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This paper presents the results of our research into cooperation in Government Extended Enterprises, a type of system of systems. The effort proposed and evaluated a novel theory that these decisions are the result of the interaction of four canonical forces—Sympathy, Trust, Fear, and Greed. A computational simulation involving the Stag Hunt game examined information sharing decisions in a series of key decision points in three large case studies. For the five hypotheses tested, exploratory data analysis and nonparametric statistical testing show strong support for three of the hypotheses (cooperation is positively correlated with actors’ levels of Sympathy and Trust and negatively correlated with actors’ levels of Fear) and moderate support for the fourth (cooperation is negatively correlated with actors’ levels of Greed). Indications are that the fifth hypothesis (cooperation is correlated with history of behavior) is not needed to explain observed behavior. Multiple correspondence analysis showed significant interactions both among pairs of forces and when a force is paired with decision making strategies. These results can form the basis for: 1) analysis of additional case studies; 2) development of an agent-based simulation; and 3) creation of training programs for current and future organizational leaders.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the foundational premises of service-dominant (S-D) logic through systemic and paradoxical thinking. Systemic thinking seeks to understand phenomena holistically and elementarily, while paradoxical thinking is an ontological perspective that appreciates the plurality of phenomena and accepts the notion that underlying explanations require a “both” rather than an “and/or” commitment of understanding. S-D logic is evolving as a theoretical framework in explaining how actors conduct recursive exchanges of resources in the form of value-hosting service. As with any complex system, the holistic viewing of S-D logic reveals that the complexity of service systems is, at times, inherently paradoxical. This composition highlights how systemic and paradoxical thinking, instantiated through soft systems methodology, can advance the theoretical framework of S-D logic. The proclamation is made that the identification of paradoxes within S-D logic will aid its evolution toward a general theory of marketing.

This paper extends recent theoretical advances by merging service-dominant logic (S-D logic) and performance-based contracting (PBC). S-D logic is a conceptual frame of reference that defines supply chain knowledge and skill as its fundamental building blocks of strategic benefit. Cocreation of value between actors and beneficiaries is central to S-D logic and is measured through performance outcomes. PBC is a transformational departure from traditional supply chain strategies that focuses on delivering performance instead of goods and services. PBC has found increasing use in large-scale complex systems where the postproduction costs exceed the production cost, such as defense, transportation, and healthcare. These systems are commonly called sustainment-dominated systems (SDSs). We use systems theory and the Boardman Soft Systems Methodology to develop a systemigram that corresponds to the 11 foundational premises of S-D logic in the context of PBC. We also verify the use of the systemigram as an instrument to instantiate systems thinking and move S-D logic from an abstract framework to a more actionable framework. This paper provides managers and researchers a systematic insight into how investment into knowledge, skills, and the cocreation of value can drive improved SDS life-cycle affordability in the context of PBC.

AbstractThis study applies a systems thinking approach to sustainment-phase redesign planning for large-scale, complex, sustainment-dominated systems (SDSs) found in the airline, aerospace and defense, healthcare, and utilities industries. Maintaining the SDS’s effectiveness throughout its long life presents a significant engineering and business challenge. This research contributes to the literature by developing an academically rigorous redesign-planning framework (RPF) through the lens of management and systems theories and the use of the grounded theory, research methodology. With the RPF, engineering managers can now simultaneously consider key issues, improvement opportunities, and risks of SDSs to develop and execute strategic, sustainment redesign plans that improve SDS performance at a lower lifecycle cost.

At the 2006 IEEE International Conference on Systems of Systems Engineering, Boardman and Sauser presented a set of characteristics based on an integrative review of the literature. These characteristics are the foundation of the Boardman–Sauser system of systems (SoS) theory. We accept this theory as the basis of collaborative SoS and desire a means to validate this assertion. While numerous simulations have been published, the target SoS is usually a specific implementation. These specialized simulations produce results applicable primarily to the system under study but not necessarily SoS in general. Simulating the mathematical model of the Boardman–Sauser SoS theory in the form of an agent-based model produces results that can be compared with chemical reactions. This paper contends that the formation of molecules from atoms is an analog of systems forming any collaborative SoS, which we call our molecule organization model. The result is a supported logical argument that validates the Boardman–Sauser SoS theory as definitive of a generic SoS with behavior applicable to collaborative SoS. This paper seeks to provide a unique contribution to the SoS body of knowledge by increasing our understanding of collaboration in an SoS, so we may better understand their health, maintenance, replication, and evolution.

Research units in state government transportation agencies exist within traditionally hierarchical, or mechanistic, organizations. They manage and conduct research studies and ensure the successful transfer of knowledge through both inter- and intraorganizational relationships and through knowledge transfer activities. These activities may entail the transfer of knowledge at the local, state, federal or international level. Improving knowledge transfer ultimately improves organizational performance. Use of Burns and Stalkers' dualism—mechanistic versus organic management systems—to describe government organizations aids in the recognition of the current condition and in the identification of the characteristics of an environment that will be more conducive to efficient knowledge transfer. This information will help decision makers within these organizations to select the appropriate organizational structure, or processes, to enhance knowledge transfer. The increasing amount of information and growing organizational complexity require a systems thinking approach to identifying opportunities for improvement within these organizations. This paper describes how systems thinking can aid in exploring knowledge transfer within organic and mechanistic state government organizations and offers contributions to the body of knowledge concerning government entities and intentional knowledge transfer.

Research units in state government transportation agencies exist within traditionally hierarchical, or mechanistic, organizations. They manage and conduct research studies and ensure the successful transfer of knowledge through both inter- and intraorganizational relationships and through knowledge transfer activities. These activities may entail the transfer of knowledge at the local, state, federal or international level. Improving knowledge transfer ultimately improves organizational performance. Use of Burns and Stalkers' dualism—mechanistic versus organic management systems—to describe government organizations aids in the recognition of the current condition and in the identification of the characteristics of an environment that will be more conducive to efficient knowledge transfer. This information will help decision makers within these organizations to select the appropriate organizational structure, or processes, to enhance knowledge transfer. The increasing amount of information and growing organizational complexity require a systems thinking approach to identifying opportunities for improvement within these organizations. This paper describes how systems thinking can aid in exploring knowledge transfer within organic and mechanistic state government organizations and offers contributions to the body of knowledge concerning government entities and intentional knowledge transfer.

Research units in state government transportation agencies exist within traditionally hierarchical, or mechanistic, organizations. They manage and conduct research studies and ensure the successful transfer of knowledge through both inter- and intraorganizational relationships and through knowledge transfer activities. These activities may entail the transfer of knowledge at the local, state, federal or international level. Improving knowledge transfer ultimately improves organizational performance. Use of Burns and Stalkers’ dualism—mechanistic versus organic management systems—to describe government organizations aids in the recognition of the current condition and in the identification of the characteristics of an environment that will be more conducive to efficient knowledge transfer. This information will help decision makers within these organizations to select the appropriate organizational structure, or processes, to enhance knowledge transfer. The increasing amount of information and growing organizational complexity require a systems thinking approach to identifying opportunities for improvement within these organizations. This paper describes how systems thinking can aid in exploring knowledge transfer within organic and mechanistic state government organizations and offers contributions to the body of knowledge concerning government entities and intentional knowledge transfer.

Abstract:New product development is complex. Companies often underestimate this complexity and do not invest in efforts to fully understand their new product development system and the ramifications of running that system without control. New product development involves dedicated resources, from multiple disciplines, often for long periods of time. These resources are precious and decisions about how they are utilized should be informed. This work pursues a simulation model of a full new product development pipeline, incorporating the common organizational pathology of taking on too many projects, consistent with the literature and the researchers' experience. This project considers the fact that queues may not occur in all areas of new product development and that resources can be allocated at levels greater than 100%. The phenomenon of decreased efficiencies, when capacity of any discipline is exceeded, has been incorporated to show how the pipeline slows down and unplanned costs increase.

Prescriptive metrics have been widely accepted and used in engineering management to assess the progress and success of engineering efforts. However, these types of metrics have two major challenges: human subjectivity and confidence in data estimates. In this paper we use a system‐focused prescriptive metric entitled System Readiness Level (SRL) [a function of Technology and Integration Readiness Levels (TRL/IRL)], to propose a probabilistic approach to estimating the development maturity of a system of interest. In order to reduce the subjective impact, we propose a probabilistic method by assigning probability distributions to the estimated TRLs and IRLs to reflect the reality of evaluators' subjective estimates. Based on these probability distributions of TRLs and IRLs, a Monte‐Carlo simulation methodology is used to assess the maturity status of the whole system and its components. An illustrative example is examined to show the proposed methodology and to investigate its implication to engineering management. The paper concludes with a discussion of the added value of this new methodology, its limitation, and future work. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng 14

Systems engineers are responsible for systems ranging from the very simple to the extremely complex. The various types of systems create a need for differentiation of properties and identification using some common nomenclature. While other system taxonomies exist, we propose a unique classification mechanism which utilises a finite set of characteristics. Welldefined attributes provide a basis to develop unambiguous mathematical descriptions in future work. Application of the classification scheme will help employ the appropriate systems engineering methodology to systems in development.

The Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) is a ten-year-long Implementation Plan, which commenced in 2005 as a group effort by numerous participating countries and organizations to build a large-scale network to effectively monitor and respond to the increasingly complex web of global environmental and socio-economic issues. This paper proposes the Target Evaluation and Correlation Method (TECM) as an assessment approach to GEOSS with its 241 Targets across the nine “Societal Benefit Areas,” along with a method to identify Target Correlation Levels (TCL). Applying TECM allows concluding whether the chosen targets within the GEOSS fall into the domain of System of Systems (SoS), while using TCLs delineates the extent of inclusion for these targets in the form of a system. Furthermore, this research investigates the possible ways of raising the correlation levels of the targets for the cases in which TCLs are low.

A systems engineering approach is applied to redefine the maritime transportation system through a holistic perspective. The view presented in this paper allows the identification of constituents of the maritime transportation network along with external factors and constraints that affect the network's operation. The maritime network is considered at a system-of-systems level of abstraction, and a maritime transportation system of systems is defined. On the basis of characteristics of the system of systems and network management theory, a model for governing the maritime transportation system of systems is presented that addresses four key questions of effective governance: (a) What can be influenced? (b) Why is the influence needed? (c) How should the influence be exerted? (d) When is the purpose of influencing served? The model presented serves as a systems foundation for a new paradigm of maritime transportation governance.

The purpose of this paper is to describe a methodology that enables systems engineers or program managers to formulate a system‐wide optimal development plan in order to facilitate monitoring and evaluation of the development process in terms of the actual readiness of the system. It proposes the use of the System Readiness Level (SRL) scale to measure the maturity of a system composed of technological elements, which are being developed based on cost‐driven strategies (as opposed to time‐to‐market‐driven strategies). A constrained optimization model is used to identify which critical technology elements and integration links can be matured to which levels at a particular time such that the development costs are minimized while a targeted SRL value is attained on schedule. While the algorithm does not necessarily reduce the total cost of development, it is able to find the minimal amount of expenditures which will achieve the desired maturity level during the earlier part of the development process. Essentially, it shifts the rest of the expenditures towards the latter part of the development during which model‐based integration and testing procedures which have been suggested by others can be applied to reduce costs and time further. This can be a useful option to have when there is substantial uncertainty with the system due to its high novelty and technological content. As a value added approach, the model gives the systems engineer the information needed to understand what a delay may mean to development, so a more informed decision can be made. The paper concludes by discussing the possible use of the optimal development plan to monitor and control the progress of systems under development. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng

The strategic objective of a test and evaluation (T&E) organization is to detect defects, which must be fixed prior to system deployment in order to meet the operational needs and achieve customer satisfaction. Numerous process improvement models have been developed and applied to address the issue of preventing “critical” defects getting to the field. However, the escalating costs of system deployment (especially in government programs), due to critical defects found in the field, continues to be a major quality issue affecting customer satisfaction. The failure of programs to meet quality and performance objectives has been shown to be related to inadequate planning and an ineffective program management strategy. Thus, for a T&E organization, the program management strategy can greatly influence overall performance goals. While current literature on T&E quality improvement focuses primarily on T&E technical tools, equipment, and processes, little to no attention has been paid to integrating program management into the T&E organization's strategy. We intend to demonstrate in this paper that taking a holistic view of both T&E and program management (PM) activities using the tools of systems thinking can provide new insights to understand and create a more effective T&E execution strategy. Using Boardman's Soft Systems Methodology and Systemigrams (systemic diagrams), we evaluate the unification of a Federal Aviation Administration's T&E program management into its T&E strategy. The resultant Systemigram model represents the alignment of T&E with program management. We conclude with recommendations on how other organizations may modify their T&E execution strategy to achieve better customer satisfaction. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng

This paper demonstrates a method that can be used to analyze the degree to which an organization's systems engineering capabilities meet government‐industry defined systems engineering needs. To demonstrate this process, using universities as the case study, we summarize secondary research completed for nine institutions from various countries that offer systems engineering graduate level programs in the space domain. Next, we select a Masters degree program from three universities, one from each country, and map their space‐based systems engineering courses to the 37 systems engineering capabilities within the 10 systems engineering competencies. These capabilities represent the knowledge, skills, and behaviors that systems engineers are expected to possess and perform as a part of their job. We then review a process for a more detailed mapping of the curriculum to one of four levels of proficiency within each capability, using the Stevens Institute of Technology as the example. The result is a systems engineering competency‐based approach that can be used by universities or companies to compare the “as is” state of their systems engineering capabilities development against a government‐industry defined set of needs to identify and address gaps or opportunities in the curriculum, training, or experience of their students and/or employees. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng

A systems engineering approach is applied to redefine the maritime transportation system through a holistic perspective. The view presented in this paper allows the identification of constituents of the maritime transportation network along with external factors and constraints that affect the network's operation. The maritime network is considered at a system-of-systems level of abstraction, and a maritime transportation system of systems is defined. On the basis of characteristics of the system of systems and network management theory, a model for governing the maritime transportation system of systems is presented that addresses four key questions of effective governance: (a) What can be influenced? (b) Why is the influence needed? (c) How should the influence be exerted? (d) When is the purpose of influencing served? The model presented serves as a systems foundation for a new paradigm of maritime transportation governance.

This research develops an engineering approach that brings meaning to the context of Maritime Transportation System of Systems (MTSoS) and increases understanding of how to govern it more effectively. We suppose that: System of Systems (SoS) can be identified by its distinguishing characteristics; Maritime Transportation Systems (MTS) can be considered as a SoS in which constituencies seek their own goals; and its integrated objective is to transfer goods safely and efficiently. Based on these premises, we present our management framework. The proposed framework enables us to engineer and manage MTS more effectively from a System of Systems Engineering (SoSE) perspective.

The requirements of various stakeholders associated with System of Systems (SoS) are constantly changing. Consequently, the shareholders priorities of return and risk continuously shift. However, their expectations of gaining value from the SoS are enhancing. One way of enhancing value from the SoS is by having the right amount of flexibility associated with it. Flexibility can be defined as the ability of a system to be able to adapt and cope with the changing environment. SoS flexibility means creating options at various levels, developing ways and means of change across the range of options. One possible way of creating enterprise flexibility is by outsourcing certain functions which would help affect the flexibility of an organization. The outsourcing done might also have an effect on each of the building blocks of SoS Flexibility. In this paper, we will look at how outsourcing could affect each of the building blocks of SoS flexibility as well as show whether it is beneficial or not for an organization to outsource depending on how it affects their flexibility. We also come up with a matrix to show the effects of insufficient as well as excessive outsourcing on the overall functioning of the SoS.

Today’s fast-paced and competitive business environment requires a shift from a disintegrated and closed enterprise structure to a more dynamic and flexible enterprise structure. Enterprise flexibility is the ability of an enterprise to adapt to changing business and stakeholder requirements more efficiently, easily and rapidly. This paper proposes a model to create enterprise flexibility using service oriented architecture approach. This model is based on two key enablers of enterprise flexibility. First enabler is the capability of an enterprise to connect people, processes, and information in a way that allows enterprise to become more flexible and responsive to the dynamics of its environment, stakeholders, and competitors. This requires integration within the enterprise and across the partners, suppliers, and customers of the enterprise. Second enabler is alignment of information technology and business goals. This requires simplification of the underlying technology infrastructure and creation of a consolidated view of, and access to, all available resources in the enterprise. This can be achieved with well-defined enterprise architecture. Based on these two key enablers, we outline our theoretical model explaining the relationship between the attributes of Service Oriented Architecture and enterprise flexibility as a function of agility, efficiency, and adaptability. This paper further discusses the possible expansion of this theoretical model to develop an enterprise architecture framework based on service oriented architecture at the enterprise level.

Supply chain management (SCM) adoption in a project-based environment brings substantial benefits but requires careful planning and execution. The current research examines a number of publications that are relevant to both SCM and project management in project management journals. First, we identify the key antecedents of successful SCM implementation in a project-based environment. Then we category these factors into four main areas, namely, IT integration, organizational coordination, risk management, and supply chain resilience and complexity. Third, we explore inter-relationships among these factors through a comprehensive literature review. A broad and enhanced understanding of the conceptual integration of SCM with project management is provided by exploring application areas outside the more common integration domain of the construction industry. This research presents and interprets this integration using a systemigram that visually illustrates a SCM strategy adoption pathway and depicts the complex procedures in an understandable manner.

Abstract:Knowledge for managing projects, for the development of systems, has not kept pace with the increasing complexity and integration of the projects themselves. This increased complexity has permitted some to reason distinctions between systems projects and propose a form of system called a “system of system” (SoS). Faced with this situation, we argue that a single point solution cannot be the answer to how to manage these systems. We suggest the remedy is a form of project management predicated on four principles that underline SoS thinking: problem demystification, legacy assessment, state-space solutioning, and integration framework. Using these principles as a foundation, we provide a set of characteristics (i.e. autonomy, belonging, connectivity, diversity, and emergence) that can be applied as fundamental building blocks to actualize the management of an SoS, or any system. More importantly, we present an architecture predicated on the paradoxes that exist in realizing and formalizing these characteristics.

In order to remain competitive, organizations have to make themselves accessible to a diversity of alternatives, which could be a direct influence on their flexibility; however, flexibility introduces a new context by which these organizations manage the systems they realize. In this paper, we present a theoretical perspective on the management of flexibility of a type of system called a System of Systems (SoS). We first define flexibility as it has been described with respect to the management of a system, how this may relate to SoS and establish that there is a deficiency for understanding how the SoS should be managed near the optimization region of flexibility. We then propose a theoretical model for managing flexibility in a SoS that begins to address this optimization region of flexibility. We demonstrate our model with an empirical case study of the New York City Yellow Cab SoS and conclude with potential implications this research has on flexible systems management.

Abstract:In today's dynamic competitive business environment, project reviews are fundamental for most organizations ability to complete their projects successfully; however, it is important to know how to execute project reviews effectively. One important quality of an effective project review is the independence of its reviewers—the central focus of this article. Through four case studies chosen from different scenarios, we have shown that, despite independence being an important quality of project reviews, most organizations choose reviewers who are within their own social network. This issue can partially be resolved by the use of knowledge network theory and analysis (KNA), which will help us characterize relationships which can significantly influence the effective execution of project reviews.

In the United States (USA) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the USA Department of Defense (DoD) the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale is a measure of maturity of an individual technology, with a view towards operational use in a system context. A comprehensive set of concerns becomes relevant when this metric is abstracted from an individual technology to a system context. This paper proposes the development of a system-focused approach for managing system development and making effective and efficient decisions during a systems engineering life cycle. This paper presents a System Readiness Level (SRL) index that incorporates both the current TRL scale and an Integration Readiness Level (IRL) and provides a method for determining readiness of a system in the systems engineering life cycle. This paper concludes with a general discuss of the implication of the proposed SRL and how this may be applied to four case examples.

The U.K. Ministry of Defense (MoD) has mandated the development of a network enabled capability (NEC) across all of defense, aimed at producing agile military and nonmilitary effects via a network of networks. This paper provides an overview of NEC, representing it as a complex human activity system of systems (SoS), analysis of which cannot rely on purely traditional reductionist engineering approaches, requiring instead a soft‐systems engineering approach. A literature review is then provided, covering nontraditional systems methodologies of the past 25 years, highlighting the more recent trend towards multimethodological practice. The paper introduces the systemic diagram, or systemigram, conceptual model, explaining its evolution from a form of visual language to its use as an appreciative learning system in a soft‐systems methodology. Using the written prose of MoD policy makers, a systemigram model is constructed which represents the NEC concept, providing a systemic visualization of its complexity and an elucidation of the key SoS attributes of emergence, hierarchy, and boundary. Finally, the NEC systemigram is used in an example storyboarding technique, demonstrating its utility as a platform for stakeholder dialog leading towards a refined model that reflects a deeper understanding of NEC strategy. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng 10:309–322, 2007

Abstract:In some costly failures of projects within the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), NASA has been criticized for their improper use or lack of independent reviews in projects. To begin to understand some prospective success characteristics of project reviews within NASA and potentially across engineering management, a qualitative case study methodology was used with four NASA projects to identify key attributes of independent project reviews. These attributes were identified in relation to categories of reviewer, reviewee, and the review type. Within each of these categories, attributes were identified and characterized as size, competence, independence, authority, culture, and formality.

From its inception, NASA has pushed the boundaries of science and engineering and prided itself on knowing how to manage these engineering innovations. However, pushing the management boundaries requires a careful adaptation of risks, resources, and procedures, and projects must clearly assess the complexities and uncertainties of the task. Too often attempts to resolve errors in these areas are through technical solutions when the root cause is managerial failure. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the value of using a systems engineering management framework based on a contingency approach for associating a correct management style to a project classification, thus reducing the ultimate failure point (i.e. managerial error). Shenhar and Dvir's Novelty‐Complexity‐Technology‐Pace (NCTP) framework was used as a representative framework to provide an empirical analysis of four noted NASA projects. The NCTP framework uses a contingency approach to provide a multidimensional categorization of projects based on their novelty, complexity, technology, and pace with a correlation to an appropriate management style. The paper will conclude with a discussion of how a contingency framework can have implications on NASA and systems engineering. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng 9: 213–227, 2006

No abstract received.

No abstract received.

Abstract:One of the most common myths in the discipline of project management is the assumption that all projects are the same and can be managed with the same set of processes and techniques. In reality, however, projects differ and “one size does not fit all.” Based on our previous research, we have learned that adapting the right approach to the right project is critical to project success; yet, very few organizations know how to distinguish among their project efforts. Furthermore, we have also learned that there is no universal framework that works effectively for all organizations. NASA's procedures suggest several distinctions among projects based on product lines and priority levels. These distinctions form a base for different approval processes. The next step will be to help managers actually manage different projects in different ways. The purpose of this research was to study several NASA programs and start identifying a framework that would work for project managers and teams in the NASA environment. We used four current projects as case studies to test the validity of potential frameworks, and have suggested an initial NASA-specific framework that could eventually lead to guidelines for tailoring project and program management to project type.