's), and five other types of sentences, included for comparing recognition performance on CP's to performance on other kinds of linguistic memory. The conclusion is that the surface syntactic differences manipulated here have little, if any, salience for memory, and that it is unlikely for such surface differences to have any semantic consequence. Such conclusions, however, do not necessarily generalize to other surface features. (Author/TL)

Current issues in educational communications and technology are addressed in this collection of 35 papers, in which research reports predominate. Topics discussed include factors related to the learner, e.g., field dependence/independence, reading ability, learning strategies, and cognitive style. Presentation format and media and stimulus characteristics are also addressed, including information cueing, color realism, aptitude sensitive instruction, advance organizers, visual testing, and imagery form. Several papers examine innovative educational media such as teleconferencing, videotapes, and microcomputers. Additional papers discuss the use of fear in persuasive messages, design of instructional visuals, visualization, patterns for mapping cognitive structure, task analysis, naturalistic inquiry as a research methodology, aptitude treatment interaction research, brain research, and nonverbal communication. References and data tables are included with many papers. Cumulative indexes of authors and descriptors covering the first five AECT conference proceedings volumes (1979-1983) are provided). (LMM)

The movement away from a stimulus-response to a constructive view of memory and reading comprehension has had an impact on both reading research and teaching. Viewing memory as not simply the recollection of sensory data, but as the complex interaction of the sensory experience with its immediate context and the perceiver's previous knowledge, contemporary research sees reading comprehension as dependent on the reader's ability to use his or her background knowledge as well as to recognize specific letters and words. According to this theory, reading disorders derive from either lack of appropriate schemata--that is, hypothetical knowledge structures generalized from memories--or undeveloped control strategies for using schemata. Recent research, therefore, concentrates on how successful readers use schemata to reach an understanding of new material, and how inferencing processes operate and can be improved in poor readers. (MM)

Today more than ever before, we have access to new technologies which provide unforeseen opportunities for educators to pursue new innovations in online education. Pursuing innovation is a complex process! It starts with an idea, but that needs to be coupled with the right team of experts willing to take big risks and put in the hard work to build something new. An instructional design team was empowered to reimagine an Introduction to Sociology university course as a Game-Based Learning (GBL) experience utilizing cutting edge Virtual Reality (VR) technology. The result was a innovate collaborative process that resulted in a brand-new type of learning based in Game theory, Method of Loci, and VR Immersion Simulations to promote deeper retention of core concepts. The team deconstructed the way that university courses operated, in order to rebuild the educational process in a whole new, learner-centric manner. In addition to a review of the build process, this paper will explore the results of in-course surveys completed by student participants. [For the full proceedings, see ED656038.]

These proceedings contain the papers of the International Conference on Mobile Learning 2013, which was organised by the International Association for Development of the Information Society, in Lisbon, Portugal, March 14-16, 2013. The Mobile Learning 2013 International Conference seeks to provide a forum for the presentation and discussion of mobile learning research which illustrate developments in the field. Papers in these proceedings include: (1) Common Mobile Learning Characteristics--An Analysis of Mobile Learning Models and Frameworks (Umera Imtinan, Vanessa Chang and Tomayess Issa); (2) Walking towards Instrumental Appropriation of Mobile Devices. A Comparison of Studies (Maria José Hernandez Serrano and Lingling Yang); (3) Twitter Micro-Blogging Based Mobile Learning Approach to Enhance the Agriculture Education Process (Uvasara Dissanayeke, K. P. Hewagamage, Robert Ramberg, and G. N. Wikramanayake); (4) Designing Mixed Reality Mobile Games for Crisis Management Training (Ines Di Loreto, Simone Mora, and Monica Divitini); (5) From Learning Object to Learning Cell: A Resource Organization Model for Ubiquitous Learning (Shengquan Yu, Xianmin Yang and Gang Cheng); (6) Lingobee--Crowd-Sourced Mobile Language Learning in the Cloud (Sobah Abbas Petersen, Emma Procter-Legg and Annamaria Cacchione); (7) Media Creation and Sharing in Informal, Situated, Authentic Mobile Learning for Local Cultural Diversity Investigation (Jacek Walinski); (8) Text Messaging for Out-of-Class Communication: Impact on Affective Learning (Paul Hayes, Stephan Weibelzahl and Tim Hall); (9) Prisma-Mar: An Architecture Model for Data Visualization in Augmented Reality Mobile Devices (Mauro Alexandre Folha Gomes Costa, Bianchi Serique Meiguins, Nikolas S. Carneiro and Aruanda Simões Gonçalves Meiguins); (10) What Do Context Aware Electronic Alerts from Virtual Learning Environments Tell Us About User Time & Location? (Laura Crane and Phillip Benachour); (11) Tablet Computers on Trial: A Transformative Force in Education? (Skúlína Hlíf Kjartansdóttir and Sólveig Jakobsdóttir); (12) Development and Use of an EFL Reading Practice Application for an Android Tablet Computer (Yasushige Ishikawa, Craig Smith, Mutsumi Kondo, Ichiro Akano, Kate Maher and Norihisa Wada); (13) Mobile Learning Application Interfaces: First Steps to a Cognitive Load Aware System (Robin Deegan); (14) "Mobile Phones and Other Disturbing Objects..." (Torbjörn Ott); (15) Role of Passive Capturing in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment (Hiroaki Ogata, Bin Hou, Mengmeng Li, Noriko Uosaki and Kousuke Mouri); (16) Android Based Mobile Environment for Moodle Users (Gisela T. de Clunie, Clifton Clunie, Aris Castillo and Norman Rangel); (17) A Mobile Platform for Administering Questionnaires and Synchronizing their Answers (Maria Germana Ginardi and Giordano Lanzola); (18) Future Educators' Explaining Voices (Janaina Minelli de Oliveira, Pablo Buenestado Caballero and Mar Camacho); (19) A Framework for the Creation of Mobile Educational Games for Dyslexic Children (Juan Haladjian, Daniel Richter, Paul Muntean, Damir Ismailovic and Bernd Brügge); (20) Mobile Learning 4All (Secundino Correia, Paula Medeiros, Mafalda Mendes and Margarida Silva); (21) Location-Aware Mobile Learning of Spatial Algorithms (Ville Karavirta); (22) Learning with Smartphones: Students' Lived Experience of Using Smartphones (Nee Nee Chan, Alan Walker-Gleaves and Richard Remedios); (23) Investigation of Using Analytics in Promoting Mobile Learning Support (Videhi Visali and Niraj Swami); (24) Tablet Use within Medicine (Rebecca J. Hogue); (25) Benefits and Financial Impacts of Adopting Technology in Learning (Katri Grenman, Minna Isomursu, Maija Federley and Anu Seisto); (26) m-Learning for Qur'an Memorization and Teaching its Sciences (Ahmed Sameh); (27) Learning Potentials of the Ubiquitous Internet: Using Mobile Devices to Support the Individual, Social and Physical Context of the Learner (Christian Dalsgaard, Nicholai Friis Pedersen and Janus Holst Aaen); (28) Smartphones in Clinical Nursing Practice: A Multi-Phased Approach to Implementation and Deployment (Brad Johnson, C. J. Davison and Lisa Moralejo); (29) Transmedia Storybuilding in Sloyd (Annika Wiklund-Engblom, Kasper Hiltunen, Juha Hartvik and Mia Porko-Hudd); (30) Mobile Learning in Secondary Education: Perceptions and Acceptance of Tablets of Teachers and Pupils (Hannelore Montrieux, Cédric Courtois, Frederik De Grove, Annelies Raes, Tammy Schellens and Lieven De Marez); (31) Ondigita: A Platform for the Management and Delivery of Digital Documents (Riccardo Mazza, Andrea Baldassari and Roberto Guidi); (32) From Radio, to Satellite, to mLearning: Interactive Distance Education in Australia (Stephen Crump); (33) Flipped Approach to Mobile Assisted Language Learning (Junko Yamamoto); (34) Mobile Pedagogy (Lee Schlenker); (35) Context and Concepts in Mobile Learning (Jimmy Jaldemark); (36) m-Learning Systems Design--Technology and Pedagogy Aspects (Elissaveta Gourova, Asya Asenova and Pavlin Dulev); (37) The Potential for Mobile Learning in English as a Foreign Language and Nursing Education (C. J. Davison); (38) Promoting STEM Education through Mobile Teaching and Learning (Murali Krishnamurthi and Stephanie Richter); (39) A Learning Community Explores the Potential of Mobile Apps in Higher Education (Joan Van Duzer and Kathy D. Munoz); (40) Mobile Learning Application Based on RSS Feed Technology (Mahmoud Mohanna and Laurence Capus); (41) Mobile Learning Using Mobile Phones (Paula Vicente); (42) Suitability of m-Learning to Enhance Learning English Language (J. F. Fazeena, Y. Ekanayaka and K. P. Hewagamage); (43) Integrated Authoring Tool for Mobile Augmented Reality-Based E-Learning Applications (Marcos Fermín Lobo, Víctor Manuel Álvarez García and María del Puerto Paule Ruiz); and (44) Enhancing Mobile Working Memory Training by Using Affective Feedback (Kristina Schaaff). [Individual papers contain references. An author index is included. Luís Rodrigues is an associate editor of these proceedings.]

Reading comprehension is key to knowledge acquisition and to reinforcing memory for previous information. While reading, a mental representation is constructed in the reader's mind. The mental model comprises the words in the text, the relations between the words, and inferences linking to concepts in prior knowledge. The automated model of comprehension (AMoC) simulates the construction of readers' mental representations of text by building syntactic and semantic relations between words, coupled with inferences of related concepts that rely on various automated semantic models. This paper introduces the second version of AMoC that builds upon the initial model with a revised processing pipeline in Python leveraging state-of-the-art NLP models, additional heuristics for improved representations, as well as a new radiant graph visualization of the comprehension model. [This paper was published in: "AIED 2021," edited by I. Roll et al., Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2021, pp. 119-123.]

Assistive technologies can in many ways facilitate the normal day-to-day lives of the disabled. As part of the ongoing research on assistive technologies at UTAS, Oman, that deals with augmenting and finding multimodal aspects of applications for the disabled, this paper aspires to investigate the role of deep learning in the field of image interpretation. Images are one of the most important mediums of conveying information among humans. Visually impaired persons especially with low cognitive abilities face insurmountable difficulties in understanding cues through images. This challenge is met by filtering words from image captions to facilitate understanding of the key notion conveyed by an image. This work utilizes the image captioning technique using deep learning frameworks such as convolution neural networks (CNN) and recurrent neural networks (RNN) to generate captions. These captions are fed to Rake, an NLP library that identifies keywords in the caption. The entire process is automated and uses transfer learning techniques for caption generation from images. This process is then further integrated with our main project, Finger Movement Multimodal Assistive System (FMAS) thereby incorporating text cues for interpreting images for the visually impaired. [For the full proceedings, see ED630948.]

This paper examines the possibilities and limitations of introducing simulated experiments in the psychology domain by practicing a course with graduate students in psychology, in which simulated experiments were conducted in place of real human experiments. The class-learning object was the dual-storage model of human memory. The simulation results showed anomalous results that differed from intuitive predictions. The results were also inconsistent with the results of prior human experiments. Analysis of reports submitted by 15 participants revealed that they focused on the anomalous results emerging in the simulation results and examined them based on the dual-storage model theory. On the basis of these results, future directions for this practice are discussed.

Reading comprehension is essential for both knowledge acquisition and memory reinforcement. Automated modeling of the comprehension process provides insights into the efficacy of specific texts as learning tools. This paper introduces an improved version of the Automated Model of Comprehension, version 3.0 (AMoC v3.0). AMoC v3.0 is based on two theoretical models of the comprehension process, namely the Construction-Integration and the Landscape models. In addition to the lessons learned from the previous versions, AMoC v3.0 uses Transformer-based contextualized embeddings to build and update the concept graph as a simulation of reading. Besides taking into account generative language models and presenting a visual walkthrough of how the model works, AMoC v3.0 surpasses the previous version in terms of the Spearman correlations between our activation scores and the values reported in the original Landscape Model for the presented use case. Moreover, features derived from AMoC significantly differentiate between high-low cohesion texts, thus arguing for the model's capabilities to simulate different reading conditions. [This paper was published in: "AIED 2023: Artificial Intelligence in Education," edited by N. Wang et al., Springer, Switzerland, 2023, pp. 229-241, 2023.]

This paper is about an instructor in a university teacher program aiming at improving the students' ability for noticing in order to guide subsequent decision-making and actions in teaching. Whereas added awareness may come naturally to some people, others need to develop a habit and a way to identify important aspects. University students tend to surf the net at high speeds for a quick overlook of contents. While this is a great ability, they often do not stop long enough to identify what needs to be retained. For teaching purposes, it is crucial to learn to anticipate, develop the appropriate noticing strategies and to act, as this is a professional requirement. After discussing contextual aspects, we describe the actual problematic and follow with the relevant theoretical underpinnings. Within these, we look at strategizing, developing awareness, and the capacity to act. The method used is qualitative and involves the analysis of the instructor's teaching journal notes. Findings point to the need for variety in activities, looking at pace and affinity in communities of practice as well as storage into memory leading to subsequent action. [For the complete Volume 19 proceedings, see ED613922.]

The influence of intelligence, self-concept, and causal attributions on metamemory and the metamemory-memory behavior relationship in grade-school children was studied. Following the assessment of intelligence, self-concept, and causal attributions, 105 children each from grades 3, 5, and 7 were given a metamemory interview and a sort-recall task. Metamemory, strategy, and recall scores increased with age. The correlation between general metamemory, strategy use, and memory performance with intelligence, self-concept, and causal attributions partialled out was significant, irrespective of age. Additional analyses using a causal modeling approach (LISREL) showed that intelligence and (to a lesser degree) self-concept and attributional style had an impact on metamemory in all age groups, but that metamemory did have a significant direct effect on memory behavior and/or memory performance. The study therefore provides support for the assumption that metamemory remains an important predictor of memory behavior and performance even after the influence of conceptually related constructs have been taken into account. (Author)

The expert-novice paradigm, which demonstrates the outstanding role of domain-specific knowledge in explaining differences in memory behavior and performance, was examined. Two studies are described which compared memory performance of groups equivalent with regard to domain-specific knowledge but differing in intellectual ability. The hypothesis was that comparing good and poor learners with equivalent domain-specific knowledge should provide the base for evaluating the importance of access--the spontaneous and strategic use of potentially available information in order to understand and learn. Both studies dealt with West German third-, fifth-, and seventh-grade soccer experts' and novices' memory and comprehension of a story dealing with a soccer game. Several measures of memory performance, memory monitoring, and text comprehension were used. As a main result of both studies, no significant differences between good learner and poor learner experts were detected, regardless of age. Furthermore, poor learner experts outperformed good learners novices in all memory and comprehension measures. All in all, the findings of the two studies supported the conclusion that the contents of the knowledge base and not access in the sense of strategic use of information determined the extent to which text information is memorized and understood. (Author/GDC)

Memory palaces are effective tools for learning vast amounts of information in a canonical order using mnemonics. However, our review of the literature revealed a lack of implementation and user study of memory palace in Virtual Reality (VR) for neuroscience education. VR technology enables us to build highly interactive virtual learning spaces that are engaging and interesting. As a result, we implemented a web-based version of VR (known as WebXR) to help students about brain regions for the first time including the name, function, and location of each brain part.

Games are highly appreciated by the population, so due to the COVID-19 pandemic confinement we decided to carry out an Internet research of several games, in order to use them for the assimilation of new words of Biochemical students. Games found in puzzle books allow the stimulation of memory, reasoning and other brain capacities, such as keeping us out of stress and improving our knowledge. For this reason, we thought that they could be interesting for relieving students of the stress of confinement, and at the same time allowing to learn Biochemical words with those games. Games found in puzzle books are based on two types of problems, based in numbers or in letters. Among the games based in numbers, the most frequent include sudokus, suzenjou, kakuros, arithmograms; while those based in letters include crosswords, self-defined, and games of words or letters. We decided to perform various puzzles based on letters, and the easiest to implement were those based on words and syllables games. The simplest word games are based on searching within a set of words, those that have some part in common. In this sense, we invented rhyming games, in which words ended in -ine (frequent ending of amino acids, nitrogenous bases, nucleosides and some proteins), in -ose (frequent ending in carbohydrates), or in -ic / -ate (frequent termination of fatty acids and other intermediate acids of metabolism, or of their corresponding salts). Thus, the students were able to observe these characteristics in the nomenclature. On the other hand, incomplete word games allow you to fill in the names of the metabolites using groups of letters to choose from. Our proposal includes various word games that we can apply to the Biochemistry course so that students remember them. [For the full proceedings, see ED626668.]

This book contains a compilation of papers presented at the International Psychological Applications Conference and Trends (InPACT) 2022, organized by the World Institute for Advanced Research and Science (W.I.A.R.S.), held in Funchal, Madeira Island, Portugal, from 23 to 25 of April 2022. Modern psychology offers a large range of scientific fields where it can be applied. The goal of understanding individuals and groups (mental functions and behavioral standpoints), from this academic and practical scientific discipline, aims ultimately to benefit society. The International Conference seeks to provide some answers and explore the several areas within the Psychology field, new developments in studies and proposals for future scientific projects. The goal is to offer a worldwide connection between psychologists, researchers and lecturers, from a wide range of academic fields, interested in exploring and giving their contribution in psychological issues. We take pride in having been able to connect and bring together academics, scholars, practitioners and others interested in a field that is fertile in new perspectives, ideas and knowledge. We counted on an extensive variety of contributors and presenters, which can supplement the view of the human essence and behavior, showing the impact of their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. This is, certainly, one of the reasons there are several nationalities and cultures represented, inspiring multi-disciplinary collaborative links, fomenting intellectual encounters and development. InPACT 2022 received 364 submissions, from more than 35 different countries all over the world, reviewed by a double-blind process. Submissions were prepared to take the form of Oral Presentations, Posters and Virtual Presentations. 121 submissions (overall, 33% acceptance rate) were accepted for presentation at the conference. The Conference addresses different categories inside Applied Psychology area and papers fit broadly into one of the named themes and sub-themes. This book contains the results of the different researches conducted by authors who focused on what they are passionate about: to study and develop research in areas related to Psychology and its applications. It includes an extensive variety of contributors and presenters that are hereby sharing with us their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. [This document contains the proceedings of the International Psychological Applications Conference and Trends (InPACT) 2022, held in Funchal, Madeira Island, Portugal, from April 23-25, 2022. The proceedings were published by inScience Press. For the 2021 proceedings, see ED622091.]

Knowledge tracing is a popular and successful approach to modeling student learning. In this paper we investigate whether the addition of neuroimaging observations to a knowledge tracing model enables accurate prediction of memory performance in held-out data. We propose a Hidden Markov Model of memory acquisition related to Bayesian Knowledge Tracing and show how continuous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signals can be incorporated as observations related to latent knowledge states. We then show, using data collected from a simple second-language learning experiment, that fMRI data acquired during a learning session can be used to improve predictions about student memory at test. The fitted models can also potentially give new insight into the neural mechanisms that contribute to learning and memory. [For the full proceedings, see ED593090.]

This book contains a compilation of papers presented at the International Psychological Applications Conference and Trends (InPACT) 2021, organized by the World Institute for Advanced Research and Science (W.I.A.R.S.), that this year has been converted into a fully Virtual Conference as a result of the ongoing Coronavirus (COVID 19) pandemic. Modern psychology offers a large range of scientific fields where it can be applied. The goal of understanding individuals and groups (mental functions and behavioral standpoints), from this academic and practical scientific discipline, aims ultimately to benefit society. The International Conference seeks to provide some answers and explore the several areas within the Psychology field, new developments in studies and proposals for future scientific projects. The goal is to offer a worldwide connection between psychologists, researchers and lecturers, from a wide range of academic fields, interested in exploring and giving their contribution in psychological issues. We take pride in having been able to connect and bring together academics, scholars, practitioners and others interested in a field that is fertile in new perspectives, ideas and knowledge. We counted on an extensive variety of contributors and presenters, which can supplement the view of the human essence and behavior, showing the impact of their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. This is, certainly, one of the reasons there are nationalities and cultures represented, inspiring multi-disciplinary collaborative links, fomenting intellectual encounter and development. InPACT 2021 received 358 submissions, from more than 40 different countries from all over the world, reviewed by a double-blind process. Submissions were prepared to take form of Oral Presentations, Posters and Workshops. 117 submissions (overall, 33% acceptance rate) were accepted for presentation in the conference. The Conference addresses different categories inside Applied Psychology area and papers fit broadly into one of the named themes and sub-themes. This book contains the results of the different researches conducted by authors who focused on what they are passionate about: to study and develop research in areas related to Psychology and its applications. It includes an extensive variety of contributors and presenters that are hereby sharing with us their different personal, academic and cultural experiences. [This document contains the proceedings of the virtual International Psychological Applications Conference and Trends (InPACT) 2021. The proceedings were published by inScience Press. For the 2020 proceedings, see ED604955.]

Cognitive Load Theory's Four Component Instructional Design (4C/ID) Model has been used in mathematics education but not confirmed as an instructional theory. Using the Factors Influencing College Success in Mathematics (FICSMath) project and confirmatory factor equation modeling, we empirically validated the model and created the 4C/IDMath Model. Instructional experiences of respondents completing the FICSMath survey were mapped to the theoretical components of the 4C/ID Model. The Mathematical Learning Task, Conceptual Understanding, Procedural Fluency, and Practice for Recall Components correspond to the Learning Task, Support, Procedure, and Part Task Components, respectively, from the original 4C/ID Model. The 4C/IDMath Model can be used to guide instruction in secondary precalculus and calculus courses to support transfer of learning to single variable college calculus. [For the complete proceedings, see ED629884.]

Learning from expository science texts is challenging. These studies explore whether difficulties can be attributed to poor memory or poor reasoning. To eliminate the need for memory during testing, some students took the tests with the texts available. To test for the effects of reasoning on performance, some students were prompted to engage in explanation activities during or after reading. The effects of these manipulations were tested on text-based and inference questions. Allowing the reader access to the texts during testing improved performance for text-based questions. In contrast, engaging in explanation activities during reading improved performance on inference questions. These results suggest that achieving a better understanding from expository texts depends on engaging in constructive reasoning processes, and not simply improving memory for the texts. [The paper was published in: "Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society," p. 1745-1750. Madison, WI: Cognitive Science Society.]

Efforts are being made to add Computational Thinking (CT) to the curriculum of primary schools in order to develop student abilities to use computational tools to solve problems and better prepare them for an increasingly digital society. Distributed Practice (DP) and Retrieval Practice (RP) are evidence-based practices that have shown to lead to efficient and durable learning. Studies investigating Distributed Retrieval Practice (DRP), a combination of the two evidence-based practices, have found positive effects of DRP on university student learning of anatomy and vocabulary items. As CT is considered to be a complex thinking skill, one that is acquired over time with practice, we investigated whether DRP had durable effects on primary student learning of CT concepts. We conducted a quasi-experimental study involving 20 primary school students between 11 and 12 years of age. The students participated in 6 weekly sessions on CT and completed two tests -- one at the end of the fifth session (immediate) and the other a week later (delayed). At the end of each of the first 4 sessions, students performed DRP by completing a class-wide review quiz consisting of 5 multiple-choice questions. The results of the study show that students attained higher scores on the delayed test (72.6% ± 19.2) in comparison to the immediate test (67.9% ± 20.7). However, the difference in scores was not significant. The results suggest that DRP may play a role in helping students overcome the natural decay of memory, however, studies with a larger sample size are required. Further, this study demonstrates that DRP can be applied in an authentic classroom environment that involves primary school student learning of a complex subject such as CT.

When too much visual stimuli is present, the phenomenon of clutter is known to degrade an individual's perception across a variety of domains, ranging from completing search tasks incorrectly, to decreasing reading speed when letters are too close together. However, research is lacking as to whether the negative effects of clutter impact learning when too many words are visible at any one given time. Furthermore, colour has been implicated in affecting clutter. Thus, the present study created a recognition experiment whereby 42 participants had to learn target words that were presented in black or red font and positioned amongst no clutter, clutter words (distractor words surrounded the target), and clutter non-words (sequence of random letters surrounded the target). Results found that words learned in isolation were identified faster and significantly more accurately than words learned in both forms of clutter. Although red target words did not eliminate the negative effects of clutter, red words did show a trend towards higher accuracy of recognition compared to black words. These results would appear to be explained by existing clutter theories that state the limits of attentional resources and short-term memory cannot process excess visual stimuli. These findings have real-world implications for establishing optimal reading formats to improve learning.