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Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death worldwide with curative intent surgery the most effective treatment. However, there is a risk of developing postoperative pulmonary complications (PPC) including pneumonia and clinically significant lung atelectasis. This thesis investigated the role of cigarette smoking in PPC development, including the impact of smoking cessation and the role of key immune cells in the lung, alveolar macrophage (AMs), with the aim to develop strategies to prevent PPCs in those who smoke before major lung surgery. In a retrospective study of prospectively gathered data from a cohort of patients undergoing major lung surgery between April 2010 and April 2014, the risk factors and short and long-term outcomes of PPC development were investigated. In those patients with lung cancer diagnosis undergoing major lung surgery, the effect of self-reported smoking status on PPC development and short and long-term outcome after surgery were also investigated. In a translational cohort of patients undergoing lung resection for cancer recruited between August 2018 and August 2021, non-cancerous lung tissue was obtained to isolate AMs and smoking status determined using self-reported status and exhaled carbon monoxide (CO) measurements. AM phenotype was determined and function including efferocytosis, which is a process by which apoptotic neutrophils are removed. A protocol was also developed for a feasibility study of smoking cessation in the lung surgical pathway. Development of a PPC after lung surgery was found to be associated with worse short-term and long-term outcomes after major thoracic surgery. Cigarette smoking was the biggest risk factor for PPC development, with current smokers having the highest risk of developing a PPC. Self-reported status alone, using a 6-week cut off to determine recent and long-term ex-smokers, the optimum timing for smoking cessation before lung surgery could not be defined. In the translational cohort of patients, the use of exhaled CO found that 1 in 5 patients continued to smoke immediately before surgery. AMs from smokers had increased expression of cell surface markers involved in inhibition of efferocytosis (SIRPα and CD33), and reduced expression of cell surface markers involved in promoting efferocytosis (CD206 and CD163) compared to long-term ex-smokers and never smokers. AMs from patients who were smoking had higher levels of SIRPα, with lower levels found in those who stopped after 4 weeks. Furthermore, AM SIRPα levels were higher and efferocytosis function reduced in those patients who developed PPC. Smoking is the biggest risk factor for PPC development after major lung surgery, the feasibility of an integrated smoking cessation programme including the web-based application Quit4Surgery needs to be assessed. Modifying SIRPα has a potential role in restoring AM function in those who continue smoking before surgery: the mechanisms of cigarette smoking on SIRPα expression are an area for future research.

One of the main goals of homotopy theory is to determine the homotopy types of topological spaces. Furthermore, given a space, one may hope there is a way to decompose this space into simpler spaces whose homotopy theory is well understood. In particular, it can be useful to study product decompositions of the based loop space of the object we wish to consider -- doing so provides useful data about the object's homotopy groups, amongst other things. Furthermore, by considering manifolds through the lens of homotopy theory, it is natural to broaden one's scope to Poincaré Duality complexes: such complexes are a topological generalisation of manifolds and have an underlying structure that is readily exploitable. Thus, by studying the loop spaces of Poincaré Duality complexes, we may answer questions about the homotopy theory of manifolds. In particular, given two manifolds of the same dimension, a natural object to consider is their connected sum. This situation is often flipped: one asks the question of whether a given manifold is decomposable as a connected sum of simpler manifolds. In areas such as surgery theory and differential topology this problem is of fundamental importance, despite the fact that in dimensions higher than two the problem is often inaccessible. This thesis studies this highly geometric problem from a new topological viewpoint, using elements of classical homotopy theory together with recent results. In expanding upon these methods, we find that the loop space decompositions of several classes of highly connected manifolds coincide with those of the loop spaces of certain connected sums, and thus we have a homotopy theoretic perspective on the above question. Indeed, we apply these results to comment on the Vigué-Poirrier Conjecture, a particular long standing question from rational homotopy theory. We also prove a higher dimensional homotopy theoretic analogue to a theorem of C.T.C. Wall -- a fundamental calculation from differential topology that shows one may decompose a simply connected 6-manifold as a connected sum of two simpler manifolds -- for (n-2)-connected 2n-dimensional Poincaré Duality complexes. Key to these discussions is a consideration of inert maps, a concept brought across from rational homotopy theory. By combining other results from this area, we provide an answer to another problem: under what circumstances does the total space of a pullback fibration over a connected sum have the rational homotopy type of a connected sum? We conclude with a reformatted version of a recent paper of the author, which gives a condition on rational cohomology to yield an affirmative answer, but only after taking based loop spaces. This takes inspiration from recent work of Jeffrey and Selick, in which they study pullback bundles of this type, but under stronger hypotheses compared to our result.

Managers in charge of sales process designs are constantly in the need to optimise their communication strategy to improve advisory quality and take-up rates. This is especially true for mortgage protection insurance (MPI), where buying insurance means buying an immaterial product that creates a perception of security which protects one of the most important assets in life - one's home. It is key for a successful advisory to find communication approaches that overcome the psychological barriers of customers. One possible approach is the use of fear appeals, which confront the customer with negative consequences. Despite their widespread use in the public field, and continuous academic interest since the 1950s, the effectiveness of fear appeals remains equivocal. A detailed chronological examination of fear appeal research is presented suggesting that the field of insurance distribution was neglected from research. The effect of specific individual differences (optimism, pessimism, risk-taking) on cognitions, emotions, and behaviour outcomes are identified as gaps in the literature. The primary aim of this thesis was to determine the effectiveness of fear appeals in the context of MPI on behaviour outcomes and on willingness-to-pay to enhance the advisory quality of mortgage salespersons. To achieve this a research framework was developed that utilises the constructs of the Extended Parallel Process Model, conceptualises a fear appeal into three message characteristics (vivid image, message frame, message direction) and integrates individual differences. Using data from a randomised experiment (N = 1,014), the research framework was tested using ANOVAs, t-tests, regression analysis, and PROCESS calculations. The results delivered valuable insights. Firstly, vivid images created fear and uncomfortable feelings but did not influence cognitions or behaviour outcomes. Secondly, cognitive appraisal values indicated that the product information was well suited for business needs. Moreover, perceived susceptibility to a threat, as did optimism and risk-taking, showed a significant positive effect on willingness-to-pay. Lastly, a significantly positive effect was achieved on attitude towards MPI with the integration of the treatment. This project has demonstrated important factors for improving the sales process of MPI salespersons.

This research investigated teacher perceptions of the concept of teacher autonomy (TA) in Singapore's private institutions of higher learning (PIHL). The thesis explores how teachers in Singapore's PIHL view TA by studying their understanding of autonomy, factors that enhance or hinder their autonomy, degree of autonomy they experience in their institutions, and their expectations of TA. The research also explores the differences between the ways in which teachers in two levels - non-managerial and managerial - view teacher autonomy. While the research is focused on studies conducted in Southeast Asian countries, it has also incorporated countries that are like Singapore in terms of geography, culture, or education. This research collected qualitative data through face-to-face interviews and quantitative data through survey questionnaires. The participants were teachers and teacher-mangers who were selected through convenience sampling. Quantitative data was collected using questionnaire survey and 157 participants participated in the survey. They were teachers or teacher-managers from 12 institutions that volunteered to be a part of this study. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews provided qualitative data from 12 participants of the same demographic background as the survey participants. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected at the same time, and both data was analysed separately, and the results were compared. The quantitative data analysis suggested that participants were generally in favour of having teacher autonomy (TA) at work while showing a lower level of agreement when it came to their own current experience of having teacher autonomy. Participants' responses towards perceived TA differed depending on the type of work-related processes. The results from the analysis of the differences in participants' current experiences and opinions found higher levels of perceived TA in their opinions rather than in their experiences, indicating a possibility that participants did not actually experience the degree of autonomy which they believed they had at work. The qualitative data analysis indicated that while both groups agreed on the need for some level of autonomy for teachers in the classroom, they differed in their opinion about teachers having complete autonomy in making decisions about their classroom teaching and teachers' involvement in administrative decision-making matters. While management participants were mostly informed about the government policies related to private higher education in Singapore, teacher participants were generally unaware of the existence of such policies suggesting a possible lack of communication among different levels in the hierarchy. The research also implied that teachers and teacher-managers perceive teacher autonomy differently while teachers' expectations were not met due to institutional restrictions. The degree of autonomy that teachers got to exercise was dependent on the outcomes of teaching that were pre-determined by the market forces. The data analysis has also led to the design of a teacher autonomy framework that linked teacher autonomy with four areas that it depended on: teaching, assessment, planning and decision-making, and professional development. While teachers can perform well in these four areas with the right degree of autonomy, policies, leadership, political and cultural landscape of a country can determine the performance of teachers. However, to what extent teachers get influenced by these factors also depend on their views and perceptions about autonomy, degree of motivation, and professional competence. The thesis also suggests the influence of market forces on teacher autonomy in Singapore. In an environment of marketization, teacher autonomy cannot exist as the education system is driven by institutional regulations and market forces (Berry, 2013). As a result of the influences of marketisation where academic results took precedence, teachers were evaluated based on the academic achievement of their learners, pressurising teachers to focus on results instead of the process of learning (McGowan, 2015). The limitations of this research are also areas for further research. First, recruiting participants and collecting information were challenging due to the sensitive nature of the research topic in the Singapore context. Moreover, PIHL were generally not interested to support research projects as the research would not directly benefit them. If public institutions were involved, more participation could be expected. Also, there was a lack of data on teacher autonomy as there was limited published information available in these areas. Had I considered religious, political, and social factors as areas shaping teachers' perceptions in this study, it would have broadened the scope of this research. However, the limited time and resources did not allow a comprehensive study of that magnitude. The framework that was developed from this research has identified the external influences on teacher autonomy that comprise government and institutional policies, leadership, local politics and cultural landscape of the country and the region while the internal influences comprise teacher motivation, their perceptions and teacher professional competence. These influences shape the perceptions of teachers on teacher autonomy in teaching, assessment, planning and decision-making, and professional development.

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for mathematical modelling that captures the uncertainty that is inherent to disease dynamics. There has also been an emphasis on modelling scenarios and projections, rather than true predictions, which are useful for understanding the impacts that different policies and interventions can have on the spread of disease. We develop stochastic models to quantify the uncertainty in outcomes in different settings, which is essential for designing interventions and preparing for reasonable worst-case scenarios. In Chapters 2-4, we use branching processes to model the early growth of outbreaks, with a particular focus on COVID-19. In Chapters 2 and 3 we investigate the temporal uncertainty in the early growth phase of an epidemic and develop analytic expressions for the approximate distribution in times taken for an outbreak to reach a given number of cases. Our results quantify this uncertainty in seconds, making our methods much faster than stochastic simulations, and provide mathematical insights into the nature of the peak-timing distribution for an epidemic. We show that, in general, the peak-timing distribution can be thought of as well-approximated by the inverse of a non-central chi-squared distribution with zero degrees of freedom. In Chapter 4, we use a well-studied branching process with a negative binomial offspring distribution in order to estimate the overdispersion in early clusters of infections during the COVID-19 pandemic. We augment this process by explicitly accounting for case under-ascertainment, reducing bias in the estimates of overdispersion. We also develop stochastic models for operational use in prison and hospital settings during the pandemic. In Chapter 5, we develop models aimed at understanding the risk of ingress of COVID-19 into prisons and the impact of policies aimed at mitigating this risk. In Chapter 6, we develop a multi-state survival model in order to estimate the length of stay for COVID-19 patients in intensive care, and use stochastic simulations to predict future bed capacity in hospitals. In both of these settings, we demonstrate the utility of stochastic models in conveying uncertainty to policymakers planning for different scenarios. This thesis contains pieces of work that contributed to the broader modelling effort during the COVID-19 pandemic. It also provides a novel framework for thinking about temporal uncertainty in disease outbreaks that has the potential to be incorporated into a number of different models in mathematical epidemiology and in biology more broadly.

The circumstellar regions of young stellar objects (YSOs) are some of the most interesting environments in astronomy. The leftover material from star formation takes the form of enormous discs of dust and gas extending out to a thousand astronomical units. The outer regions of these protoplanetary discs, being cold and relatively large in scale, have been extensively studied by radio telescopes. Usually shrouded in opaque dust, the regions closer to the stars are best studied in the infrared. Here, the central YSO interacts with the disc, accreting and ejecting material, and planets, asteroids and comets are formed. Understanding how stars interact with their discs can therefore tell us how both evolve, and can help us understand the origin of our own solar system. It also can teach us more about systems very di?erent to our own – such as binary systems. The majority of stars are part of multiple systems, and in recent years we have also found increasing numbers of binary YSOs. The dynamical interaction between the stars and the inner disc can lead to complex features such as spirals, warps and disc truncation, a?ecting their rates of accretion and ejection, as well as a?ecting planetary formation. As the population of binary YSOs grows, we are finding a much larger diversity in the inner regions of their discs than previously thought. Observing these processes has historically been dicult because of the extremely small angular scales on which they occur – on the order of milli-arcseconds – which limits their study with traditional telescopes. In spite of this, the study of young stars and their discs has rapidly become one of the most dynamic areas of astronomy in recent decades. Advances in computing power have allowed for more complex simulations of circumstellar environments. Simultaneously, developments in technology and engineering have substantially increased the set of observable protoplanetary discs, allowing us to rapidly develop and advance ideas of star formation and evolution. The focus of my PhD was on one such technique: near-infrared interferometry. By interfering the light from multiple individual telescopes, it is possible to obtain resolutions far in excess of any single-dish telescope, allowing us to probe inner disc regions with a precision never before possible. This is especially important in the context of close binary YSOs, where dynamic interactions between the stars and the disc can cause large changes to the circumstellar environment which cannot be reliably determined from simulations. In these cases, the feedback from observations of individual systems can be used to calibrate and inform further refinements to the theory. The thesis is laid out as follows. Chapter 1 introduces the general star formation paradigm, including star formation and YSO classification, as well as a discussion on circumstellar discs around single stars. In Chapter 2, I extend this to binary objects, which were the focus of my research. Chapter 3 describes the basic theory behind optical and near-infrared interferometry, its history and the challenges which it poses to anyone wishing to interpret its observables. In this chapter I describe the basic operation of the interferometers which I used over the course of my PhD, the VLTI and the CHARA Array. After this theoretical overview, I present the work which was the focus of my PhD: a deep study into two individual young binary systems. Chapter 4 is dedicated to analysis of observations we took of MWC 166 A, a massive YSO with a combined mass of 17 M located at a distance of 1 kpc. This is a mysterious system with very strong K-band line emission, often associated with disc accretion, but little evidence of a substantial disc itself. In this chapter, I define for the first time a full three-dimensional orbit of the system, which has a period of 368 d, and establish stellar parameters and the evolutionary state of both components, finding that the primary component is likely a main-sequence object while the secondary is just in the process of final contraction. I also constrain the geometry and spectral characteristics of the Br and He i emission lines, and find the most likely origin to be a Be decretion disc in Keplerian rotation. Chapter 5 uses similar techniques to analyse a rather di?erent young binary, HD 104237 A. This T Tauri with a combined mass of 4.3 M lies about ten times closer to us and has a much tighter orbit of 20 d. It also has a much denser inner disc region than MWC 166 A, with both components actively accreting from the circumbinary disc, and this is reflected in the strong but variable Br emission arising from the two components. In this chapter, I derive an orbit for the system, constrain its age and determine fundamental stellar parameters for both components. I also model the circumstellar emission both in the dust continuum, which takes the form of a truncated circumbinary disc, and analyse the rapidly-changing Br emission in the inner region on an epoch-by-epoch basis. This emission shows signs of variable accretion onto both stars, as well as components originating from the circumbinary environment. Both these studies use spectro-astrometric and spectro-interferometric techniques to showcase the usefulness of the high angular resolution a?orded by near-infrared interferometry to gain unique insights into binary-disc interaction, dynamical truncation and binary accretion. This process will only accelerate in future, as new designs of interferometers with even greater precision will unlock an ever-larger tranche of systems, expanding our knowledge of these endlessly-fascinating objects further and further.

This thesis aims to provide a philosophical foundation for the practice of following precedent in law. It argues that legal systems should adopt a practice of precedent that advances the Rule of Law instead of one that advances other values at the cost of undermining this ideal. This practice is called 'precedent-following'. In virtue of precedent-following, later courts treat relevant precedents as normative legal facts favouring, and sometimes requiring, the same decision as before. A distinctive feature of precedent-following is that later courts always have a legal reason for following relevant precedent, even if the precedent is morally suboptimal, so long as it is not evil. This reason is by default non-obligatory. But a legal system may further advance the Rule of Law by imposing an obligation on later courts, in some cases, to follow relevant precedent. Thus, depending on whether courts have a non-obligatory legal reason or a legal obligation to follow relevant precedent, two modes of precedential reasoning may be distinguished. These are the persuasive and the authoritative modes. The thesis explains the pros and cons of the two modes and shows how some of their drawbacks can be managed in order to realise conflicting values, such as the value of not entrenching morally deficient decisions in the law. The thesis argues that, in a jurisdiction under the authoritative mode, the law should authorise a later court that is bound by a morally deficient precedent to either follow the precedent or exercise an equitable in conformity with certain conditions. This power, it is argued, would contribute to the justification of the authoritative mode, as courts would have an additional mechanism for dealing with morally deficient precedents. Thereby, it is argued, this power might also allow courts to avoid distinguishing morally deficient precedents in a disingenuous way, which is a way of enhancing the legitimacy of the common law.

Less than thirty years after civil war and genocide, the government of post-conflict Rwanda has achieved a remarkable level of state-building and economic growth. This thesis uses a political settlements framework to make sense of the country's recent development trajectory. Rwanda's political economy is characterized by a dominant ruling party whose leadership pursues a full-fledged capitalist transformation of society to cement its legitimacy, while also distrusting its domestic firms in a capitalist sector that is extraordinarily small and weak and exhibits low capabilities. In addition, there is substantial political repression to keep political control maximal. Shaped by these characteristics, an elaborate governance system of performance contracts (imihigo) has evolved, resembling results-based frameworks. This institutionalised construct compels all public sector employees to put in very high efforts to reach their respective annual targets. But the system is also overly rigid, focuses too strongly on directly measurable indicators, leads to uncritical acceptance of crude top-down decisions, and creates perverse incentives for data tweaking. Using 139 interviews from ten months of fieldwork and other qualitative and quantitative evidence, the thesis presents case studies of four economic sectors: coffee-processing, tourism, food crops, and manufacturing. The results reveal nuanced industry trajectories and varied sector performance, ranging from impressive (partial) transformational success in coffee-processing and the hospitality sector to disappointing (preliminary) failure in agriculture and manufacturing. Connecting the country's political economy with the respective industry paths, the thesis concludes that the Rwandan government succeeded with its economic development strategy in sectors where its control-maximising governance system was sufficient to enforce transformational change, while it failed in more complex sectors, where experimental tinkering and learning from failure were crucial to eventually getting things right. This perspective is useful for thinking about necessary governance reforms to overcome current structural weaknesses. Finally, the merits and limits of political settlements theory for explaining varied economic sector performance are discussed.

Part A: Presented is a systematic literature review on the experience of friendship for individuals post TBI. A meta-synthesis approach was used to analyse seven papers with a variety of methodologies. The MMAT was used to appraise each paper's quality prior to synthesis. Two superordinate themes emerged: 'Loss' and 'Response'. The proposed model highlights that physical disability, impact on cognition, and communication difficulties all result from TBI. These losses contribute to the loss of friendship, which in turn creates feelings of loneliness, like being an outsider. This impacts on the individual emotionally. The model captures how the participants coped with these changes. The implications for clinical practice and research are discussed. Part B: Presented is an empirical paper describing the development of a grounded theory of complexity for neuropsychology service-users. A cyclic model was developed consisting of six main categories and 13 sub-categories. These consisted of the psychologist's reaction,interventions, service-user conformity, service conformity, time, and communication. The model shifts the focus of complexity away from the service-user and towards the professional's experience of them. The implications for clinical practice and research are discussed.

Plants can perceive and respond to the presence of microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria in their environment. One way for plants to perceive the presence of fungi is to detect the fungal cell wall component chitin, via pattern recognition receptors (PRR). During the perception of pathogens, plant cells close the membrane lined channels connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells (plasmodesmata) by depositing callose in the cell wall, and thereby restrict the molecular flux between neighbouring cells. Three different PRR are necessary for chitin-triggered plasmodesmal closure in Arabidopsis: LYSM DOMAIN GPIANCHORED PROTEIN 2 (LYM2), LYSM-CONTAINING RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE 4 (LYK4), and LYSM-CONTAINING RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE 5 (LYK5). Out of those three, only LYM2 is enriched at plasmodesmata, and chitin triggers a further increase of this enrichment. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this process remain to be elucidated. In this thesis I explore prerequisites and characteristics necessary to achieve this plasmodesmal localisation. I further show that all three receptors LYM2, LYK4 and LYK5 associate with each other in planta, and investigate how LYK5 could be important for chitintriggered plasmodesmal closure, even though it is absent at plasmodesmata itself. I further demonstrate that not only receptors but also proteins of two different scaffolding families - the tetraspanins and flotillins - are necessary for these responses. Both of these families are known for their presence and orchestration of specialised membrane domains such as nanodomains. My data reveal that they are also important for signalling responses at the specialised plasmodesmal PM microdomain. I show how both tetraspanins and flotillins are necessary to achieve chitin-triggered ROS bursts, plasmodesmal regulation, as well as plant resistance against pathogenic fungi comparable to wild-type plants. Together, the data presented in this work generate new insights on how chitin-triggered signalling processes depend on different receptors, and also on their partner scaffolding proteins, thereby creating new hypotheses and opportunities for future investigations.

This Thesis is primarily motivated by a conjecture of Anscombe, Macpherson, Steinhorn and Wolf. The conjecture states that, for a homogeneous structure M over a finite relational language, M is elementarily equivalent to the ultraproduct of a 'multidimensional exact class' if and only if M is stable. The right to left statement has already been verified, and so our focus is on the left to right. In this thesis, we confirm the conjecture for certain unstable homogeneous structures such as the universal metrically homogeneous graph of diameter k, the universal homogeneous two-graph and various others, such as the 28 'semi- free' edge-coloured homogeneous graphs described by Cherlin in the appendix of [16]. We also provide some mechanisms for answering the question for other unstable structures. The core of this thesis is about finite 'n-regular' 3-edge-coloured graphs. For any given n, a classification of sufficiently large n-regular 3-edge-coloured graphs is expected to yield a proof of the 'm.e.c' conjecture in the case of the universal homogeneous 3-coloured graph, and indeed, our results yield some further special cases of the 'm.e.c' conjecture. The main focus is on finite '3-regular' 3-coloured graphs. We classify such structures under certain conditions: when they possess a 'complete neighbourhood', when they are 'monochromatic-triangle-free' and if we increase to '4-regularity' we can classify the imprimitive case as well. In the other scenarios, we employ methods from the theory of association schemes, together with linear algebra, to give a description of the eigenvalues and/or eigenvectors of the neighbourhoods with respect to a base point. We also describe the two known primitive examples of such graphs and prove they are actually homogeneous, which implies n-regularity for each n.

Subsurface sediment remobilization and injection processes are important component of processes which occur in sedimentary basins worldwide. These processes are largely associated with deep-water clastic systems and have significant impact on the morphology and distribution of deep-water sand reservoirs which in turn have important implications for hydrocarbon exploration and production, and for carbon sequestration in deep-water clastic reservoirs. This research uses an integration of high-resolution 3D seismic data and well data from the Norwegian sector of the northern North Sea Basin to investigate the occurrence of large-scale sandstone intrusions or sand injectites in the Paleogene succession, to unravel their origin and mechanisms responsible for their development, distribution and associated complex geometries. The observations and interpretation from this study are documented in five result chapters (Chp. 3-7) which begins with a short overview of the hydrocarbon reserves/resource distribution of sand injectite fields in the UK and Norwegian sectors of the North Sea with the view to show that sand injectites form attractive exploration targets based on experience from North Sea oil/gas fields. This is followed by Chapter 4, which investigates the occurrence of discordant high amplitude anomalies within the Paleogene interval, which based on well calibration are interpreted as the seismic expression for large-scale sandstone intrusions within multiple stratigraphic intervals. Then, Chapter 5 documents for the 'first time' the occurrence of a Middle-Late Oligocene sand-rich deep-water depositional system modified by subsurface sediment remobilization and injection processes in the eastern part of the study area. The study highlights and describes the seismic expression of sand intrusion complexes developed in association with the depositional system and the implication of such intrusion complexes in deep-water settings. The succeeding Chapter 6 revisits aspects of the model and interpretation for the Late Cenozoic geological evolution of the northern North Sea presented by Løseth et al. (2013) with special emphasis on their proposed source for Oligocene sandstone and the processes responsible for the mounded shape of the Top Hordaland Group Unconformity. The findings based on available data demonstrate that their model for a strictly injected Oligocene sand is inconsistent with our observation. Lastly, Chapter 7 explores the various kind of interaction which exist between sandstone intrusions and polygonal fault systems present within their low-permeable host mudstone succession and how their co-existence may have aided sand injection or controlled the simple to complex geometries of the intrusions. Understanding the processes responsible for sand remobilization and injection is crucial to understanding the dynamics of a sedimentary basin's evolution. The findings and interpretation presented here contribute to a clearer understanding of some of the factors and processes which favor the development of sand intrusions in the northern North Sea Basin. It also demonstrates the impact of post-depositional processes on deep-water systems because they can impact the distribution and geometries of reservoir units as well as the efficiency of fluid flow and migration through sedimentary successions over long periods.

Neural network pruning has gained popularity for deep models with the goal of reducing storage and computational requirements, both for inference and training. Pruning weights from neural networks to make models sparse has been discussed for a long time starting with in 1990s. Structured pruning is more recent and it aims to minimize the size of neural networks as opposed to only introducing sparsity, having the advantage of not requiring specialized hardware or software. Most structured pruning works focus on neurons or convolutional filters. ResNet is a model architecture composed of many blocks that are linked with residual connections. In our work, we explore pruning larger structures - ResNet blocks, and thoroughly study the feasibility of block by block pruning whilst keeping track of the cost of fine-tuning the pruned networks. We use different block saliency metrics as well as different fine-tuning schedules and parameters. Pruning 27 blocks (50%) from a ResNet-110, in our best configuration, gives 6.48% test error on CIFAR-10, a 0.45% loss from the initial model. When pruning 45 blocks to obtain a similar size to that of a ResNet-20, our best method has a 1.92% loss from initial, 7.95% error. We observe that training small, standard ResNet configurations gives better results than pruning and argue that pruning block by block is only effective for pruning a small number of blocks, or when starting with a model pre-trained elsewhere and the cost of fine-tuning is of concern (fine-tuning alone can be much cheaper than training from scratch and give acceptable results, depending on the pruning configuration). Finally, our pruning work is produced from hundreds of experiments, and a by-product of running, organising and analysing them is our experiment management framework, dbx, aims to simplify this process by storing experiments and their results (as logs) in repositories that can be queried and synchronized between computers.

This work proposes and explores the use of mutual capacitive touchscreens as sensing tools for ion concentrations in an electrolyte, measuring directly from drops placed on the screen surface. This is explored using a standard, commercially available touchscreen made up of a conductive indium tin oxide on glass, coated with a parylene C layer. Simulations using COMSOL Multiphysics show that sample polarisation close to the surface dominates the sensor capacitance. The model quantifies the signal change for samples placed off the touchscreen electrodes and experiments confirm an optimal drop volume of 200 µL for measurements with the touchscreen prototype. Thin polymer coatings turn out essential for measuring electrolytes via the projected mutual capacitance. The touchscreen senses a tight semi-log correlation of its capacitance with the conductivity of electrolytes below 100 μS/cm. This correlation is dependent on anion concentration and nearly independent of the measured cations for a positive electrode. Furthermore, a new approach is developed to fabricate simplified, affordable touchscreen-inspired ITO sensors using standard laser-cutter equipment. The fabricated devices show more than double the sensitivity for measuring aqueous samples compared to the commercial touchscreen. Interdigital comb structures increase the sensitivity further from 4.0 to 8.8 compared to a simple line structure. Simulations help guide the design of sensing structures concerning sensitivity and spatial robustness. Finally, the challenge of selectivity is addressed through ion-selective membranes. Initial results on the formulation and fabrication of polymeric membranes show a deterioration of the sensitivity to 1.3 for poly(n-butyl) acrylate and 2.4 for poly vinyl chloride. While reproducible polymer membranes can successfully be fabricated on an ITO glass sensor, the research identifies a need for additional work on ion-selective films. This work demonstrates that liquid measurements on a touchscreen do not require direct contact between the sample and the electrodes for conductivity determination. In the future, polymer layers may prevent electrode degradation and have the potential to be translated in the future towards use with existing mobile technologies. A sub-micromolar detection limit for ions and a linear detection window until 500 µM is shown. The presented devices are suitable for trace metal contaminant detection in drinking water and the presence of soil nutrients such as phosphate, nitrate, phosphate, and potassium.

This thesis presents a historiography of Workplace and Organizational Ethnographies (WOEs) conducted in the UK from 1965 to 2000. The premise for this research was that, with the nature of work and organising becoming increasingly complex and fragmented, organizational ethnographers have had to reconsider and adapt research practices to stay relevant. To ascertain the impact and significance of changing ethnographic practices, it is critical to study past ethnographic studies in their historical contexts. Thus, the aim of my research is to contextualise past WOEs, understand the intellectual trends in the representation of work and research practices in WOEs, and consider the impact these WOEs have had in mainstream Management and Organization Studies (MOS) and other fields in social sciences. For this study, nine WOEs conducted in the UK from 1965 to 2000 were chosen. I used a mixed-methods research design and adopted a two-pronged ethnohistorical approach: oral history interviews with the nine WOE ethnographers; and citation context analysis to sketch out the historical contexts that influenced the rhetoric of work and organizational life. I thematically analyzed the data using Braun and Clarke's thematic analysis model. The historical analysis illuminated how socio-political contexts influenced the way ethnographers conducted and produced their ethnographic work in the UK and the impact it has had on the production of knowledge. Along with other findings, I also identified three key aspects: how WOEs are distinctive theoretical descriptions; the epistemological role emotions play in all the three moments, 'headwork/deskwork, fieldwork and textwork'; and finally, how professionalization in academia has mediated homogenization of knowledge. Although my research contributes to the existing literature on the production of ethnographic work, no studies in the past have used a mixed-methods research design to recontextualise past WOEs and map out the intellectual heritage of the WOEs in the UK. In this thesis, by providing both a telescopic view of the past and a microscopic view of each of the WOEs, I have commemorated the past WOEs and contributed to the collective memory of MOS by highlighting the influences and circumstances that led to the intellectual trends in the representation of work and organising in WOEs.

Generative network models (i.e. models that aim to uncover the underlying mechanisms that drive network formation) have played a prominent role in the literature of networked systems, and many hypotheses on how networks grow and evolve have been proposed. Recently, structural optimisation has been suggested as one of the main drivers underlying network formation processes. Indeed, many networks are designed or required to perform one or more specific tasks as efficiently as possible. How optimally a network will perform a set of pre-specified tasks will depend, at least partially, on its large-scale structure. Consequently, these optimality requirements should result in selective pressures driving the network toward particular large-scale topologies. The general prescription behind this family of models is to define a cost function over a network ensemble; by minimising the cost function, one can evaluate whether particular topologies characterise the ensemble and compare these topologies with those observed in real-world networks. However, real-world networks rarely emerge as the result of a single generating mechanism but are more likely to be the end product of several co-existing processes and limitations, such as dynamical rules, exogenous constraints, and optimality requirements. This conflation of generating processes makes it difficult to assess and quantify to what extent optimality might have played a role in the formation of any given network. In this thesis, we develop a framework to construct null models of optimised networks that allow us to isolate the effects of optimisation on network structure from other external artefacts. Furthermore, our framework can accommodate an arbitrary number of optimisation criteria, allowing us to study more realistic scenarios in which a network is simultaneously subject to multiple selective pressures. We apply the proposed framework to study networks driven to optimise for modularity and robustness against random failures. We first analyse the case in which the criteria are imposed separately and uncover the topologies most likely to emerge as a result of optimisation. We then combine the two criteria and study the effects of joint optimisation on the network structure. We uncover a rich phase diagram of optimised networks, characterised by a series of phase transitions at which the optimal topologies change according to the desired degree of optimality. We also identify regions of the parameter space where synergistic and antagonistic effects are present, such that optimising for one criterion can help or hinder optimising for the other.

In this work, a novel implementation of superfluid optomechanics is developed, exploiting nanofluidic confinement within a sonic crystal geometry. The aim of which is to enhance the optomechanical coupling strength while preserving the intrinsic properties of superfluid He-4, via limitation of radiative acoustic effects. These nanostructures are designed and fabricated using cleanroom techniques, with focus on the development of a direct wafer bonding technique. The cleanroom fabricated chips are then integrated into superconducting microwave cavities. For measurements, a dilution refrigerator (capable of mK cooling) was refurbished for modern microwave measurements and work with superfluid He-4. COMSOL Multiphysics simulations are used to design the optomechanical system, both the acoustics of the sonic crystal and the chip-cavity microwave environment. From these simulations a predicted vacuum optomechanical coupling is calculated giving g_0/2pi = 0.63 mHz; between a superfluid mode of frequency 1.34 MHz, and a microwave cavity mode of 4.2 GHz. Phase sensitive homodyne measurements of the chip-cavity system in the presence of He-4 found mechanical signals close to the predicted resonance frequency, however these signals were insufficient in strength or consistency to determine the optomechanical parameters of the system.

All animals must adapt their behaviour according to their environment and intrinsic state. At the level of the nervous system, this demands flexibility in the output of neural circuits. Neuropeptides, the largest class of signalling molecule in the nervous system, are crucial for engendering this flexibility, signalling through G-protein coupled receptors to modulate neuronal and synaptic properties. This study investigated the role of neuropeptides in the modulation of reproductive behaviours in Drosophila melanogaster. These behaviours are 'hard-wired' into the nervous system by the action of developmental genes yet display considerable flexibility in response to environmental and physiological factors. Though several neuropeptides are thought to modulate reproductive behaviour, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Knowledge of where neuropeptides act represents a particularly significant gap in our understanding. Thus, a key objective of this study was to elucidate the distribution of neuropeptide receptors (NPRs). Intersectional genetic approaches were used to target and label cells expressing NPRs, revealing broad expression across distinct compartments of the nervous system. Crucially, expression of several NPRs was evidenced in the neural circuits governing reproductive behaviour, facilitating direct modulation of these circuits. Analysis of single-cell RNA sequencing data corroborated these findings and provided additional insights, for example: revealing low expression-levels of NPRs, expression in transcriptionally distinct cell types, and co-expression in single cells. Subsequent investigations focused on SIFaR, the receptor for SIFamide: a neuropeptide thought to modulate reproduction, feeding and sleep. Newly generated SIFaR mutant alleles produced abnormal reproductive behaviours, supporting a role for SIFaR signalling in their regulation. RNA interference was used to disrupt SIFaR exclusively in the neural circuits underlying these behaviours. This, too, produced robust phenotypes, suggesting that SIFamide modulates reproductive behaviour via direct signalling through these neurons. To study downstream effects of SIFaR signalling, FRET and calcium imaging experiments were designed and piloted, and an optimal paradigm for further investigation was established. A range of approaches were employed to investigate how SIFamide performs its integrative functions. Immunohistochemical investigation, and analysis of hemibrain connectome data, supported the existence of just 4 SIFamide-producing neurons in the brain, with the latter providing evidence of heterogeneity in their morphologies, uncovering a potential mechanism for the modulation of discrete behaviours by SIFamide. Finally, approaches to assess the function of SIFamide in specific physiological contexts were tested. This included generation of a 'FlpSTOP' allele, facilitating temporally and spatially restricted disruption of SIFaR, and the design and validation of experiments to assay reproductive behaviours in the context of starvation. Collectively, this data elucidates the expression profile of key neuropeptide receptors in Drosophila and, by establishing novel tools and approaches, paves the way for future investigation into neuropeptide signalling mechanisms.

Amid climate and ecological crises, the likelihood of flooding and its devastating impacts increases. As a result, Flood Risk Management (FRM) recognises the need to adapt its management approach; it can no longer keep building higher walls and defences to keep water out. This reality has been recognised in policy paradigm shifts that accept, to certain degrees, the inevitability of flooding and look instead to find ways of learning to live with water. However, owing to the technocratic governance at the heart of FRM, it has been difficult to see how such a transition in governance approaches might be democratically enacted. Rooted in ecological economics, yet drawing on insights from environmental humanities, indigenous scholarship, cultural geography and anthropology, this interdisciplinary thesis looks to explore the potential of social values in this context, aiming to unsettle the technocratic governance of FRM, democratise decision-making and facilitate shifts towards worldviews that are reflective of this 'living with water' policy paradigm. Traditionally, social values have been conceived and explored through social science approaches based within a dualist ontology. This has been characterised through associations with much-criticised environmental valuation frameworks such as Ecosystem Services and Nature's Contributions to People. Recognising the shortcomings of social values in their current conceptualisations and associations with such frameworks, this thesis explores their potential in light of the Life Framework of Values (LFV). LFV builds upon the critiques of previous valuation frameworks and offers an expanded ethical and ontological framing of human-nature relationships. This thesis argues that social values can facilitate the shift from purely instrumentalist framings of nature, living from, and towards more relational framings, such as living with. Situating social values between ecological economics and ecological democracy, I articulate how their potential lies at these intersections, what I refer to as the economy-environment-democracy nexus. I argue that this potential can only be realised by materialising social values in an ontological politics and design thinking responding to pluriversal ideas. This argument draws upon a variety of ethnographic approaches that trace social values across three sites of FRM decision-making in York, UK. Beginning with a critique of the current 'de-futuring' design of FRM governance, I turn to think through the materiality of water and the more-than-human, speculating as to how the 'social' of social values might be materially constituted through human and more-than-human relations. This leads to an articulation of social values as a 'fuzzy' conceptual tool that holds together different ontological, political and economic paradigms. This 'fuzziness' lies in the ability of social values to simultaneously i) de-naturalise economics as an obstacle to democratic possibilities, whilst ii) moving beyond the anthropocentrism and representational logics of liberal democracy, that can sometimes be slow and ineffective in bringing about environmental change, towards generating publics of resonance through everyday material practices. This 'fuzziness' is articulated through a 'pluriversal lens' that enables transitions between these paradigms resting on an understanding of the performativity of values and valuation methods; that values and the methods used to understand them aren't just about the world but make worlds too. Re-thinking social values in this way performs ecological democracy and enables the kind of socio-ecological transitions that contexts such as FRM have been calling for; offering more generative possibilities of living well with water and socio-ecological flourishing.

To gain a deeper insight as to the combined effects of hydrated lime (HL) on asphalt mixtures, a performance-related assessment using a multi-scale approach is thoroughly presented in this dissertation. The experimental work covers an extensive and coherent set of materials, test methods and analytical tools to identify the effects of HL on the mixture response to the main pavement distresses affecting road infrastructures worldwide, which include, rutting, cracking, ageing and moisture-induced damage. In consequence, one of the contributions of this research is producing a comprehensive discussion on the effects of HL through a broad and advanced laboratory characterisation, including bituminous mastics and mixtures, allowing for a deeper understanding of the benefits and limits associated with the use of HL as a partial replacement of Limestone Filler (LF) in SMA mixtures. Furthermore, this research provides insights related to the chemistry and microstructure changes induced by HL on the bituminous mastics, along with detailed comparisons on the rheology of the different material combinations. To accomplish the main objective of the research study, the experimental work included three parts with specific objectives that include: Part 1. Assess the characteristics of the bitumen and mastics. This part was conducted to determine the basic characteristics of the materials by using conventional and advanced test methods, which included: penetration, Ring & Ball softening point, Brookfield rotational viscosity, DSR-master curves. These test methods allowed for studying the stiffening mechanism of HL-replacement by studying the mechanical and rheological changes induced to the base bitumen by the filler to be used as inputs in the rheological and micromechanics-based models of Part 2. Part 2. Study the performance-related impacts of HL-replacement on the bitumen and mastic phase. This was completed through a full-laboratory characterisation of the bitumen and mastics through rheological test methods (Dynamic Shear Rheometer, DSR; Bending Beam Rheometer, BBR; Double-Edged Notch Test, DENT); rheological models (Mooney, Krieger-Dougherty, Chong, generalised Einstein model, and Nielsen model); micromechanics-based model; microstructural characterisation of the bitumen-filler interactions (Cryogenic Scanning-Electron Microscopy, Cryo-SEM); and chemistry-ageing (Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, FTIR). The fatigue performance was studied through the SHRP parameter, the Linear Amplitude Sweep (LAS) test; rutting based on Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery (MSCR) test; fracture in terms of the DENT; the ageing kinetics and chemical changes of the mastics induced by HL-replacement was studied from the FTIR functional groups that are typical of bitumen oxidation. Part 3. Study the performance-related impact of HL-replacement on the asphalt mixture phase. Based on the results from Part 1, a set of asphalt mixtures were manufactured following the UK specifications for typical 10-mm SMA for surface wearing courses (BS EN 13108-5/ PD 6691:2007). The mixtures were subjected to specific test methods focusing on the main pavement distresses: rutting (Repeated-Load Axial Tester, RLAT), cracking (Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test, ITFT; Semi-Circular Bending Test, SCB), ageing and moisture-damage (Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus, ITSM; and Saturated Ageing Tensile Stiffness, SATS). The mechanical characterisation of rutting, fatigue and stiffness was completed using the Nottingham Asphalt Tester (NAT machine). The main findings from this research work include a better understanding of the bitumen-filler interactions induced by HL-replacement at the mastic level through the application of rheological and micromechanics-based models and fundamental theories of suspensions. The link of stiffening mechanism with performance-related characteristics of the mastics and the mixtures is also provided based on the permanent deformation response, cracking resistance (i.e., load and non-load related), moisture-induced damage and ageing. The use of chemical-based and simple test methods allowed to better understand the mechanism of HL-replacement on the modification of bitumen in terms of the chemical changes in main bitumen functionalities as well as those linked with oxidative ageing. Consequently, it was possible to validate various theoretical postulations regarding the mechanisms of HL modification in bituminous mixtures, which adds further and updated information to the body of knowledge regarding the benefits and limitations of HL-replacement in SMA mixtures. Overall, the results from this research work have the potential to be used by researchers/practitioners for research initiatives aiming to explore HL use with additional material combinations and mixture designs, which is highly encouraged to foster the understanding of this active filler type. Furthermore, recommendations for HL-replacement ratios in SMA mixtures were derived considering the performance-related characterisation of the mastics and mixtures. Finally, a set of relevant and specific recommendations for future research is offered as part of the outcome from this investigative work.

This thesis consists of four self-contained chapters. Chapter 2 (co-authored with Prof. Sophocles Mavroeidis and Prof. Anders Kock) considers hypothesis testing in instrumental variable (IV) regression models with few included exogenous covariates but many instruments--possibly more than the number of observations. We look for a method of inference that controls asymptotic size when there is heteroskedasticity and the instruments may be arbitrarily weak. We show that a ridge-regularised version of the jackknifed Anderson Rubin (1949, henceforth AR) test achieves this objective. This test weakens the assumptions needed for recently proposed jackknifed AR tests, and extends their scope to situations in which there are more instruments than observations. Monte-Carlo simulations indicate that our method has favourable finite-sample size and power properties compared to recently proposed alternative approaches in the literature. An empirical application on the elasticity of substitution between immigrants and natives in the US illustrates the usefulness of the proposed method for practitioners. Chapter 3 considers limited-information inference on New Keynesian Phillips Curves (NKPCs) in the presence of weak and high-dimensional IVs. Beyond the efficiency concerns previously raised in the literature, I show by simulation that ad-hoc selection procedures can lead to substantial biases in post-selection inference. I propose a Sup Score test that remains valid under dependent data, arbitrarily weak identification, and a number of IVs that increases exponentially with the sample size. Conducting inference on a standard NKPC with 361 IVs and 179 observations, I find substantially wider confidence sets than those commonly found. Chapter 4 (co-authored with Dr. Gerrit Koester and Dr. Christiane Nickel) addresses the endogeneity of slack in Phillips Curves in reduced-form contexts. Endogeneity of the labour market slack in reduced-form Phillips Curves is usually addressed either by including proxies for omitted supply shocks, or by using instrumental variables. Using the Kiviet (2022) Kinky Least Squares estimator, we find evidence that supply-shock proxies should not be omitted from PCs, and that many popular instrumental variables seem to be invalid. We estimate a standard backward-looking wage Phillips Curve by Kinky Least Squares and find that unless a large negative correlation between the slack variable and the error term is assumed, the coefficient of the slack variable is significantly negative. Chapter 5 provides a weak-identification robust IV method for identifying the structural covariance matrix in structural vector autoregressions (SVARs) where data for the reduced-form VAR are available over a longer horizon than for the IV. I apply this method to analyse the effect of US monetary shocks on real and financial variables in the US and other countries. While the effects on US real and financial variables are qualitatively similar to those reported previously in the literature, I find little evidence for US monetary policy spillovers in countries other than the US, in line with the theoretical predictions of the Mundellian Trilemma.

In this thesis, I use large scale state-of-the-art hydrodynamical cosmological simulations to investigate the Ly-α absorption properties of protocluster regions at redshift z∼2.4. Using the IllustrisTNG simulations, I investigate how the AGNproximity effect and hot, collisionally ionised gas arising from gravitational infall and black hole feedback changes the Ly-α absorption associated with the z≃2.4 progenitors of M≥10^14 M_☉ clusters. Within these protoclusters, I find that galaxy overdensities exhibit a weak anti-correlation with Ly-α transmission in tomographic maps of the intergalactic medium (IGM), but local HI ionisation enhancements due to hot T > 10⁶ K gas or nearby AGN can disrupt this relationship within individual protoclusters. On average, however, I find that strong reductions in the IGM neutral fraction are limited to within ≲5 h^−1 cMpc of the dark matter haloes. Local ionisation enhancements will therefore have a limited impact on the completeness of protocluster identification in tomographic surveys if smoothing Ly-α transmission maps over scales of ∼4 h^−1 cMpc, as is typically done in observations. However, if calibrating the relationship between the matter density and Ly-α transmission in tomographic maps using simple analytical models for the Ly-α forest opacity, the presence of hot gas around haloes may result in systematically lower estimates of the z=0 descendant mass of the most massive protoclusters. I then use simulations from the Sherwood, EAGLE and Illustris projects to examine the Ly-α absorption signatures of z∼2.4 protoclusters with a descendant mass of M≥10^14 M_☉. I find there is a weak correlation between the mass overdensity, δ_m, and the Ly-α effective optical depth relative to the mean, δ_τeff, averaged over 15 h^−1 cMpc scales; however, the scatter in the δ_m-δ_τeff plane means it is not possible to uniquely identify large scale overdensities with strong Ly-α absorption. Assuming perfect removal of contamination by Ly-α absorbers with damping wings, more than half of the remaining sightlines with δ_τeff>3.5 (CoSLAs) trace protoclusters. It is furthermore possible to identify a model dependent δ_τeff threshold that eliminates the contamination from filamentary structure and Lyman-limit systems that are preferentially aligned along the line of sight. However, such regions are rare: excluding absorption caused by damped systems, less than 0.1% of sightlines that pass through a protocluster have δ_τeff>3.5, meaning that any protocluster sample selected in this manner will also be highly incomplete. Finally, I use the TNG300-1 simulation from the IllustrisTNG project to study the extent to which simulation box size-and the resulting presence of the most massive protoclusters-is responsible for the differences between the CoSLA populations observed in large N-body simulations and those in comparatively small hydrodynamical simulations. Using the better statistics afforded by the larger simulation volume, I confirm that CoSLAs are rare objects, finding a number of CoSLAs per unit redshift dn/dz∼1×10^−2 at redshift z=2.444. Furthermore, I find the δτeff-δm relation in a 205^3 h^−3 Mpc^3 volume is consistent with that for a smaller 75^3 h^−3 Mpc^3 box size, with systems with δ_m>1 existing over a wide range of δ_τeff values. I find the CoSLAs in TNG300-1 to have a median δ_m=0.45±0.05, which remains somewhat lower than the δ_m=0.64±0.38 previously found in larger N-body simulations. These findings suggest that the differences between the CoSLA populations in hydrodynamical and N-body simulations are not solely the result of the differing simulation box sizes. Instead I suggest that these discrepancies are caused by the modelling of the hot, collisionally ionised, gas that surrounds massive haloes in protocluster regions.

The law of alterations of public contracts was for some time a matter reserved for national contract law. Thus, countries regulated the area via private contract law or administrative law, depending on their traditions, and procurement concerns were not especially observed as important in the area. However, the "expansionary" nature of procurement has arrived at these shores and national and international objectives in public procurement are now closely regarded in the law of alterations of public contracts. This has occurred, as demonstrated in this thesis, in a reactive manner, and generally based on a case-by-case evolution that is not always orderly. This reactive and case-by-case expansion has created scattered and not necessarily orderly/systematised rules in some of the analysed regulatory frameworks. Scholarly presents similar features. Moreover, the emerging rules and preoccupations are not a nascent field in new soil but a new seed in old soil: contract law, traditions, and different approaches to the very understanding of law. Therefore, it is important to have a "conversational" approach that aims to present the procurement concerns without overlooking traditions in the field. This study presents, analyses, and systematises the law of alterations of public contracts in three national jurisdictions and five international regulatory frameworks with the purpose of critically and comparatively analysing the rules applicable to contract alterations as well as their rationales; contribute to the understanding of the law applicable to contract alterations in several national jurisdictions and regulatory frameworks in a comparative manner, and inform the assessment of national and international regulators when deciding whether and how to regulate public contract alterations. The thesis presents and analyses the law on alterations in the EU, the OECD instruments, the World Bank, the UNCITRAL instruments, the GPA, and the UK, France, and the US. On that basis, it was found that: all these systems deal, in different manners, with alterations of public contracts; similar concepts and ideas in this area are shared in several analysed systems; most analysed systems limit alterations due to procurement concerns and do so in similar fashions, and even wordings and test have similitudes; and it was concluded, hopefully not hastily, that the law of alterations of public contracts is not, anymore, exclusively a creature of contract law. It has become a field where procurement concerns are on the rise and clash between them and pre-existing national contract law and traditions. Those interests must be balanced. The precise manner of doing so requires further research, including data. Nonetheless, some factors to consider were found and systematised throughout this thesis.

Conjugated polymer nanoparticles can be successfully prepared by conventional C-C cross couplings (e.g Suzuki-Miyaura, Stille etc.) in aqueous emulsion and miniemulsions.1,2,3 This thesis investigates the preparation of these conjugated polymer nanoparticle dispersions by novel C-C cross couplings utilising C(sp²)-H bonds. This direct arylation polycondensation (DArP) approach enables a more atom efficient preparation of semiconducting polymers in fewer synthesis steps. Judicious reaction parameter screening facilitated the formation of stable nanoparticle dispersions in the sub-micron regime with particle size dispersities (PDI) < 0.30 by increasing the hexadecane concentration. A comprehensive understanding of the influence of the reaction parameters on the molecular weight of the polymer prepared by this in-situ miniemulsion polymerisation technique was developed. Polymer molecular weights of Mn ≥ 10 kg mol⁻¹ were controlled reproducibly by adjusting the pivalic acid and potassium carbonate concentration. The microstructure of the polymers in these nanoparticle dispersions have been analysed and the identity of any polymer backbone defects investigated. DArP is known to introduce homo coupling defects into the polymer backbone that are less prevalent in polymers prepared by more conventional C-C coupling methods. Hence, different analytical methods such as mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) and NMR techniques (¹H, ¹³C, ¹⁹F and 2D experiments) were employed to identify and quantify the defects. As a proof of principle for the applicability of the prepared dispersions, organic field effect transistors were fabricated using the aqueous dispersions. Comparison between the holistic synthesis to device fabrication in water presents a greener and scalable process for the printing of electronic devices with measured electron mobilities of μe = 0.05 cm²V⁻¹s⁻¹ for PDPPF4.

Coarticulation has been studied in speech production for over 100 years and more recently has been observed in upper limb movement sequences. Coarticulation of upper limb movements has been shown to underlie our remarkable ability to produce movement sequences such as drinking a cup of coffee or driving a car reliably, smoothly and fast. Crucially, coarticulation breaks down in Parkinson's disease and stroke patients which significantly affects their daily lives. However, how humans learn to coarticulate and specifically how coarticulation can be facilitated is unknown. Reward is a powerful tool to influence human behaviour and over the past decade research on how reward shapes learning has widely increased. Importantly, reward has been shown to enhance execution of simple movements while converging evidence found that reward can improve learning of complex motor skills. The work in this thesis explores whether reward can enhance coarticulation. To address this question a novel motor task is introduced which involves a complex sequence of reaching movements (chapter 2). Across a series of behavioural experiments (chapter 3) we demonstrate that reward facilitates coarticulation which also led to improvements in movements smoothness and speed. Importantly, these improvements were retained over a long period without reward. Extending these findings, we used a neuropharmacological modulation (chapter 4) to investigate whether dopamine plays a role in coarticulation. The results suggest that a dopamine antagonist impairs coarticulation which can be compensated for with reward-based feedback. Finally, we show that coarticulation is guided by the principal of maximum smoothness which explains why coarticulation is constrained by the transition angle between reaching movements (chapter 5).

A fundamental concern in the deployment of artificial agents in real-life is their capacity to quickly adapt to their surroundings. Traditional reinforcement learning (RL) struggles with this requirement in two ways. Firstly, iterative exploration of unconstrained environment dynamics yields numerous uninformative updates and consequently slow adaptation. Secondly, final policies have no capacity to adapt to future observations and have to either slowly learn indefinitely or retrain entirely as observations occur. This thesis explores two formulations aimed at addressing these issues. The consideration of entire task distributions in meta-RL evolves policies quickly adapting to specific instances on their own. By forcing agents to specifically request feedback, Active RL enforces selective observations and updates. Both of these formulations reduce to a Bayes-Adaptive setting in which a probabilistic belief over possible environments is maintained. Many existing solutions only provide asymptotic guarantees that are of limited use in practical contexts. We develop a variational approach to approximate belief management and support its validity empirically through a broad range of ablations. We then consider recently successful planning approaches but uncover and discuss obstacles in their application to the discussed settings. An important factor influencing the data requirements and stability of RL systems is the choice of appropriate hyperparameters. We develop a Bayesian optimisation approach exploiting the iterative structure of training processes whose empiric performance exceeds that of existing baselines. A final contribution of this thesis concerns increasing the scalability and expressiveness of Gaussian Processes (GPs). While we make no direct use of the presented framework, GPs have been used to model probabilistic beliefs in closely related settings.

Post-truth narrative : narrative trends, cultural agency and political commitment in Italian literature in the age of post-truth This study examines the topics of cultural agency and literary commitment against the backdrop of the cultural and social developments of post-truth - a definition that entered public discourse after the Oxford English Dictionary chose it as its word of the year in 2016. In my research, I identify in this term the signs of an epochal shift that began at the end of the last decade and has now reached its culminating phase. After outlining the general terms of the subject and describing the theoretical aspects involved in the study of the post-truth phenomenon, I analyse in detail its political, social, and cognitive transformation, as well as the effects that the digital revolution had in modifying contemporary cultural paradigms. This is followed by a survey of the Italian literary debate, which in the last decades has been particularly attentive to matters concerning the role of culture and fiction within the changing contemporary political climate. After examining some of the central theories of the Italian critical framework - also related to realism, postmodernism, and hypermodernity -, I propose new models of cultural agency and literary commitment that adapt to the posttruth turn. I go on to identify, through textual analysis, the main features of what I provisionally define as post-truth narrative. In particular, I highlight these narrative traits by examining texts that fall into two categories in which the confrontation with key aspects of ongoing political and cultural change is particularly pronounced, namely novels that focus on historical events of the past, and novels that address social issues concerning the present time. I conclude by considering that of post-truth narrative as a theoretical model that well frames the relationship between politics and fiction in the current scenario, and which can also be applied outside the boundaries of Italian literature.

This thesis analyses the impact of the ground-breaking 1870 Education Act on entrepreneurial education in Northumberland. Some regulation and funding of mass education was already in place by then but the 1870 Act introduced direct state provision in the form of elected School Boards and school buildings. The Act promised to support the voluntary sector and use state provision to fill the gaps between existing schools and the total number of school-age children. In 1876 however, an Amendment Act changed and enhanced the delivery of state education. The remit of school boards was considerably extended from their responsibility to educate disadvantaged children to become the primary vehicle for delivering universal education. The 1870 Act required local governments to assess educational need in their areas. Where provision was inadequate, they were required to form a democratically elected school board. Any ratepayer could serve on their committee or vote, including women and elections were to be held every three years to ensure accountability. Boards were intended to work alongside the voluntary sector, encouraging the growth of all school accommodation thus relieving pressure on state provision. By 1876, however, it was clear that in some areas, such as Newcastle, the democratic process of the boards had broken down. Furthermore, the 1876 Reform Act which introduced additional powers to enforce compulsory attendance was used to force closures of 'undesirable' schools. This included Private Adventure Schools charging 9d or less per week. The history of education in nineteenth-century Britain has attracted considerable scholarly scrutiny but relatively little attention has been paid to the function and contribution of Private Adventure Schools. Particularly those charging 9d or less per week which could be considered affordable to the working class. A surge of research in 1970, inspired by the centenary of the Education Act, did little to evaluate the diversity and quality of entrepreneurial education. All too often, flawed reports, observations and skewed statistics of government inspectors were accepted without due diligence. Aside from the early work of authors such as E.G. West (Education and the State, 1965) and Philp Gardner (The Lost Elementary Schools of Victorian England, 1984), and the G.R. Grigg's 2005 case study of Welsh Private Adventure Schools, this lacuna in the literature has still not been addressed. This study offers an entirely new approach to identifying and analysing the impact of entrepreneurial education. By using the whole of Northumberland as a defined geographical area and concentrating on the two decades between 1869 and 1889 this study compares urban and rural educational development in the wake of the 1870 Education Act. A mixed-methods approach combines big data, GIS and a quantitative survey to map out school structures with demographic context. In addition, a broad selection of qualitative historical material has been used to excavate individual school histories and changes in attitudes to education from a variety of perspectives. The key findings conclude that entrepreneurial education was much more resilient in Northumberland than previously thought. It was also far more diverse, quality-driven and impactful than current literature suggests. This thesis argues that the decline of entrepreneurial education in the late nineteenth-century was not inevitable. These schools warrant more attention both as a neglected aspect of educational history and for its significance to contemporary global debates on the role of low-cost private schools in developed and developing economies.

In the Bolivian Andes, urban-dwelling highland flute makers from the specialised Aymara flute-making community of Walata Grande craft a variety of flutes from native woody bamboos collected in their natural habitats in tropical forests of the eastern Andean slopes. Over recent decades, sustainability issues surrounding their use and sourcing have come to the fore. The two main concerns mentioned by Walateño makers are: that bamboo habitats are being destroyed as the deforestation of the tropical forests accelerates, and that recognised bamboo collection sites are being overexploited. Understanding these issues calls for an interdisciplinary mixed methods research approach that involves studying both the flute making culture/economy and the ecology of musical bamboos. While the deforestation of tropical forests is a consequence of non-musical economic activities such as agriculture and cattle rearing, the overexploitation of collection sites is the result of shifting modes of highland flute making and bamboo sourcing. Highland flute making has always been dependent on bamboo species diversity and maturation/life cycles. However, as makers have become reliant on intermediaries, valuable sourcing knowledge is being lost, further challenging the viability of musical bamboos. Beyond the environmental degradation and destruction of bamboo habitats, a closer analysis reveals that shifting social and economic relations and knowledge transmission are also central to the sustainability of flute making and bamboo sourcing in the Bolivian Andes.

This thesis examines aleatory strategies and dynamics in an experimental strand of British fiction between 1959 and 1979. Drawing upon musicological theories of the 'aleatory' and unpacking the literary significance, it offers a working definition of the aleatory novel as a foregrounding of chance and complex narrative chaotics that are offered to the reader with, at least, the suggestion of requiring activation or animation. Aleatory strategies are shown to reflect a set of diverse and overlapping conceptual understandings and socio-cultural dynamics relating to a paradigm of chance in crisis. Possessing the potential to extend the complexities and contradictions inherent in the incorporation of chance within the novel and its formal qualities, aleatory novels amplify the manner by which both writers and readers conjoin perspectives in their relations with a fictional text and its representation of an emergent chaotic reality. This thesis examines the aleatory in various selected authors whose concerns are among those that retrospectively help define the experimental novelist's view in Britain during the period. B.S. Johnson explores issues of identity and working class consciousness within innovative modes of aleatory form, aware of personal and political struggle. Rayner Heppenstall, Ann Quin, Wilson Harris, and Doris Lessing engage with aleatorical stylistics to articulate ontological instability, personal and collective trauma, and the fragmentation of grand narratives. Brigid Brophy and Eva Figes foreground issues of gender through aleatoric and ludic perspectives and various intensely personal struggles within patriarchal structures. Finally, John Fowles and Iris Murdoch indicate a popularization of complex conceptual engagements with chance within more conventional modes of writing, thus taking textual and conceptual experimentation to a wider readership. Aligned with positions of apparent marginalization, aleatory dynamics encourage readerly engagements with chance and chaos as fertile grounds for collaborative agitation against the imposition of totalizing narratives and order.

Prosocial behaviours are essential for healthy social interactions, with established impacts on life satisfaction, mental and physical health, and economic success. Yet, how willing people are to act prosocially varies considerably between individuals and across contexts. When making decisions that can result in others' pain, people can be highly prosocial, and will typically not profit from other's harm. In contrast, people are much less motivated to exert effort to benefit others compared to themselves. However, the psychological and neural mechanisms of these behaviours remain largely unknown. In this thesis, I examine the affective, cognitive, and neural processes that underpin harm aversion and effortful prosocial behaviours and their variability between people. First, I propose a theoretical framework where individual differences in prosocial behaviour across domains are due to idiosyncratic sensitivities to personal costs and others' benefits, giving a conceptual and methodological overview on what factors might be hypothesised to influence cost-benefit prosocial evaluations. Second, I show that harm aversion and prosocial effortful actions share variance despite their differences at group level, and are linked by responses in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the anterior insula (AI) to others' benefits. Third, I identify an affective profile characterised by high empathy and low apathy as crucial for predicting prosociality. Fourth, I find that people who are highly hypocritical, i.e. fail to live up to their moral standards, are more sensitive to effort costs, suggesting motivational aspects in moral hypocrisy. Fifth, I disentangle the role of ACC and AI in others' rewards representations, with the dorsal AI linked to interoceptive processes and the ACC linked to motivational aspects of others' rewards. Finally, I propose a new experimental framework to investigate prosocial motivation, examining how the alternative opportunities in the environment shape prosociality. In sum, in this thesis I show that being motivated to benefit others depends on cost-benefit evaluations, which are modulated by affective traits and interoceptive sensibility, with crucial, but differential, roles of ACC and AI in prosocial behaviour.

In this thesis, we investigate properties of deep neural networks and their application to inverse problems. A successful classical approach to inverse problems is variational regularisation, combining knowledge and modelling of the imaging modality at hand with a regularisation functional that incorporates prior knowledge about solutions to the inverse problem. With the success of deep neural networks in many imaging tasks such as image classification or semantic segmentation, recently algorithms that leverage the power of neural networks have been explored to solve inverse problems. In this thesis, we discuss various approaches to incorporate deep learning into reconstruction algorithms for inverse problems and in particular into variational approaches. We propose and discuss an algorithm to train a neural network as regularisation functional. This is achieved by training the network to tell apart an unregularised pseudo-inverse from ground truth images. The resulting regulariser decreases the Wasserstein distance between reconstructions and ground truth images at an optimal rate. We present computational results for computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reconstruction and investigate generalisation properties of the learned regularisation functional. In another line of research, we turn our attention to making use of neural networks to correct for errors in the forward operator. While an approximate model of the forward operator is available in many applications, this model can exhibit artefacts compared to the true behaviour of the imaging modality. We train a neural network to learn how to correct for these shortcomings by learning a correction from data. The aim is to obtain a corrected operator that can be employed within a variational framework for reconstruction. We investigate key challenges of this approach and propose a recursive forward-adjoint algorithm to efficiently train an operator correction for photo-acoustic tomography reconstruction.

We present investigations of magneto-optical phenomena using a ⁸⁷Rb thermal vapour in large magnetic fields. At this point, in the hyperfine Paschen-Back regime, optical transitions can be separated by more than their Doppler-broadened linewidth, providing a high level of control over the atomic system and a simpler theoretical model for studying atom-light-magnetic field interactions. In this context, we study the spectra of ⁸⁷Rb at magnetic fields of 0.4 T and 1.5 T in the Voigt geometry. In both cases we find excellent agreement between experimental and theoretical absorption spectra. With the 1.5 T field we also study polarisation changes induced in the light by the atoms subject to a large magnetic field. Using this approach, we consider the practical applications of our system as a vector magnetometer. We present a scheme that eliminates most sources of systematic errors in the measurement of the field strength by using pairs of transitions that cancel excited-state terms in the energy shifts. Finally, we extend the concepts and ideas investigated to an application in precision thermometry. We discuss how good understanding of the spectra and the magnetic field strength potentially allow detection of small differences in different spectral features, which could then be traced to the effect of the Boltzmann factor, κBT, on the atomic populations.

This thesis provides a comprehensive exploration into the music of the ludic genre (Hourigan, 2005) known as a Computer Role-Playing Game (CRPG) and its two main sub-divisions: Japanese and Western Role-Playing Games (JRPGs & WRPGs). It focuses on the narrative category known as genre fiction, concentrating on fantasy fiction (Turco, 1999) and seeks to address one overall question: How do fantasy CRPG composers incorporate the variety of musical material needed to create a coherent score across the JRPG and WRPG divide? Seven main chapters form the thesis text. Chapter One provides an introduction to the thesis, detailing the research contributions in addition to outlining a variety of key terms that must be understood to continue with the rest of the text. A database accompanying this thesis showcases the vast range of CRPGs available; a literature review tackles relevant existing materials. Chapters Two and Three seek to provide the first canonical history of soundtracks used in CRPGs by dissecting typical narrative structures for games so as to provide context to their musical scores. Through analysis of existing game composer interviews, cultural influences are revealed. Chapters Four and Five mirror one another with detailed discussion respectively regarding JRPG and WRPG music including the influence that anime and Hollywood cinema have had upon them. In Chapter Six, the use of CRPG music outside of video games is explored, particularly the popularity of JRPG soundtracks in the concert hall. Chapter Seven concludes the thesis, summarising research contributions achieved and areas for future work. Throughout these chapters, the core task is to explain how the two primary sub-genres of CRPGs parted ways and why the music used to accompany these games differs so drastically.

Baseflow is typically defined as flow that comes from delayed sources and thus sustains streamflow during dry periods. Baseflow is both an important water resource and an important aspect of catchment functioning, and thus a key element of hydrological theory. Yet we still lack a thorough understanding of how climate and landscape properties control baseflow generation. This thesis investigates baseflow generation at the catchment scale through comparative hydrology, in catchments that are mostly free from human impacts. The thesis is centred around three inter-related aspects: (1) the quantification of baseflow through hydrological signatures, (2) the exploration of climate and landscape attributes that control baseflow generation, and (3) the search for simple models that adequately simulate baseflow. First, we show that mean annual baseflow is controlled both by climate aridity and by catchment storage capacity. In humid catchments, baseflow is limited by a catchment's storage capacity, while in arid catchments, baseflow is limited by high amounts of evapotranspiration. Second, we show how the seasonal translation of climatic forcing into streamflow can be used to define signatures of catchment response that complement typically used baseflow signatures. We show that these signatures vary systematically with climate and landscape attributes, and we use them in a model evaluation experiment. Third, we show that typically used (subsurface) catchment attributes lack hydrologically relevant information, but that region-specific knowledge can improve baseflow signature predictions. We also show that multiple baseflow signatures are needed to better distinguish between different baseflow sources. Finally, we discuss overarching questions and future research needs that we ultimately need to address to advance baseflow hydrology, particularly if we want to predict baseflow under change. Overall, this thesis advances our knowledge in relation to all three above-mentioned aspects and thereby improves our understanding of baseflow generation at the catchment scale.

This thesis examines the idea of world in Kant's Critical philosophy. This is a central idea in the Kantian corpus and plays an important role in different contexts. While interpretations of Kant's philosophy tend to emphasize the theoretical aspect of the notion, this thesis will examine how 'world' also structures Kant's moral philosophy. I argue that examining the wider context where this idea is applied leads to a more comprehensive understanding of Kant's philosophy as a whole. In particular, understanding how this idea functions allows us to examine Kant's theory of the regulative use of the ideas of reason as it applies outside of the area of guiding scientific inquiry. Focusing on the analogical use of ideas to regulate rational activity, I show that Kant also uses the idea to conceive of the world as if it were structured according to moral laws rather than natural laws. Furthermore, the thesis examines how Kant conceives of the world as a teleologically structured whole where natural processes are seen as preparing the way for beings that are receptive to moral incentives and can regulate their behavior according to moral laws.

Brain tumours in children frequently occur in the posterior fossa. Most undergo surgical resection, after which up to 25% develop cerebellar mutism syndrome (CMS), characterised by mutism, emotional lability and cerebellar motor signs; these typically improve over several months. This thesis examines the application of diffusion (dMRI) and arterial spin labelling (ASL) perfusion MRI in children with posterior fossa tumours. dMRI enables non-invasive in vivo investigation of brain microstructure and connectivity by a computational process known as tractography. The results of a unique survey of British neurosurgeons' attitudes towards tractography are presented, demonstrating its widespread adoption and numerous limitations. State-of-the-art modelling of dMRI data combined with tractography is used to probe the anatomy of cerebellofrontal tracts in healthy children, revealing the first evidence of a topographic organization of projections to the frontal cortex at the superior cerebellar peduncle. Retrospective review of a large institutional series shows that CMS remains the most common complication of posterior fossa tumour resection, and that surgical approach does not influence surgical morbidity in this cohort. A prospective case-control study of children with posterior fossa tumours treated at Great Ormond Street Hospital is reported, in which children underwent longitudinal MR imaging at three timepoints. A region-of-interest based approach did not reveal any differences in dMRI metrics with respect to CMS status. However, the candidate also conducted an analysis of a separate retrospective cohort of medulloblastoma patients at Stanford University using an automated tractography pipeline. This demonstrated, in unprecedented spatiotemporal detail, a fine-grained evolution of changes in cerebellar white matter tracts in children with CMS. ASL studies in the prospective cohort showed that following tumour resection, increases in cortical cerebral blood flow were seen alongside reductions in blood arrival time, and these effects were modulated by clinical features of hydrocephalus and CMS. The results contained in this thesis are discussed in the context of the current understanding of CMS, and the novel anatomical insights presented provide a foundation for future research into the condition.

This thesis presents a new analysis of Slavoj Žižek's political thought and challenges the prevailing assessments of his Marxism. Its' stimulus is Žižek's neglect throughout his career to cite Mikhail Bakunin's Anarchism as having been an influence, when his conception of revolution closely resembles Bakunin's. Žižek's presentation of himself as an iconoclastic Marxist has been based on his inflection of the Marxist appetite for essentialism with indeterminacy; the consequence of Kant's transcendental idealism, Žižek says, was that it introduced a painfully reflexive self-awareness into philosophy – we secretly know, when we talk about the external world that we are also revealing something about the nature of our desires, because the inherent unknowability of the external world provokes in us an anxiety, which we try to dampen with essentialisms. The reflexive political subject therefore operates from an indeterminate place, both in relation to the external world and also to other subjects. The sympathetic portrayal of Žižek has invariably been that he transcodes this indeterminacy, mostly successfully, into the historical materialist frame, but his instinctive conception of subjectivity is too fissile to contribute productively to the 'unity of thought and action' on which Marxism turns. This thesis shows that Žižek's Marxism has no positive contours of its' own but rather consists in an absence in his work of a commemoration of Bakunin that should come naturally to him. Žižek's position is ultimately simple: a naked telos-to-violence, but it gets obfuscated by the méconnaissance that marks his spiritualization of revolt.

Artificial intelligence questions our understanding of intelligent behaviour and our own intelligence. Recent advances rely on machine learning, where intelligence arises through statistical learning. Often, machine learning assumes agents approach tasks with no prior knowledge. This stands in stark contrast to how humans approach new problems and is unlikely to yield human-level intelligence that can learn to solve new, unseen problems as they arise. To this end, we need a learning paradigm at a higher level of abstraction. One alternative is agents that learn to learn. Within this framework, agents learn not to solve a given set of tasks, but how to solve them. Such agents can generalise prior experiences into abstract concepts for learning and problem solving. Within the context of neural networks, current methods are limited in their ability to generalise and scale in terms of task variation and complexity. This thesis makes four contributions that tackle these challenges. A novel method is proposed that learns to dynamically adapt an agent's parameters to increase its expressive capacity and ability to generalise. Further, a framework is proposed that grounds meta-learning in differential geometry by learning shortest solution paths (geodesics) across tasks. Building on these insights, a novel method for meta-learning is proposed that is simple, scalable, and effective. It is the first gradient-based meta-learner that can be directly applied to any form of learning - including supervised, unsupervised, reinforcement, continual, and online learning - opening up for meta-learning at the scale and at the level of complexity required for sophisticated artificial intelligence. Finally, while the above methods rely on a predefined task distribution, an artificial intelligence should be able to define its own tasks as needed. To this end, a novel system for exploration in reinforcement learning is proposed that creates intrinsic tasks. These drive an agent to explore experiences where it has high uncertainty and evolves continuously as the agent learns about its world.

One of the most common approaches to assess the performance of qualified doctors is that of multisource feedback (MSF). Previous research often cites MSF to be a valid, reliable and feasible method of assessing performance. However, potential biases in the self-selection of raters has been highlighted as a concern for the utility of MSF, particularly when used in high-stakes assessments such as medical Revalidation. This research uses general practice as the study setting to explore the extent to which social relationships influence the rater selection choices made by doctors. A case study approach was adopted recruiting three GP practices varying in staff team size and geography. Social relationships between staff were measured through a network questionnaire, with rater selection data collected for participating GP's most recent MSF assessment. Finally, qualitative interviews were conducted to provide a narrative to the network findings using a framework analysis approach. Variation in the structure of socialising and trust networks was observed between all three cases. Staff frequently socialised with and trusted the same colleague(s), largely socialising tribally with colleagues from within their own occupation. All doctors interviewed selected their own raters, with the vast majority discussing social relationships to be a factor impacting their choices. A network analysis using multiplex exponential random graph models (ERGM) demonstrate a positive tendency towards GP's requesting performance feedback from those with whom they had a social relationship. The rurality of the practice and the size of the workforce had no clear impact on the study results. Biases in the selection of raters may have significant consequences for the assessment validity of MSF with the potential to jeopardise patient safety and quality of care. Recommendations to address biases in the selection of raters are discussed, alongside highlighting the limitations of this study and the implications for future research.

This thesis offers a detailed examination of the ideas of the city and of citizenship in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and Augustine in their historical contexts. Aristotle is considered as a critic of Plato and Augustine of Cicero, with Cicero considered as poised between Plato and the Stoic legacy. The aim of this examination is to test certain still dominant assumptions about ancient citizenship, defined as active participation in government. These assumptions are that ancient citizenship was primarily political, secular, adult and male; that it is best articulated by Aristotle; that it is compromised by Rome in practice and by Cicero in theory and finally abandoned by Augustine through a Christian denigration of the importance of political life in time. Cicero and Augustine are rather thought to inaugurate an alternative modern idea of citizenship as the non-participatory receiving of rights and protection from the sovereign state. I conclude instead that ancient citizenship was primarily by birth, was first to do with religious rather than political participation and included women and children. Aristotle's purely political picture of civic origins and of citizenship is therefore misleading. Moreover, Aristotle's views on citizenship turn out to be contradictory and incoherent, just because he has lost the primary religious referent. Individual virtue oriented ultimately towards the eternal therefore comes into conflict with collective justice. By contrast, Plato's theory of metaphysical participation is exactly suited to conceiving political participation and retaining a continuum of citizenship across the human ages and classes. Cicero is caught between this Platonic vision and a Stoic, proto-liberal one, and the same goes for Rome itself. Its aspects of empire and monarchy can be seen as according with Platonic mixed constitution and universalising ambition. Augustine, by virtue of his Christian outlook, perfects a Platonic version of Rome, just as his Trinitarian grounding of participation, including political participation, perfects the Platonic metaphysics of the super-forms of the One, the Dyad and their interaction.

Understanding the intricacies of particulate emissions from internal combustion engines is important due to their harmful impact on human health and the environment, as well as their contribution to engine wear and performance. Particulate emissions were historically associated with diesel engines which are predominantly using direct-injection systems. Thus, diesel soot is widely covered in the literature. However, the increasing market share of vehicles with gasoline direct-injection (GDI) engines over recent years raises the question of how GDI soot compares to diesel soot and if existing knowledge can be applied. The aim of this work was to close this gap in knowledge between GDI and diesel engine soot. Fringe analysis was assessed as a tool for quantifying graphitic nanostructures from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images. A considerable influence of the processing parameters on the produced metrics was demonstrated, and optimised parameters were proposed. Moreover, the importance of the TEM focus point and the role of image quality was outlined. Subsequent thermogravimetric analysis of soot-in-oil samples suggested that the soot deposition rate into the lubricating oil is similar for GDI engines compared to diesel engines, even though their exhaust particulate emissions are generally considered to be one order of magnitude lower. Direct comparison of GDI and diesel engine soot samples and a carbon black identified primary particles with similar core-shell nanostructures in TEM images. However, for the GDI samples, also particles with surrounding amorphous layer were observed along with entirely amorphous particulates and traces of wear and oil chemistry. Fringe analysis revealed that fringes of GDI soot were distinctly shorter compared to the other soot types. This finding was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy, indicating that GDI soot is more disordered. Electrical mobility measurements of particulate emissions were acquired for a GDI engine with a differential mobility spectrometer (DMS). As additional processing is required to compare the detailed particle size distributions to the regulatory solid particle number (SPN), different methods were assessed. While lognormal function fitting can be sufficient for SPN23 measurements, modelling of counting efficiencies by applying digital filtering functions is required for measurements below 23 nm. A new function was designed to match the proposed counting efficiencies for SPN10 of upcoming regulations. Measurements with the DMS combined with a catalytic stripper showed an increase of up to 11.2% using this new function compared to the closest previous sub-23 nm function. However, the results are highly dependent on the shape of the particle size distribution. For a matrix of test conditions, the shift from SPN23 to SPN10 was observed to result in increases of 27% to 390%. Furthermore, soot particulates were sampled from the exhaust gas on TEM grids for three operating conditions. Core-shell primary particles were observed for all conditions. In addition, some particles at 1500 rpm fast-idle exhibited a surrounding amorphous layer. For 1500 rpm with 40 Nm brake torque, crystalline features within agglomerates and entirely amorphous/crystalline particulates could be found. Fringe analysis of the graphitic primary particle nanostructures did not find significant differences between the operating conditions; however, longer fringes than for the soot-in-oil samples were identified. An additional feature observed in all samples were separate sub-10 nm particulates of non-volatile nature. The average diameter of these particulates was below the lower detection size limit of the DMS.

Dyslexia and dyspraxia are categorised as specific learning difficulties (SpLDs). Dyslexia impacts upon reading and writing. Dyspraxia is concerned more with hand-eye coordination. However, each of these conditions carries a variety of strengths and weaknesses. Universities and employers in the United Kingdom are required by law to make reasonable adjustments for these individuals. I was diagnosed with dyslexia at medical school. This diagnosis led to both a sense of realisation and also a variety of negative emotions. Literature searches revealed no published research on the experiences of dyslexic medical students or doctors at the time. Some studies of nursing students revealed issues with stigma and discrimination. They also explored coping strategies in clinical settings. No such pre-existing data were available concerning dyspraxia. This series of research aimed to explore the impacts of dyslexia and dyspraxia on medical education, with a particular focus on experience. The following publications are included: • Shaw SCK, Malik M, Anderson JL. The exam performance of medical students with dyslexia: a review of the literature. MedEdPublish. 2017;6(3):2. • Shaw SCK, Anderson JL, Grant AJ. Studying medicine with dyslexia: a collaborative autoethnography. The Qualitative Report. 2016;21(11):2036-54. • Shaw SCK, Anderson JL. The experiences of medical students with dyslexia: an interpretive phenomenological study. Dyslexia. 2018;24(3):220-33. • Anderson JL, Shaw SCK. The experiences of medical students and junior doctors with dyslexia: a survey study. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies. 2020;7(1):62-71. • Hennessy LR, Shaw SCK, Anderson JL. Medical students' attitudes towards and beliefs about dyslexia: a single-centre survey study. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies. 2020;7(4):69-79. • Walker ER, Shaw SCK, Price J, Reed M, Anderson JL. Dyspraxia in clinical education: a review. The Clinical Teacher. 2018;15(2):98-103. • Walker ER, Shaw SCK, Anderson JL. Dyspraxia in medical education: a collaborative autoethnography. The Qualitative Report. 2020;25(11):4072-93. • Walker E, Shaw SCK, Reed M, Anderson JL. The experiences of foundation doctors with dyspraxia: a phenomenological study. Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice. 2021. Online ahead of print. Methods This research adopted a mixture of approaches, comprising two literature reviews, two autoethnographies, two interpretive phenomenological studies and two survey studies. Data collection methods included literature searches, autobiographical accounts, interviews and online surveys. Data were subsequently analysed using thematic analyses, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics where appropriate. Results A variety of findings emerged across the included works. With reasonable adjustments in place, dyslexic medical students performed as well as their peers in exams. However, being dyslexic or dyspraxic came with an emotional burden. The medical school ranking system and the competitive environment were particularly challenging. Dyslexic medical students encountered bullying and feelings of isolation. This inhibited disclosure. Both dyslexic and dyspraxic medical students/doctors felt that stigma existed concerning their labels. Both developed a variety of personal coping strategies and reported subsequent strengths in other areas. Interestingly, the majority of dyslexic doctors were diagnosed at or since medical school. High proportions reported feelings of stupidity, inadequacy, anxiety and shame as both students and doctors. Furthermore, a minority of non-dyslexic students confirmed negative attitudes towards dyslexia - seemingly stemming from jealousy of supports. Conclusions The inspiration for this series of research was grounded in my own experiences as a dyslexic medical student and those of a dyspraxic colleague. The included studies advanced knowledge in a variety of ways. For example, the confirmation that, in a small number of cases, non-dyslexic medical students did seem to hold negative views regarding their dyslexic peers. These studies have also paved the way for future areas of research, some of which are highlighted in the critical appraisal.

Predicting the assembly of multiple proteins into specific complexes is critical to understanding their biological function in an organism, and thus the design of drugs to address their malfunction. Consequently, a significant body of research and development focuses on methods for elucidating protein quaternary structure. In silico techniques are used to propose models that decode experimental data, and independently as a structure prediction tool. These computational methods often consider proteins as rigid structures, yet proteins are inherently flexible molecules, with both local side-chain motion and larger conformational dynamics governing their behaviour. This treatment is particularly problematic for any protein docking engine, where even a simple rearrangement of the side-chain and backbone atoms at the interface of binding partners complicates the successful determination of the correct docked pose. Herein, we present a means of representing protein surface, electrostatics and local dynamics within a single volumetric descriptor, before applying it to a series of physical and biophysical problems to validate it as representative of a protein. We leverage this representation in a protein-protein docking context and demonstrate that its application bypasses the need to compensate for, and predict, specific side-chain packing at the interface of binding partners for both water-soluble and lipid-soluble protein complexes. We find little detriment in the quality of returned predictions with increased flexibility, placing our protein docking approach as highly competitive versus comparative methods. We then explore the role of larger, conformational dynamics in protein quaternary structure prediction, by exploiting large-scale Molecular Dynamics simulations of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein to elucidate possible high-order spike-ACE2 oligomeric states. Our results indicate a possible novel path to therapeutics following the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, we find that the structure of a protein alone is inadequate in understanding its function through its possible binding modes. Therefore, we must also consider the impact of dynamics in protein assembly.

The rise of importance of supply chain risk management both, in the scientific and business world, is essentially the result of solving an economical paradox. How can an organisation continuously increase its growth in revenue and increase its profit in a world in which the flow of goods and financial means is reaching a never seen complexity? This provides both, a threat and an opportunity to those organisations. The key is how to identify, manage and prevent operational risk. The following thesis aims at providing a new approach on the subject targeting project management organisations by bringing together three different disciplines, supply chain risk management, business modelling and simulation and the concept of the learning organisation. The research is based on a literature review of the identified fields followed by an empirical assessment aiming to understand the main risks threatening a project's supply chain, the current state of supply chain risk management and application of business modelling and simulation in practice as well as gaining an understanding how the principles of the learning organisation are lived within a project management organisation. Furthermore, the thesis is providing an exemplary approach on how a simulation model could be built assessing identified supply chain risks. The literature review, as well as the empirical assessment, conducted via the combination of questionnaire and interview, is clearly showing that, while the topic of supply chain risk management has become a constant part of the scientific discussion the real-world application, especially in the context of business modelling and simulation applying the principles of the learning organisation is still executed hesitantly. Furthermore, the thesis provides an example by which current state of the art simulation software is used to allow supply chain professionals to conduct each step of the supply chain risk management process in a virtual environment. The relevancy of the work is founded in the combination of the three fields offering a new approach to complex project management organisations in further developing their supply chain risk management capabilities.