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From industrial exoskeletons to implantable medical devices, robots that interact closely with people are poised to improve every aspect of our lives. Yet designing these systems is very challenging; humans are incredibly complex and, in many cases, we respond to robotic devices in ways that cannot be modelled or predicted with sufficient accuracy. A new approach, human-in-the-loop optimization, can overcome these challenges by systematically and empirically identifying the device characteristics that result in the best objective performance for a specific user and application. This approach has enabled substantial improvements in human–robot performance in research settings and has the potential to speed development and enhance products. In this Perspective, we describe methods for applying human-in-the-loop optimization to new human–robot interaction problems, addressing each key decision in a variety of contexts. We also identify opportunities to develop new optimization techniques and answer underlying scientific questions. We anticipate that our readers will advance human-in-the-loop optimization and use it to design robotic devices that truly enhance the human experience.

AbstractThis study aims to explore how prototypes, sketches and CAD models supported designers during the designers during the early ideation, idea development in the engineering design process flow. Using a mixed-methods study, the designer’s roles and contributions were evaluated with respect to the achieved design quality. 81 Professional industrial designers were observed and interviewed after participating in five workshop sessions. After exploring different permutations of sketching, prototyping and CAD modelling, results indicate that starting with ‘Prototyping’ in the early ideation stage contributed significantly to more ideas of higher quality, broadening the ideation space. Using CAD modelling too early in the engineering design process constrains ideation and prematurely limits solution spaces.

This paper explores the practical adoption challenges of Industry 4.0 principles in Small Enterprises (SEs), particularly through the development of an automated stapler prototype for acoustic slat panel production. The study presents a case where the prototype, costing less than 400 euros, is shown to potentially increase the production rate by 42%, showcasing the feasibility of cost-effective, tailored solutions in digitizing manufacturing processes within SEs. It demonstrates that such incremental improvements can substantially boost productivity and efficiency, enabling SEs to better compete in increasingly demanding markets while also mitigating the high cost and physical strains associated with manual labor. The presented approach of prioritizing significant improvements over complete automation aligns well with the practical and financial constraints of SEs. Moreover, the paper challenges the notion that the adoption of Industry 4.0 necessitates substantial investment, by highlighting the importance of flexible, low-cost prototyping in overcoming financial and technical constraints, suggesting a shift towards accessible digital transformation in the manufacturing sector.

AbstractThis paper presents the development and user-testing of a novel concept for patient simulators, aiming to enhance spinal immobilization training. Iterative prototype interactions with critical stakeholders revealed a need for evidence-based guidelines and training for suspected neck injuries. A realistic and compliant neck prototype with sensor feedback was developed to address the need for objective performance metrics. The conceptual prototype was used in an experimental study (n = 12) to obtain subjective and objective feedback on its characteristics and use in medical training. In the experiment, users were asked to perform spinal immobilization techniques on a simulator while sensor data recorded head and neck movements. Furthermore, a Likert-scale questionnaire and subjective feedback were gathered. Results are used to discuss proposed performance metrics and whether they can be used as quality performance indicators for formative and summative training feedback. The results also suggest the neck prototype to realistically simulate an unconscious patient regarding the obtained range of motion and spinal compliance.

This paper describes a method of using fiducial markers to aid Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) as an additional positioning source during auto-docking. Vision-based techniques allow USVs to localize themselves relative to their surroundings without relying on external communication. This paper shows and evaluates a vision-based strategy to localize USVs to a pier. We used the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) with Real-Time kinematic (RTK) and Inertial Navigation System (INS) with a base station on the pier to validate the vision-based position estimates. The experiment shows that traditional computer vision techniques using fiducial markers can give accurate outdoor position estimates in good conditions. We also highlight some adverse conditions where the performance decreased considerably.

Over the last decades, the intense need for more robust and lightweight structures, together with the dramatic improvement of computational power, had, as a result, the introduction of simulations in the traditional product development. As a simulation, it is considered any computer process that imitates a real system by generating similar responses over time. Simulations allow the designers to create virtual prototypes that can speed up the design phase and, thus, the product development time in total. This design paradigm shift is called simulation-based design (SBD) and includes several simulations and optimization techniques. The most notable of these techniques are; computer-aided design (CAD), finite element analysis (FEA), topology optimization (TO), and parametric optimization (PO). A combined SBD methodology, including these techniques, is presented here. This methodology is a two-stage optimization process. During the first stage, traditional compliance TO using the SIMP approach was conducted, while at the second, a PO with an evolutionary algorithm was applied. The presented methodology is focused on the optimization of composite laminates. In particular, an angle-ply laminated beam made by carbon fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) was used as a case study and optimized both for its topology and fibers’ direction. The results of this research are presented and tested using a commercial example. The suggested methodology resulted in a lighter and more robust design solution. These design solutions can be constructed either by conventional manufacturing processes (CMP) or by additive manufacturing (AM). Designers looking for interesting and lightweight composited structures can exploit the results found in this paper. The implemented process can easily be modified in order to cover any possible optimization of FRP products.

In this paper we evaluate the applicability of using synthetic data, based on computer aided design models, to automatically detect objects in the real world. The aim is to enable scalable deep learning-based object detection to track and identify physical objects using a single low-cost camera. The approach is demonstrated and evaluated through a case-study involving a physical scale-model of an industrial plant connected to a virtual environment, aimed at facilitating multidisciplinary collaboration and immersive visualization. The digital models are simulated using domain randomization, and subsequently used to train object detection models. The results show the methods’ ability to generalize to real data, with accuracies up to 87%, demonstrating the scalability of the approach. Potential applications in industry are discussed based on these results.

In the early stages of product development and design, physical prototypes are designed and built from varying materials with the aim of providing valuable experience and decision support for the project team. In the era of digitalization, 3D printing has become a common tool that can produce even complex organic shapes. However, methods for developing the required digital models based on the physical prototypes are still often considered a high investment in resources, reserved for later, converging development activities. In this paper, we close the loop from physical to digital, and back to physical prototyping by introducing a proof-of-concept 3D scanning method using open-source photogrammetry algorithms. The feasibility of the approach is determined from two case studies: a designer chair, and customized race steering wheel. The successful results show potential for low-cost, simple, and accurate digitalization in the early stage of product development and design, with the main challenges being the inherent limitations of photogrammetry and the often-required manual editing of mesh.

This is an introduction to the special issue of California Management Review on Design Thinking (DT). This special issue joins the growing body of work exploring the idea of DT and whether DT makes a difference in terms enhancing or augmenting the impact of technology—and, as a result, innovation—in a positive way. We have chosen an interesting, relevant, and useful array of papers that provide different approaches, views, and interpretations of applied design thinking. These articles provide both management and scholarly readers with insights in how DT is used, as well as its impact and usefulness in a variety of contexts.

Mechanobiology aims to replicate in an experimental setting the mechanical stress living cells are experiencing in-vivo. One approach for achieving this is based on so called flow chambers, in which a forced flow of cell culture medium generates a controlled level of shear stress on the observed cells. Although simulations and analytical models allow approximations of the applied shear stress, sensory solutions that observe the internal flow of the chamber is needed to get the true value in experiments. This could be made possible by measuring the shear and strain deformation of soft wall-portions inside the chamber. To test this, we produced and integrated a provenly piezo resistive material made from chopped carbon fibers and silicone into an existing flow chamber. This served as a low cost and readily available way of prototyping embedded, deformation sensors, with high sensitivity, into a flow chamber. The performance of the internal sensor was tested by comparing its ability to characterize two flow scenarios applied with two differently constructed peristaltic pumps, to external pressure and flow sensors. The results lead us to conclude that the integrated piezo resistive sensor is able to characterize flows with similar features as that of the high-end external flow sensor. This enables further research into the application of integrated sensors in flow control loops.

Simulation-based training offers a safe and repeatable environment where users can increase their skill level. Development of products facilitating such training is, however, faced with high uncertainty and ambiguous requirements. This complexity is a result of the intended use-cases, required product functionality and required approximation of clinical realism. In order to explore such uncertain aspects of simulation-based training equipment, two interesting factors are considered; user needs and ecological validity. This paper presents a case project where a medical palpation task trainer has been developed. In this case, a medical diagnostics procedure has been enabled through specific product functionality. As the complexity associated with simulators makes it difficult to elicit and fixate requirements, this paper highlights the benefits of using prototypes during the early stages of development. By presenting prototypes and testing these with both experienced and novice users, developers could better understand complex use cases and product interactions. Through case examples it is shown how prototyping extensively in various domains and levels of abstraction could help elicit product requirements as well as enlighten unknown problems and corresponding opportunities. In order to create products facilitating effective training, training scenarios must be made sufficiently realistic, i.e. ensuring ecological validity. To accomplish this, a simulator concept must encompass realistic tasks and physical attributes. Further, the potential of the conceptual prototype is discussed where self-directed learning and learning algorithms are of interest. Future research will, therefore, be focused on improved medical training and consequently training devices.

In early stages of product development, prototyping is an invaluable tool which allows designers to generate learnings and uncover unknown challenges which can be used to further construct design requirements. While generous use of prototyping early in the design process might reduce the risk of premature design decisions, it also demands significant investments in terms of resources such as time, material, and skills. Tools that allow designers to rapidly implement and test new functionalities are therefore desired. With wirelessly communicating products having become ubiquitous in modern society, designers should be comfortable designing products utilizing these technologies. In this paper we present an Arduino library, named TrollBOT, that facilitates rapid implementation of wireless communication between two or more Arduinos. The Arduinos form nodes in a tree topology using inexpensive nRF24-based radio transceivers. The library is constructed in such a way that a minimal amount of new language syntax must be learned. All nodes can be programmed from a single master node in an intuitive manner, significantly reducing the amount of code that needs to be written as compared to similar existing solutions.

This work presents a modular research platform to design, test and run human-machine interaction (HMI) experiments. Traditionally, HMI experiments are time and resource consuming, particularly in the piloting phase. Furthermore, such experiment setups are often rigid and only fit to one particular hypothesis. Thus, significant time is needed to alter the setup to new hypotheses, if this is possible at all. The platform presented is a technical proof-of-concept of a highly flexible experiment setup, which can rapidly be adapted to alternative hypotheses. Examples of interchangeable modules include simulator software (context), user interface (independent variable) and human operator physiology sensors (dependent variable). An agile product development methodology, Wayfairing, was used to accomplish this.

In this paper we corroborate and advance insights about iteration characteristics in the fuzzy front end (FFE) of product development processes (PDPs). We captured the characteristics of 122 iterations embedded in design activities and found empirical evidence for several iteration stereotypes. We additionally identified the stereotypes of Ideation and Consolidation which were associated with divergence and convergence in design processes, leading to a proposed coding scheme for iterations on a working level. Moreover, we show that the approaches of describing iterations with either their elements or their appearance can be integrated and directly applied in the FFE of PDPs.

The entrepreneurial mindset of staff is considered a key strategic asset for firms. This case study examines how aspiring leaders were trained to be more innovative using predominantly design thinking methodology as a pedagogy. The case focuses on narratives as volunteered by participants about how they applied their training in their organisational roles. The article describes how the training was run, and provides insights into how others might lead similar training. The outcomes from the training are viewed through the lens of strategic entrepreneurship. The lens was applied to explain how the training generated a more entrepreneurial mindset amongst participants, improved their entrepreneurial leadership skills, and affected the organisational culture. The article also highlights the limitations of only training staff while leaving existing organisational structures in place.

Additive manufacturing can increase the flexibility in the design phase of product development and that, in its turn, has changed the designer’s way of thinking. The design problem has reformulated; from designs that were not possible to be constructed, due to lack of equipment and technology, to constructions that the designer could not think to design. Topology optimization and generative design are useful tools in the hands of designer that can help him/her in the pursuit of the global optimum of a construction and in the choice of an alternative design solution respectively. However, topology optimization results are always depended on the given boundary conditions and restrictions. In other words, the designer’s decisions can affect the results of topology optimization and can easily lead to a local and not a global solution. In this paper, an identification and categorization of the most important parameters, that can affect the topology optimization results, were conducted. The main focus of the implemented research was on the pre-processing of topology optimization and especially on the designer’s decisions. The applied topology optimization approach here was a simple compliance optimization based on the SIMP interpolation methodology (Solid Isotropic Material with Penalization) and it was executed with the use of the commercial software Tosca (Abaqus). Different alternative designs of a wall bracket were used as a case study to test the sensitivity of the optimization algorithm and quantify the potential loss.

Prototyping is one of the core activities of product development, and understanding prototyping should therefore be of great interest to both researchers and professionals. Yet, when considering the many definitions of prototype in engineering design literature, prototyping is not fully understood. Aimed at engineering design researchers, this article compares various efforts that attempt to understand prototyping by capturing design activity. This comparison is used as a basis for discussing various methods, tools and resources available to the engineering design researcher, as well as the contexts of the studies (i.e. laboratory, intermediate and in-situ studies).

Prototyping iterations have been linked to design performance in complex problems solving. Does prototyping also enhance design performance in engineering product development where the information needed to solve the problem is already available? In this paper we experimentally compare if early testing of prototypes leads to different development outcomes compared to an approach that entirely relies on planning in the earlier phases of the project. In the experiment we ask participants to program a mobile robot to autonomously perform a task with a quantifiable performance outcome. The task is open-ended and allows for several solutions to the problem. To enhance the statistical validity of the results we develop and use a digital simulation. Both in the manually recorded and in the simulated results we observe a tendency that the participants that are allowed and encouraged to test their prototypes frequently perform better than participants that are not allowed to test prototypes. The performance of the initially non-testing participants equalizes after they had time to test and improve their designs and may even become better than the performance of the testing participants. However, both these performance differences are not statistically significant and a study with a larger number of participants is required. From qualitative observations, we conclude that the testing behavior of the individual developer may have a stronger influence on the outcome than if or how often a developers test their designs and further studies are needed.

Testing and comparing prototypes is essential during the development of mobile autonomous robots. These robots often behave chaotically, i.e. their behavior is sensitive to small perturbations and their performance is unpredictable. An evaluation and comparison of solutions cannot be based on a few test runs. We present an approach that uses a digital simulation to acquire the data necessary for statistical comparison. The simulation can be sped up and automated and thus allows the developers to compare solutions more quickly than physical tests can.

Building prototypes is an essential element in conceptual design. We argue that using resources to build prototypes may induce adherence to the chosen concept and prevents further exploration into other concepts. This phenomenon has previously been attributed to sunk cost caused by building prototypes. In a controlled human subject experimental study in a robot development context we investigate the influence of building and testing prototypes by allowing one group of participants to test their prototypes frequently while the other group is not allowed to test and can only rely on the provided information about the hardware. We report about participants prematurely committing to concept choices and adhering to those after building and testing prototypes while non-testing participants make superior concept choices based on the provided information. While planning may be feasible in some projects with low uncertainty, problems that are more complex require prototyping for knowledge acquisition. We give suggestions on how to reduce the costs of prototyping and the associated effect it has on design fixation. These suggestions are very similar to the test driven development approach known from software development. They include the definition of critical functions and the respective tests before building the prototypes. When designing the prototypes the focus lies on making a conscious choice of how to prototype with the lowest fidelity necessary to comply with the previously defined test and attempting risky development stages early with the intention of maximizing the work not done.

Evaluating prototypes through prototype experiments is an essential part of most early stage, exploratory, product development processes. The rate at which prototypes are tested is often high and even incremental improvements in test outcomes, such as learnings and iteration speed, can be of great influence for the outcome of projects. Based on observations from a highly exploratory product development project and use existing classifications from literature to study how test environments can be prototyped in parallel with the main prototyping activities, and how fundamental trade-offs in test environment characteristics can be flexibly changed to fit each test in doing so. By getting a better understanding of how test environments can be used as tools, a higher momentum might be achieved in iterative prototyping.

This paper attempts to exemplify prototype-driven development in the early stages of product development, the stages before requirements and specifications are fixed. This pre-requirement phase provides opportunities and uncertainties for the design team to explore, and this paper shows how this could be (and has been) done through extensive use of explorative prototyping. Prototyping, in this context, is the activity building and experimenting with various concepts with the aim of producing tangible insights as fast as possible. In prototyping, prototypes are tangible artifacts built to answer specific questions, in order to explore and gain new insights as the project requirements emerge. The context for this article is product development of patient simulators used in medical training, referred to as ‘Mannequins’. Mannequins are widely used in medical training to enable practice of treatment for conditions too rare or dangerous to perform on real patients. From this context, specific examples on prototype-driven development are shown through two case projects; Development of a chest for the training of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and a fractured leg in order to train on realigning and stabilizing displaced fractures. These projects are user-centered design challenges within the medical education field. This paper shows how a prototype-driven development approach could be utilized on a project level and provides insights on prototyping to gain answers, learning and inform decisions. The paper argues that before requirements and specifications are fixed, a more exploratory and prototype-driven approach is needed, in order to provide more informed requirements and specifications. This way, prototypes are the drivers of the development and the iterations impact the direction of the ongoing development. Specific aspects of prototype-driven development such as user-interaction, prototype resolution, evaluation and testing are also discussed in this paper.

Infantile spasms constitute a severe form of epileptic encephalopathy. In the International Collaborative Infantile Spasms Study (ICISS), we showed that combining vigabatrin with hormonal therapy was more effective than hormonal therapy alone at stopping spasms between days 14 and 42 of treatment. In this planned follow-up, we aimed to assess whether combination therapy was associated with improved developmental and epilepsy outcomes at 18 months of age.

AbstractParticipating in a short-term ideation workshop – based on design thinking principles – may increase the innovation capability of companies. We show how the persona methodology can be successfully applied to promote user-centricity in such ideation workshops. For this research, we observed 20 design teams of Swiss Small and Medium-sized Enterprises during 2.5-day standardized ideation workshops, and analyzed how they developed and used – in total 81 – personas as a design tool to inform their product and service development activities. We found that an iterative approach, which allows for frequent reality checks during the persona development process, in combination with diversely staffed design teams, who bring a broad range of expertise and experiences together, may compensate for the limited amount of time available for user research during short-term ideation workshops. Moreover, our study revealed two varying persona usage patterns, namely personas used as a reference point versus personas used as a starting point. These findings highlight personas as a valuable design tool to promote user-centricity during short-term ideation workshops in the early development phase of new products, services and business models.

In coaching entrepreneurs we often encounter those who have an intention to start a business but seem to be stuck, and not progressing further in developing their idea. In searching for a framework to assist entrepreneurs to continue their momentum and overcome instances of internal resistance we turn to psychological literature for inspiration. The interest in psychological factors in explaining the phenomenon of entrepreneurship has grown in popularity. With it, a diverse field of theory has emerged. This article seeks to link some of these theories using a model called neurological levels. The model links the perception of the environment, entrepreneurial behaviors, capabilities, beliefs, identity, and purpose together to explain how these levels interact with one another. The model discusses how higher levels such as beliefs, identity, and purpose can overcome limiting factors with regards to the environment, entrepreneurial behaviors and capabilities. Each level of the model has an impact on the other levels, with changes at higher levels cascading down to lower levels, while changes at lower levels take a longer time to affect the higher levels. The model has implications for policy, entrepreneurs and teaching entrepreneurship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iterations are an inherent phenomenon in product development processes (PDPs), especially in its fuzzy front end (FFE), and a crucial concept in coached ideation workshops. Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) perceive such workshops as promising means for developing new products and enhancing their innovation capability. This raises the research questions of (1) “how to measure the performance of PDPs in its FFE?” and (2) “Which role do iterations play for the performance measurement of PDPs in its FFE?” Based on expert-interviews after each iteration in 14 workshops, we compare the approaches of (1) statement coding and (2) direct ratings according to a reflection guideline. By correlating the data with the workshop outcome, we identify the guideline as powerful means for quantifying the PDP performance in its FFE.

This article discusses the aspect of learning activities in product development by leveraging a strategy for capturing and transferring tacit knowledge through the extensive use of reflective prototyping. With the overall aim of finding new ways for organizations to learn faster, the theory from knowledge transfer is converted into a framework for using reflective and affirmative prototypes. Rooted in this framework, an automotive industry in-situ experimental setup for studying learning, continuous evaluation and knowledge generation in product development is proposed and discussed.

This paper introduces the wayfaring model for requirement generation. Rather than pre-fixing requirements, we propose exploring unknown unknowns, and suggest finding and adapting the emerging set-based requirements while exploring. Fundamentally, as primary navigation tool towards final requirements, we propose to find and use critical functionalities iteratively, within interlaced knowledge domains. The model argument is based on two cases: The developments of a conceptual desktop plastic injection molder incl. control system, and the iterative prototyping of molds for a lightweight carbon fiber composite bike saddle. In both projects, the critical functionalities dominate the direction of the next prototype and consequently proven design specifications emerge.

Rooted in the automotive industry, this article discusses the topic of leveraging tacit knowledge through prototyping. After first providing an overview on learning and knowledge, the Socialization, Externalization, Combination and Internalization (SECI) model is discussed in detail, with a clear distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge. Based on this model, we propose a framework for using said reflective and affirmative prototyping in an external vs. internal learning/knowledge capturing and transfer setting. Contextual examples from select automotive manufacturing R&D projects are given to demonstrate the importance and potential in applying more effective strategies for knowledge transformation in engineering design.

For supporting the selection of the setup of a new makerspace in Molde, Norway, a pre-study was conducted on the state-of-the-art of makerspaces in Norway and beyond. Data includes: observations and interviews at 13 makerspaces visits in Norway, Denmark and the US, interviews with 11 future users and 1 questionnaire (N=25) answered by members of 8 international makerspace communities.

An external ideation space seems to be a promising way to support SMEs in ideating new products and services. This paper addresses the question ‘how to operationalize important working principles in the fuzzy front end of product development for ideation workshops with SMEs, aiming at ideating new products and services?’ Based on the principles of user-centred design, iterative prototyping, as well as the SMEs’ need to take home the workshop outcome, we propose an ideation workshop concept, apply the concept in four workshops with different companies, and analyse it by triangulation of protocols, recordings, and interviews with the SMEs’ CEOs.