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The article discusses a study which determined the ideal number of untamed ponies that should be grouped together in a one-hour trip. Blood samples were used as indicators of behavior during the journey and were analyzed for levels of aggression and number of slips, falls, stumbles and collisions (SFSC). It concludes that the ideal stocking density of untamed horses in the journey should be four. It adds that unbroken ponies should not be transported in individual pens since they have a strong herding instinct.

In 2004, a survey of 12 metals was carried out in six rural and six urban allotment sites across the UK. A total of 215 samples of vegetables and 36 samples of soft fruit were analysed using ICP–MS, and 51 samples of soil using ICP–OES. On a fresh weight basis, Cu levels in produce ranged 0.119–2.271 mg kg−1. The highest levels measured (in mg kg−1) were Pb 0.164 in a sample of blackcurrants, Cd 0.039 in spinach, Hg 0.003 in curly kale and As 0.025 in raspberries. The lowest concentrations for these metals were below the level of detection (LOD) in numerous samples. The majority of Pt samples were below LOD and all were under the limit of quantification (LOQ). The results of the survey showed that the concentrations of the metals in vegetables, fruit and soils were consistent with previous studies and, generally, at low levels.

A survey of 12 metals including lead (Pb), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As) and platinum (Pt) was carried out using ICP-MS in 34 samples of wild fungi and 48 samples of wild blackberries collected from sites across the UK. On a fresh weight basis (mg/kg) levels of Pb were in the range 0.003-5.990, Cu 0.596-34.800, Cd < 0.001-19.6, Hg < 0.001-4.150, As 0.001-0.972 and Pt (µg/kg) 0.006-0.200, with higher concentrations found in fungi than in blackberries. The results of the survey showed that the concentrations of the metals were consistent with previous studies, where available. Concentrations in wild fungi of Pt, tin (Sn), and titanium (Ti) were significantly higher at urban sites than at rural sites. Urban blackberries had significantly higher levels of Pb, Ti, and Cd than rural ones, but lower levels of manganese (Mn). Pb, Ti and Sn concentrations were significantly higher in blackberries sampled near main roads rather than in rural areas.

The movements of cattle at 12 livestock auction markets were observed to determine the possible causes of trauma leading to carcase bruising. Design faults included right‐angled bends in races, dead ends, flooring with insufficient slope or grip, and steps. Sliding gates were often misused for goading cattle. Projecting fittings and square‐edged corners were potentially injurious; conversely, rounded posts and curved races assisted the flow of cattle with minimal impacts. At all the markets, some cattle were hit directly and poked with wooden sticks, and the variations in their use could partially explain the differences between the markets in the prevalence of carcase bruising. Most harder hits were directed at less valuable parts of the body, such as the spine, hips and shoulders, and a survey of bruising at the abattoir showed that these were the areas with most bruising. In this survey of 48,926 carcases, the overall level of commercially significant bruising of 4.1 per cent was lower than the 6.5 per cent found in a previous survey. Carcases of cattle from markets had a greater incidence and severity of bruising (P<0.001) than those arriving directly from farms or dealers. Carcase bruising in young bulls was less (P<0.001) than in heifers and steers.

Fourteen calves were used to investigate the changes from birth to 83 days of age in the concentrations of serum albumin, alkaline phosphatase, beta‐hydroxybutyrate, plasma cortisol, serum creatine kinase, creatinine, iron, plasma fibrinogen, serum gamma‐glutamyl transferase, plasma glucose, haptoglobin, serum non‐esterified fatty acids, total protein, transferrin, triglycerides, urea and gamma globulin; the haematological variables measured were: basophils, eosinophils, haematocrit, haemoglobin, lymphocytes, mean cell haemoglobin, mean cell haemoglobin concentration, mean cell volume, monocytes, band neutrophils, neutrophils, platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. The changes are presented as a series of graphs and the values are discussed in relation to the published reference ranges for adult cattle. Two populations of calves were identified which gave rise to a bimodal distribution for some of the variables. Differences in haematocrit, haemoglobin and red blood cell counts were apparent at birth, with raised values for these measurements being associated with an increased white blood cell and neutrophil count between three and 27 days of age.

Pigs from three farms were deprived of food for up to one hour, 12 hours or 18 hours before being sent for slaughter. In lairage, the animals' behaviour was monitored, and at slaughter a blood sample was collected and analysed for cortisol, lactate and creatine phosphokinase, potential indicators of stress and physical activity. The carcases were assessed for skin damage as an index of fighting, and rigor in the hind leg as an indicator of stress and/or fatigue. Measurements were also made of cold carcase weight, backfat thickness and liver glycogen concentration. General activity was very high on entry to the lairage pen. Drinking and mounting occurred almost immediately. Fighting developed after an exploratory period, and could last up to 60 minutes. There were large differences in the behaviour of pigs from the three farms. Pigs from farm A fought frequently but showed little mounting activity, whereas pigs from farm C were involved in mounting but little fighting. The period of food deprivation had no effect on average skin damage or rigor score, but the frequency of carcases with the highest scores was different. The pigs deprived of food for up to an hour had the lowest incidence of severe skin damage and high rigor scores. Boars had a higher incidence of severe skin damage but a lower incidence of carcases with a high rigor score than gilts. Liver glycogen was almost completely depleted in the pigs deprived of food for 12 and 18 hours and was lower in the pigs deprived for up to an hour than in animals fed immediately before slaughter. The period of food deprivation had no effect on the levels of cortisol, creatine phosphokinase or lactate in the blood.

This study examined the effects of transporting calves less than four weeks of age on a journey at the limit of the maximum time laid down by recent EU legislation. In both summer and winter, 45 calves were transported by road for 19 hours. The journey included a one‐hour break on the lorry in which the calves were given either a glucose/electrolyte solution, water, or nothing at all. Control groups of 15 calves remained on farm and were fed normally. The effects of the journey were greater during winter when liveweight loss was greater and more prolonged, and the calves suffered a depression in body temperature. Mid‐journey feeding was of minimal benefit. Feeding electrolytes reduced the extent of dehydration as measured by changes in plasma total protein and albumin concentrations, but there was some indication that giving water alone was detrimental. Most of the variables which changed during the journey had recovered in line with the values in the control animals within 24 hours of the end of the journey, but the calves' liveweight and plasma creatine kinase activity took up to seven days to stabilise. The study highlighted the problem that young calves have in maintaining body temperature during transport, especially during colder weather.

Ninety‐six pure‐bred Large White pigs weighing 80 to 100 kg were either not transported or transported for eight. 16 or 24 hours, and then either slaughtered immediately on arrival at the abattoir or kept in lairage for six hours before being slaughtered. The pigs travelling for eight. 16 or 24 hours lost 2.2, 2.0 and 4.3 per cent of liveweight, respectively, and the pigs travelling for 24 hours lost 2.6 per cent of hot carcase weight Both liveweight and hot carcase weight recovered during the lairage period although there was a net liveweight loss in comparison with the control animals. Only transport for 24 hours led to losses in carcase weight The concentration of non‐esterified fatty acids increased with the time spent travelling. The concentrations of cortisol, creatine phosphokinase and lactate were all low in comparison with the levels found in commercially slaughtered animals. Plasma albumin and protein concentrations indicated that the animals were becoming dehydrated during the longer joumeys. The animals lay down for most of the journey and appeared to be asleep. During the period in lairage, the animals transported for eight hours had two distinct periods of feeding and drinking but spent most of the time lying down, but those transported for 16 and 24 hours showed far more eating and drinking acdivi. All the groups appeared tired, but the urge to eat of the groups transported for 16 hours, and especially 24 hours appeared to be more important There were behavioural and the physiological differences between the transported groups and the controls. Six hours in lairage with access to food and water allowed most of the physiological parameters to return to pretransport levels.

The physiological and behavioural effects on cattle of transporting them for periods of 14, 21, 26 and 31 hours, including a stop for a rest and drink on the lorry after 14 hours, were studied in 120 transported animals and 48 control animals. The physiological measurements indicated that a journey lasting 31 hours was not excessively physically demanding, but many of the animals chose to lie down after approximately 24 hours. The animals that lay down had higher plasma cortisol levels than those that remained standing. Many animals chose not to drink during the rest stop. Physiological measurements made after the journeys indicated that 24 hours in lairage, with hay and water freely available, allowed the animals to recover substantially, although not completely, irrespective of the journey time.

Commercial broiler chickens killed in two processing plants, one in the south of England, the other in Scotland, in two seasons (winter and summer) and on two occasions in each season, were used to investigate the effects of killing the birds immediately on arrival or holding them in lairage for one, two, three or four hours. The two most important consequences of holding the birds in lairage were that their body temperature increased and their liver glycogen was depleted. The body temperature increased with the time they were held in lairage, although most of the increase occurred in the first hour and the increase was greater in summer when ambient temperatures were higher. Liver glycogen depletion became apparent after about one to two hours in lairage. No evidence was obtained that the birds were significantly dehydrated or physically stressed by being kept longer in lairage.

Eight groups of six red deer (four groups of males and four groups of females) were held overnight in an unfamiliar paddock, after which they were moved into a holding pen and slaughtered sequentially by stunning with a captive bolt pistol in a restraining pen. On entering the restraining pen, half the deer in each group were stunned immediately, but the other half were stunned after 10 minutes. Deer spent much of the initial period in the holding pen standing stationary in ‘alert’ postures, but became less alert over time. A significantly higher proportion of males than females were observed in alert ‘head‐up’ postures in the restraining pen. Deer held in the restraining pen for 10 minutes had significantly higher plasma cortisol concentrations than those which were stunned immediately. Females had a significantly higher glycogen concentration postmortem in both the liver and semimembranosus muscle than males, and deer held in the restraining pen for 10 minutes had a significantly lower liver glycogen concentration than deer which were slaughtered immediately. Males had significantly higher semimembranosus muscle pHu. values than females, although the differences were small, and of the 14 deer with pHu. values above 6.0, 11 were males.

Three lorry loads, each of approximately 530 lambs, were monitored during August 1994 while they were transported from the Midlands to France. Each lorry underwent a similar journey, designed to study the effects of a) 22 hours on a lorry broken by two hours of feed, water and rest after 15 hours, b) 34 hours on a lorry broken by eight hours of feed, water and rest after 24 hours and c) 24 hours on a lorry and lairage for the following 48 hours. Measurements were made on 180 lambs in each load, of liveweight, plasma betahydroxybutyrate (BHB), non‐esterified fatty acids (NEFA), urea, total protein, albumin, osmolality, creatine kinase (CK), cortisol and glucose, before, during and after transport. Twenty‐four hours of transport resulted in changes in some of the variables measured that were little different from those observed after 24 hours of feed and water deprivation; however, the high ambient temperatures during the transport resulted in a greater degree of dehydration. For journeys longer than 15 hours a two‐hour rest in lairage with access to water and a palatable food source was beneficial in allowing some slight recovery. Although all the differences were in the direction that would be expected with recovery, they were often small and, within the sensitivity of the study, were only significant for NEFA and CK. For journeys longer than 24 hours, an eighthour rest in lairage with access to water and a palatable food source was beneficial and allowed material realimentation and rehydration before further transport for up to 10 hours. After 24 hours of transport, however, liveweight, plasma urea, total protein and albumin had only returned to basal levels after 24 hours in lairage and plasma BHB, CK and osmolality after 48 hours of lairage.

Eight groups of five farmed red deer were transported by road for three hours, after which they were either slaughtered immediately (TO) or held in lairage for three, six or 18 hours (T3, T6 and T18). Liveweight loss increased with lairage time but hot carcase weight was unaffected. Deer spent much of the initial period in lairage standing stationary in ‘alert’ postures. After eight to 10 hours the proportions of time spent in various postures (standing stationary, moving and lying down) were similar to pre‐journey values. None of the blood components associated with dehydration (packed cell volume, osmolality, total protein and sodium) changed significantly with lairage time. Compared with TO deer, plasma creatine kinase activity was significantly decreased in T18 deer. Lairage time had no effect on skin damage, bruising or muscle glycogen content, although liver glycogen content increased with longer lairage time. Although lairage time had a statistically significant effect on muscle pHu(with T6 deer having the lowest values), the differences were small and none of the carcases had a pHugreater than 6.0.

In the United Kingdom pigs can spend up to 11 hours in transit to slaughter but on average travel for two to three hours. In the past, international journeys have lasted up to 40 hours and have been over 900 miles long. There is evidence that pigs, like calves and sheep, but unlike adult cattle, prefer to lie down if provided with suitable conditions, particularly bedding, on the vehicle. They will, however, sometimes stand during short journeys, possibly when excessive vibration or uncomfortable flooring, particularly a lack of sufficient bedding, cause discomfort. Current UK legislation and EU Directive 95/29/EC specify that, in general, pigs must have sufficient space to lie down during transit. Measurements of the space needed for sternal recumbency, and direct observations of pigs at different stocking densities, suggest that the minimum space required is equivalent to about 250 kg/m2for normal slaughter pigs of 90 to 100 kg liveweight. This figure may not be appropriate for very small or very large pigs. In the UK at present, more than half of all slaughter pigs are transported at densities greater than that prescribed (235 kg/m2) in the EU Directive. At stocking densities above about 250 kg/m2there may not be enough room available for all the pigs to lie down, leading to continual disturbance of recumbent animals by those seeking a place to rest. A stocking density of 322 kg/m2leads to clear evidence of physical stress. During long journeys (≥25 hours) meat quality is reduced by high stocking densities, implying muscle glycogen depletion and possibly fatigue. Higher stocking densities are also associated with higher mortality. There is evidence of wide variations in air temperature inside transporters, particularly for international journeys. Although there are small variations within vehicles, the temperature of the air inside is closely related to the outside temperature. It has been recommended that the temperature within the vehicle should not exceed 30°C in order to remain within the pig's thermoneutral zone. Such temperatures, together with acceptably low concentrations of potentially noxious gases, such as carbon dioxide, can be achieved in moving vehicles by adequate ventilation, provided there is adequate space above the animals' heads. In tripledecked lorries, the height between decks has tended to be reduced and can be as little as 90 cm. Further work is needed to decide whether this is sufficient for modern slaughter pigs.

The beta-adrenergic agonist Salbutamol was administered to pigs at 3 ppm in the feed between weaning and slaughter at 85 kg. Growth rate was not affected by Salbutamol. Treated pigs had a higher dressing percentage (2.6%) and produced carcasses that were less fat (17%) and had longissimus (LD) muscles of larger (11%) cross-sectional area. They also had smaller livers that contained less glycogen. The thinner backfat in treated animals was Jess firm and tended to separate from the underlying lean. However, these changes were attributable solely to the reduced fatness and there was no direct effect of Salbutamol. There were no differences in pH 45 min postmortem, percentage drip loss during storage or reflectance value of the LD between the two groups, indicating no greater propensity for Salbutamol-treated pigs to develop pale, soft, exudative muscle. However, treated pigs had higher final pH values in the muscles; this was reflected in slightly reduced hue and saturation values. These results suggest that the propensity of the pigs to develop dark, firm, dry meat was slightly increased. Salbutamol-treated pigs produced LD muscles that were slightly tougher (22%), had reduced concentration of heme pigments in the muscle, reduced plasma glucose and increased plasma creatine phosphokinase activity. Salbutamol improved lean meat yield but slightly increased the potential to produce dark, firm, dry meat and reduced tenderness.

Salbutamol (2.7 ppm) fed to pigs between weaning and slaughter increased ADG (5%), dressing percentage (2%) and cross-sectional area of the longissimus (LD) muscle (14%). In fatter, White-line-sired pigs, but not in leaner, Meat-line-sired animals, it reduced backfat thickness (25%). Liver weight and glycogen concentration also were decreased. In neither genotype were there effects of Salbutamol on pH45, drip loss or reflectance value of the LD, but ultimate pH was elevated in semimembranosus (SM), adductor (AD) and supraspinatus (SS) muscles, resulting in reduced color saturation values. Total muscle heme pigment concentrations were reduced by 10 (SS) to 19% (LD and SM) and the intramuscular fat concentration of the AD, but not the LD, was reduced by 21%. Treated pigs had LD and SM muscles that when measured instrumentally were 15 and 8% tougher, respectively, after cooking, but the texture of the SS was not significantly altered by treatment. Salbutamol increased plasma lactate and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) concentrations. Compared with White-line-sired animals, Meat-line-sired pigs had a higher dressing percentage (2%) and LD muscles with larger cross-sectional area (13%). They also had higher circulating CPK levels.

1. The number of broilers recorded as dead on arrival (DOA) in 1113 journeys to a poultry processing plant was related to the length of the journeys. The average journey time was 3.3 h and the maximum recorded was 9 h.2. Overall, 0.194% of 3.2 million birds were DOA. Mortality was higher for journeys which took longer. For journeys lasting less than 4 h the incidence of dead birds was 0.156%; for longer journeys the incidence was 0.283%.3. There was some evidence that it was time of journey, rather than distance travelled, that was more important in determining mortality.

1. Male broiler chickens were killed at various times up to 36 h after withdrawal of food; hepatic and muscle glycogen concentrations and pH were compared with those of control birds given continuous access to food and water.2. Liver glycogen was reduced to negligible concentrations (<1 mg/g) within 6 h of food deprivation and the initial pH was elevated.3. Withdrawal of food had no effect on glycogen concentrations in the m. pectoralis superficialis (PS) but reduced them in the m. biceps femoris (BF); the reduction was significant after 12 h. Ultimate pH was elevated by fasting in the BF, but not the PS.

Showering pigs with cold water during preslaughter lairage is thought to be useful in reducing the body temperature of hot, easily stressed animals. However, showering when the ambient temperature is too low could chill them too severely. To assess the effects of showering and to determine a temperature below which pigs should not be showered, pigs from one source, passing through a commercial slaughterhouse lairage, were split into two groups of approximately 50 each, showered and unshowered, on 10 days with a range of ambient temperatures. The pigs' behaviour and any damage to their skin were recorded, various measures of body temperature were taken before and after showering, and blood taken at slaughter was analysed for plasma creatine kinase, cortisol and lactate. Showering prevented the usual reduction in activity observed in pigs in lairage at high ambient temperatures. On the basis of the reduction in their flank temperature during showering, it is recommended that pigs should not be showered continuously if the temperature inside or outside the lairage falls below 5°C, and showering should cease if they are seen to be shivering.

Lambs were transported for 24 hours during summer and winter at a range of stocking densities. Shorn lambs of mean liveweight 39.5 kg were transported at densities of 0.448, 0.513, 0.602 and 0.769 m2/100 kg in July and fully‐fleeced lambs of 37.3 kg mean liveweight were transported at densities of 0.613, 0.680, 0.775 and 0.909 m2/100 kg in February. Fewer lambs lay down and rested at high stocking densities and there was a marked increase in the plasma levels of creatine kinase at the highest stocking density in winter. All other measured effects of stocking density were small when compared with the overall effects of transport. There was a decrease in body temperature during transport, especially in the lambs that were recently shorn, even though they were transported during warm summer conditions. At the highest stocking density there was a smaller decrease in body temperature.

Two trials, each involving 56 calves less than one month old, demonstrated that the responses of calves to food and water deprivation during 24 hours of transport were similar to those observed in older cattle and lambs. There was increasing utilisation of body reserves and a measurable increase in dehydration, coupled with an increased loss of liveweight. Feeding 1 litre of glucose/electrolyte solution at eight‐hour intervals did reduce the effects of food and water deprivation, but it is suggested that the minor benefits of mid‐transport feeding during a 24‐hour journey would not justify the disruption that would be caused by unloading and feeding. It would be better to complete the journey in as short a time as possible, providing the calves were carried under suitable conditions. Liveweight and the levels of plasma beta‐hydroxybutyrate, non‐esterified fatty acids, total protein and albumin had all returned to approximately pre‐transport values after 24 hours of recovery. However, the calves had not started to gain in liveweight until some time after 24 but before 72 hours of recovery. The calves did not show the same marked responses in heart rate, plasma cortisol and plasma glucose that are observed in older cattle and in other species. They also appeared to be unable to regulate their body temperature closely, when they were transported during the winter. It is suggested that their lack of response to transport was not because they were unaffected but because they were physiologically unadapted to coping with transport.

In two surveys of a total of over 16,000 cattle carcases, animals from live auctions had more bruising and more meat rejected for bruising than animals from dealers and farms. The proportion of carcases with stick‐markings was higher in market cattle (2.5 per cent) than in cattle from farms (0.9 per cent). The amount of bruising was much higher in animals which were stick‐marked (35 per cent) than in the whole population surveyed (6.5 per cent). Young bulls had the lowest percentage of bruising and the least amount of meat rejected of all the categories of animals surveyed. There was less ‘important’ bruising in animals travelling less than 50 miles from markets, but over 50 miles the amount of ‘important’ bruising did not increase. However, the incidence of all bruising increased with the distance travelled and with the time the animal spent in the lairage. More than half the carcases surveyed (59 per cent) had some degree of bruising caused by preslaughter handling. The areas most frequently bruised were the butt and hip, loin, shoulder/foreleg and neck, hind leg and flank/brisket. The number of carcases with an ultimate pH (pHu) of over 5.8 and the average pHu of the muscle increased with the amount of carcase bruising.