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Between 2019 and 2022 we carried out a survey to update the distribution data of the red squirrel in the province of Málaga. Fifteen years after the last elaboration of the distribution atlas, it was likely that this forest species had expanded in step with the increase in forest mass in the province. The results show that the species has expanded in the province, increasing its distribution range between 24.8% and 27.7% and almost tripling the number of UTM grid squares. The species has colonised the region of Antequera, the mountains of the Arco Calizo Central and the banks of the Genil River in the north of the province. To the south it has expanded towards the urban environments of the city of Málaga and has begun its expansion towards the west. In the extreme northeast, the species has made less progress, colonising some new areas just beyond the limits of the Sierra Tejada, Almijara and Alhama Natural Park. Most of the new populations are geographically closer to the population at Montes de Málaga, which seems to have served as the main source population. In the eastern area, subtropical crops seem to function as a barrier limiting further expansion. We propose and discuss a series of hypotheses regarding the origin of the population and the need to undertake future studies of historical, genetic, and epidemiological distribution models., Entre 2019 y 2022 se han realizado una serie de muestreos para actualizar la distribución de la ardilla roja en la provincia de Málaga. Quince años después de la elaboración de la última edición del atlas de distribución, era probable que esta especie forestal se hubiera expandido a la vez que ha ido aumentando la masa forestal en la provincia. Los resultados muestran que la especie se ha expandido en la provincia, aumentando su rango de distribución entre un 24,8% y 27,7% y casi triplicado el número de cuadrículas en las que está presente. La especie ha colonizado la comarca de Antequera, las montañas del Arco Calizo Central y las riberas del río Genil en el norte de la provincia. Hacia el sur se ha expandido hacia los entornos urbanos de la ciudad de Málaga y ha comenzado su expansión hacia el oeste. En el extremo nororiental, la especie ha progresado menos, colonizando algunas zonas nuevas poco más allá de los límites del Parque Natural de Sierra Tejada, Almijara y Alhama. La mayoría de las nuevas poblaciones están geográficamente más cerca de la población de los Montes de Málaga, que parece haber actuado como la principal población fuente. En el área oriental, los cultivos subtropicales parecen funcionar como una barrera que limita una mayor expansión. Se propone y discute una serie de hipótesis sobre el origen de las nuevas poblaciones y la necesidad de emprender futuros estudios con modelos de datos históricos, genéticos y epidemiológicos de distribución.

We studied the consumption of almonds by Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in a nature park in southern Spain where the species coexists with the crop. For two years, we collected weekly samples of almonds consumed by the species and analyzed its spatial and temporal patterns. We also compared almonds consumed with the production of the crop to assess possible damages. The results reveal a marked seasonal pattern of almond consumption, which begins in mid-June, peaks in mid-July and declines towards the beginning of the harvest season in early October. The mean number of almonds consumed was 1.3 ± 0.4 almonds/m2 , and consumption was restricted to a 20-metre-wide band in the ecotone of the pine forest to the crop. We appreciate that this amount of consumption is insignificant when compared to the crop production in large cultivation plots, but the damage may be important in small ones. We discuss different hypotheses (edge effect and refuge-distance effect) to explain why almond consumption occurs only in the ecotone. Finally, we propose almonds consumption as a new presence index of this species in areas where red squirrels coexist with the crop., Hemos estudiado el consumo de almendras por parte de la ardilla roja (Sciurus vulgaris) en un parque natural del sur de España donde la especie convive con el cultivo. Durante dos años, recolectamos muestras semanales de almendras consumidas por la especie y analizamos los patrones espacial y temporal de consumo. También comparamos las almendras consumidas por las ardillas con la producción del cultivo para valorar posibles daños. Los resultados revelan un marcado patrón estacional de consumo de almendra, que comienza a mediados de junio, alcanza su punto máximo a mediados de julio y desciende hacia el inicio de la temporada de recolección, a principios de octubre. La media de almendras consumidas fue de 1,3 ± 0,4 almendras/m2 , y el consumo se restringió a una franja de 20 m de ancho en el ecotono del pinar con el cultivo. Consideramos que el consumo de almendras por parte de la ardilla es insignificante si se compara con la producción en grandes parcelas de cultivo, pero puede ser importante en pequeñas parcelas. Se proponen dos hipótesis (efecto borde y efecto distancia-refugio) para explicar por qué el consumo de almendras se produce únicamente en el ecotono. Finalmente, proponemos que las almendras consumidas por las ardillas pueden ser usadas como un índice de presencia de esta especie en zonas donde convive con el cultivo.

Understanding the biogeography of species in space and time is essential for the development of evidence-based conservation and management plans. In this paper we propose a biogeographical spatial modelling approach based on the favourability function, and developed under a fuzzy logic framework, to unravel the historical biogeography of the two European wild rabbit subspecies, Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus (Oca) and Oryctolagus cuniculus cuniculus (Occ), in the Iberian Peninsula (IP). We first reviewed published and unpublished information (PhD theses, scientific papers, technical reports, etc.) on the occurrence of each rabbit subspecies throughout the IP. We compiled data from 201 Iberian rabbit populations and from genetic information of 4348 rabbits that was used to identify subspecies. Only populations in which all rabbits surveyed belonged to one subspecies were considered in the modelling procedure. We modelled rabbit subspecies' distribution separately for populations in which nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences were available. We employed a trend surface analysis developed by logistic regressions, which applied the favourability function and fuzzy logic operations. Using our approach we indentify the expansion cores from which both rabbit subspecies would have expanded after isolation during the last glaciations. Furthermore, we reveal the possible existence of a competitive exclusion zone between both rabbit subspecies that may have prevented their further expansion. Finally, our study shows that the Oca subspecies is distributed in north-western areas previously attributed to Occ. This assessment of the actual and historical distribution of each rabbit subspecies may allow more specific conservation interventions, as the two subspecies are not just genetically distinct but also ecologically and behaviourally different. Our methodological approach could be useful in unravelling the historical biogeography of other lesser-known species.

The Red-legged Partridge is endemic to the Mediterranean region. It is a resident species from southwestern Europe. Along its range, its abundance is characterized by low abundances in areas with wet climate such as the northern fringe of the Iberian Peninsula and the Atlantic coast of Portugal, France and the UK, and high abundances in areas with a Mediterranean climate such as the southwestern region in Portugal and the central and southern regions of peninsular Spain. The Red-legged Partridge still has a very large range, but their populations underwent a large decline and range contraction starting in the twentieth century and particularly marked since 1970. The reasons for the population decline are related to the loss of habitat caused by agricultural intensification, the risk of hybridization with individuals released from farms, excessive hunting pressure and poor management on use of biocides and pesticides. Efforts made in recent decades to research the Red-legged Partridge have produced results of direct importance in the conservation and management of this species, especially regarding the negative effect of releasing farm-reared partridges on wild populations by increasing overall mortality and the existence of a high number of wild populations with allochthonous lineages, the important role of carotenoids as honest quality signals in the sexual selection and how landscape changes affect the distribution of the species at the geographical level. It is true, however, that important gaps in knowledge remain related to evaluating the time needed to recover a wild population that is not subject to hunting activity based on the influence of game management, habitat structure and predators, the proportion of animals released relative to wild individuals and the effect of climate change on the distribution of the Red-legged Partridge.

A significant link between forest loss and fragmentation and outbreaks of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in humans has been documented. Deforestation may alter the natural circulation of viruses and change the composition, abundance, behaviour and possibly viral exposure of reservoir species. This in turn might increase contact between infected animals and humans. Fruit bats of the family Pteropodidae have been suspected as reservoirs of the Ebola virus. At present, the only evidence associating fruit bats with EVD is the presence of seropositive individuals in eight species and polymerase chain reaction-positive individuals in three of these. Our study investigates whether human activities can increase African fruit bat geographical ranges and whether this influence overlaps geographically with EVD outbreaks that, in turn, are favoured by deforestation. We use species observation records for the 20 fruit bat species found in favourable areas for the Ebola virus to determine factors affecting the bats' range inside the predicted Ebola virus area. We do this by employing a hypothetico-deductive approach based on favourability modelling. We show that the range of some fruit bat species is linked to human activities within the favourable areas for the Ebola virus. More specifically, the areas where human activities favour the presence of five fruit bat species overlap with the areas where EVD outbreaks in humans were themselves favoured by deforestation. These five species are as follows: Eidolon helvum, Epomops franqueti, Megaloglossus woermanni, Micropteropus pusillus and Rousettus aegyptiacus. Of these five, all but Megaloglossus woermanni have recorded seropositive individuals. For the remaining 15 bat species, we found no biogeographical support for the hypothesis that positive human influence on fruit bats could be associated with EVD outbreaks in deforested areas within the tropical forest biome in West and Central Africa. Our work is a useful first step allowing fur

The trade of bushmeat from rural areas to supply burgeoning cities is a major conservation and livelihood concern. Using a whole-city sampling strategy we mapped the distribution and numbers of meat outlets in the Kinshasa-Brazzaville metropolitan area, two neighboring capital cities in Central Africa. We show that both cities differ in the number and density of meat outlets, with more in Brazzaville per area sampled and inhabitants. The number of meat outlets is related to human population densities and primarily concentrated along the banks of the Congo River, in the more affluent areas of the cities. Across the two cities, roughly 22% of all sampled markets (50% in Brazzaville and 19% in Kinshasa) and 24% of all visited restaurants (24% in each city) were selling bushmeat during our survey. Despite the relatively low number of establishments offering bushmeat for sale, extrapolated to the entire area and population of both cities, we expect the overall amounts of wild animal meats consumed per annum to be significantly high. We suggest that the supply of such amounts of wild animal meat will strongly impact the animal populations sourcing these cities. Our data also indicate that the number of domestic meat outlets may be adequate to supply urban dwellers with sufficient animal protein.

The trade of bushmeat from rural areas to supply burgeoning cities is a major conservation and livelihood concern. Using a whole-city sampling strategy we mapped the distribution and numbers of meat outlets in the Kinshasa-Brazzaville metropolitan area, two neighboring capital cities in Central Africa. We show that both cities differ in the number and density of meat outlets, with more in Brazzaville per area sampled and inhabitants. The number of meat outlets is related to human population densities and primarily concentrated along the banks of the Congo River, in the more affluent areas of the cities. Across the two cities, roughly 22% of all sampled markets (50% in Brazzaville and 19% in Kinshasa) and 24% of all visited restaurants (24% in each city) were selling bushmeat during our survey. Despite the relatively low number of establishments offering bushmeat for sale, extrapolated to the entire area and population of both cities, we expect the overall amounts of wild animal meats consumed per annum to be significantly high. We suggest that the supply of such amounts of wild animal meat will strongly impact the animal populations sourcing these cities. Our data also indicate that the number of domestic meat outlets may be adequate to supply urban dwellers with sufficient animal protein.

The European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus is native to the lberian Península (IP), where the two known rabbit subspecies occur. Previous studies have suggested that O.c. cuniculus distribution extends towards the north-east of the IP, while O.c. algirus is restricted to south-westem regions; a transition area crosses the IP from the north-west to the south-east. Here, we revisited rabbit subspecies distribution to define with greater precision historical distribution areas, identifying the potential expansion cores and evaluating the spatial interaction between both subspecies expansion waves. We used different diagnostic loci located on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to classify in any of the subspecies 4500 rabbits from 197 populations distributed throughout the IP. Using populations where all the rabbits were either O.c. cuniculus or O.c. algirus, we determined the spatial structure of the two molecules independently, by using a trend surface analysis based on favourability functions. We then combined the different spatial structures using fuzzy logic operations. Two areas in the Guadalquivir and Ebro valleys were identified as respective expansion cores. In comparison to previous studies, we found an increase in the distribution range of O.c. algirus to the northwest anda shift of the transition zone eastwards in its northern area. Our results suggest that competitive exclusion may ha ve a greater role than expected in regulating the expansion of both subspecies. The spatial structure of these genes reflects, and thus may be used to unravel, the historical biogeography of these subspecies, provided that we possess appropriate analytical tools, such as fuzzy logic.

Currently, there are naturalized populations of feral pigeon (Columba livia var. domestica) worldwide with an estimated global population between 165 and 330 million individuals. Feral pigeons are adapted to urban environments, creating problems related to human health, damage to architectural structures, unpleasant soiling, and foul odors. Thus, local governments usually implement measures to reduce feral pigeon populations in cities to a suitable size. We monitored a feral pigeon trapping campaign to investigate the use of cage traps as control method in residential zones. We analyzed efficiency (daily capture rate), effectiveness (defined as the number of feral pigeons captured relative to the total number of potential pigeon captures), animal welfare, selectivity (the proportion of captured feral pigeons in relation to the total number of captured animals), and the effect on feral pigeon abundance. All procedures were conducted in compliance with current European and Spanish legislation. Overall efficiency was 0.25 feral pigeons/trap-day, effectiveness was 22.5%, and selectivity was 99.7%. Over the study period, there was a decreasing trend in abundances. A significant decrease was found in the relative abundances of feral pigeons after 2 months of extractions, and population abundances remained low up to the end of the extraction period. The use of cage traps was a useful and effective method to reduce local feral pigeon populations in isolated urban areas with low building density in which the feral pigeon population has not yet reached high densities.

Pest species cause significant ecological, social and economic impacts, and programs to control them usually target specific landscape features when pests use these to disperse. Roads or railways are often used by pest species as dispersal corridors, but little is known about the specific characteristics of these human infrastructures that facilitate pest species dispersal. This is particularly evident in the case of native agricultural vertebrate pests like the European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in the Iberian Peninsula (IP). Rabbit damage to agricultural production in IP has increased notably in recent years. This study uses a ‘favourability function’ to model the extent to which macroecological favourable conditions for rabbits and different fine-scale variables, including environmental, anthropogenic and agricultural factors, favour the presence of rabbit warrens on the verges of a motorway network in southern IP. For this purpose, we collected rabbit warren locations during car transects using CyberTraker 3.0 installed in a pad along 787 km of motorways. Our results revealed that rabbit warren distribution was widespread along the verges. Rabbit warren presence correlated positively with the presence of olive groves and with macroecological favourable conditions for rabbits. Our results provide strong evidence that rabbits use motorway verges, which are likely to act as dispersal corridors across landscapes. Additionally, our innovative approach, based on a rabbit warren index, the favourability function and a combination of local and macroecological predictors, could be used in many other areas where rabbits cause crop damage to make fine-scale predictions of high risk stretches and, therefore, where to apply mitigation measures.

Aim of study: Monitoring and control the hunting activity is primordial to guarantee its sustainability. However, the governmental agencies responsible to manage hunting commonly are unable to adequately do this job because the thousands of small private hunting states, associated exclusively by political-administrative criteria. In this work, we provided a new management tool through the establishment of a hunting regions system.Area of study: Castilla-La Mancha region, central Spain.Material and methods: We used a two-stage procedure to establish the environmental units than, afterwards, were characterized on a set of hunting variables.Main results: We generate a hunting regionalization with 12 hunting regions and proposed regional hunting yields for each of the hunting regions.Research highlights: The use of hunting regions will permit to define the game management practices more appropriately on a large scale, but also, will facilitate the tasks of assessment, management and monitoring of game of the number hunting states included in each hunting region., Aim of study: Monitoring and control the hunting activity is primordial to guarantee its sustainability. However, the governmental agencies responsible to manage hunting commonly are unable to adequately do this job because the thousands of small private hunting states, associated exclusively by political-administrative criteria. In this work, we provide a new management tool through the establishment of a hunting regions system.Area of study: This study was conducted at the Castilla-La Mancha region, in central Spain.Material and methods: We used a two-stage procedure to establish the environmental units than, afterwards, were characterized on a set of hunting variables.Main results: We generate a hunting regionalization with 12 hunting regions and proposed a regional hunting yields for each of the hunting regions.Research highlights: The use of hunting regions will permit to define the game management practices more appropriately on a large scale, but also, will facilitate the tasks of assessment, management and monitoring of game of the number hunting states included in each hunting region

[Aim of study]: Monitoring and control the hunting activity is primordial to guarantee its sustainability. However, the governmental agencies responsible to manage hunting commonly are unable to adequately do this job because the thousands of small private hunting states, associated exclusively by political-administrative criteria. In this work, we provided a new management tool through the establishment of a hunting regions system. [Area of study]: Castilla-La Mancha region, central Spain. [Material and methods]: We used a two-stage procedure to establish the environmental units than, afterwards, were characterized on a set of hunting variables. [Main results]: We generate a hunting regionalization with 12 hunting regions and proposed regional hunting yields for each of the hunting regions. [Research highlights]: The use of hunting regions will permit to define the game management practices more appropriately on a large scale, but also, will facilitate the tasks of assessment, management and monitoring of game of the number hunting states included in each hunting region.

We followed a red fox culling campaign that employed traditional cable snares to control numbers in a hunting estate in the Serrania de Ronda (Andalusia, southern Spain). We assessed abundance and presence of carnivore species within the area where fox culling took place by means of faecal counts within regularly walked paths. Twenty animals of four different taxa were snared during 238 nights in 36 locations. Through interviews with informed locals we established there were eight carnivore species present in the study area. Capture efficiency was 1.52 foxes per 1,000 trap-nights; the ISO-selectivity was 65% and the negative specific selectivity 50%. Despite daily checks of snares, there was a very high mortality (>80%) of target and non-target species. Moreover, a large proportion of the animals were caught by the neck. Our results suggest that this traditional method (snares without stops) of predator control should not be used., Se ha realizado el seguimiento de una campaña de captura de zorros con lazos tradicionales (sin freno) en la serranía de Ronda (Andalucía, sur de España). En la misma zona de instalación de los lazos se ha muestreado la presencia y abundancia de especies de carnívoros silvestres mediante la detección de excrementos. Se capturaron 20 ejemplares pertenecientes a 4 especies de carnívoros diferentes durante 238 noches de actividad en 36 emplazamientos de lazos en una comunidad formada por 8 especies de carnívoros. La eficiencia de captura de zorros resultó ser de 1,52 zorros/1.000 lazos-noche, la selectividad ISO del 65% y la selectividad específica negativa del 50%. La elevada mortalidad (>80%) que afecta de forma importante al criterio del bienestar animal, tanto de los zorros capturados como de otras especies no objetivo, junto con la baja selectividad del método desaconsejan el empleo tradicional de lazos sin freno, aún realizando revisiones diarias.

We have monitored the presence of roe deer in 25 municipalities in the occidental mountians of Malaga. We estimated roe deer abundance (pellet groups counts/km) and relative density (deer/km.2) by means of distance sampling and defecation rate conversion. We also analyzed the relationships between roe deer abundance and habitat vegetation and coverages by means of GLM models. Results are presented by hidrological basins. We found that roe deer relative density varied between 0.18 to 2.49 deer/km2. The highest values were found in the Hozgarganta river and the Genal river valley. The lowest was in the mountains around the Guadalhorce river basin. Roe deer abundance was positively related to the vicinity of roe deer population in the Cadiz mountains and to the coverage of mixed forests of oaks, pines and chestnuts. Roe deer abundance was negatively related to urban landuses, farmlands and dense pine forests. Our results are coherent with the hyphotesis of an expanding roe deer population in the Mgaga mountains., Se ha muestreado la presencia de corzos en 25 municipios diferentes de las sierras occidentales de Málaga, determinándose la abundancia de las poblaciones (grupos de excrementos/km) y la densidad relativa de las poblaciones (corzo/km2) mediante la aplicación combinada de distance sampling y la conversión de tasas de defecación. Se ha analizado también la relación de la abundancia de corzos con las coberturas vegetales de las áreas estudiadas mediante modelos GLM. Los resultados se presentan por cuencas hidrológicas. Se ha encontrado que la densidad relativa de corzos en Málaga varía entre 0,18 y 2,49 corzo/km2. Los valores más altos se detectaron en el río Hozgarganta y en las sierras del vale del Genal. La menor densidad relativa se obtuvo en las sierras de la cuenca del río Guadalhorce. La abundancia de corzos está positivamente relacionada con la distancia a las poblaciones de origen de las sierras de Cádiz, con la cobertura de bosques mixtos de quercíneas y coníferas y con las formaciones de castaños. La abundancia se relaciona negativamente con el uso urbano, los usos agrícolas y el arbolado denso de coníferas. Los resultados obtenidos concuerdan con la hipótesis de que el corzo está en expansión en las sierras de Málaga.

Red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) populations have significantly declined in the Iberian Peninsula (by > 50% between 1973 and 2002). This decline has been attributed to the drastic changes that have occurred in traditional agricultural landscapes, among other factors. This paper assesses the relationship between landscape change and the changes in areas favourable to partridges. The areas favourable to partridges in Andalusia (southern Spain), and the environmental and land-use factors that determined these areas, were identified for both the 1960s and the 1990s. Land-use changes were analysed both throughout the study area and for areas where favourability for partridges has either improved or worsened during recent decades. Both the location and the factors determining areas favourable to red-legged partridges have changed substantially over recent decades. In the 1960s, areas favourable to partridges were associated mainly with natural vegetation in mountainous areas, whereas, by the 1990s, favourable areas were associated with large low-lying croplands; such change may be attributable to regional land-use changes. The percentage area of the main natural vegetation variables positively correlated to partridge favourability in the 1960s model (mainly pastures and open scrubland) had decreased in areas that had become unfavourable to the species (such as mountain areas), and risen where partridge favourability increased. By the 1990s, the land area favourable to partridges had decreased by c. 10% (c. 6000 km 2) in southern Spain, whereas land use unfavourable to partridges markedly increased (> 100%; an increase of c. 3000 km 2). Landscape suitable for partridges has thus become severely impoverished over recent decades in the Iberian Peninsula. Management measures aimed at improving the landscape for farmland birds should be encouraged to conserve red-legged partridge populations in southern Spain.

In recent decades, Mediterranean landscapes have been experiencing more rapid changes in land use than usual, which have affected the ecology of the species inhabiting this biodiversity hotspot. Some studies have assessed the effect of such changes on biodiversity, but most of these were diachronic studies of population dynamics, or synchronic studies of species habitat selection, whereas few studies have simultaneously taken into account temporal changes in habitat composition and changes in species distribution. This study analysed the effects of land-use changes on the distribution of wild ungulates (Capreolus capreolus, Capra pyrenaica, Cervus elaphus and Sus scrofa). Using favourability function and Markov chain analysis combined with cellular automata, we addressed the following objectives: (i) to examine the environmental determinants of ungulate distribution in the past (1960s) and present (1990s), (ii) to model land use for 2040 to forecast future species distributions and (iii) to assess the biogeographical differences between the above-mentioned study periods (past-present and present-future). Species favourability was predicted to be more widely distributed in the present than in the past, but this increase varied across species. Areas predicted to be favourable in the present should remain stable in the future, but in addition there will be more new favourable areas not previously occupied by these species. The results are discussed from the perspective of the socio-economic relevance of wild ungulates in relation to some unfavourable areas of Mediterranean regions.

European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), a multifunctional keystone species in the Iberian Peninsula, have drastically declined over past decades. Rabbit decline has been frequently attributed to the arrival of two viral diseases. However, decline was apparently ongoing before the arrival of the diseases, as a consequence of habitat loss and fragmentation. In this paper, the effect on rabbit populations of land-use changes during recent decades in Andalusia (southern Spain) is analysed. Areas favourable for rabbits both at present and during the 1960s are identified, and the environmental and land-use factors that determine these areas established. In areas where the favourability for rabbits has changed during recent decades, main land use changes are assessed to identify possible factors explaining rabbit favourability in these areas. Areas favourable to rabbits are currently determined by factors similar to those during the 1960s; these areas have undergone geographic changes in recent decades, apparently as a consequence of land-use changes in Andalusia. The percentages of the variables that were positively associated with rabbit favourability in both models (current and 1960s) have declined in Andalusia as a whole, and in areas where rabbit favourability has decreased; hence environments suitable for rabbits have become impoverished. Conversely, in both models, environments suitable for rabbits increased in municipalities, where rabbit favourability also increased. The preservation of rabbit-friendly habitats should be a priority for the conservation of this key species in the western Mediterranean.

Agricultural change has transformed large areas of traditional farming landscapes, leading to important changes in the species community assemblages in most European countries. We suspect that the drastic changes in land-use that have occurred in Andalusia (southern Spain) over recent decades, may have affected the distribution and abundance of game species in this region. This article compares the distribution of the main game species in Andalusia during the 1960s and 1990s, using data from maps available from the Mainland Spanish Fish, Game and National Parks Service and from recent datasets on hunting yield distributions, respectively. Big-game and small-game species were significantly segregated in southern Spain during the 1990s, as two clearly independent chorotypes (groups of species whose abundances are similarly distributed) were obtained from the classification analysis. In contrast, big-game and small-game species were not significantly segregated several decades ago, when there was only one chorotype consisting of small-game species and wild boar. The other three ungulates did not constitute a significant chorotype, as they showed positive correlations with some species in the group mentioned above. These changes seem to be a consequence of the transformations that have occurred in the Iberian Mediterranean landscape over the last few decades. The abandoning of traditional activities, and the consequent formation of dense scrubland and woodland, has led to an expansion of big-game species, and a decrease of small-game species in mountain areas. Moreover, agricultural intensification has apparently depleted small-game species populations in some agricultural areas. On the other hand, the increasingly intensive hunting management could be artificially boosting this segregation between small-game and big-game species. Our results suggest that the conservation and regeneration of traditional agricultural landscapes (like those predominating in the 1960s) sho

El presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo identificar y entender los principales procesos de concertación y negociación, así como los indicadores de éxito y mecanismos de monitoreo y seguimiento para mantener la licencia social en las industrias extractivas. Para la presente investigación se toma en cuenta el análisis de dos casos exitosos del sector minero para obtener y mantener la licencia social; el proyecto Quellaveco ubicado en el departamento de Moquegua y el proyecto Tintaya ubicado en el departamento de Cusco. Asimismo, este trabajo contempla entrevistas a expertos vinculados estrechamente con dichos casos para entender a mayor profundidad la naturaleza de dichos procesos y validar cuales son los aspectos relevantes que facilitan obtener y mantener la licencia social. Entre los principales hallazgos se encontró que existen varios factores clave que contribuyen con los procesos de concertación, negociación, establecimiento de indicadores de éxito y mecanismos de monitoreo y seguimiento para lograr obtener y mantener la licencia social, entre los que destacan: (a) una adecuada identificación de stakeholders, sus intereses y expectativas; (b) valores, cultura e historia de los stakeholders; (c) la disminución de asimetrías existentes entre las capacidades técnicas y organizativas de los actores; (d) la identificación de líderes locales legítimos que faciliten y contribuyan con estos procesos; (e) un enfoque de negociación transformacional; (f) priorización de necesidades; (g) objetividad; (h) cumplimiento de los acuerdos; (i) difusión del cumplimiento de los acuerdos; (j) participación activa de los distintos actores en el monitoreo y seguimiento por grupos de trabajo; y el (k) involucramiento de las diversas áreas internas de la empresa. Asimismo, para lograr mantener exitosamente la licencia social se deben considerar estos procesos como dinámicos, no estáticos y deben contemplarse a lo largo de todo el ciclo de vida del proyecto., This research aims to identify and understand the main processes of concertation and negotiation, as well as success indicators and monitoring and tracking mechanisms to maintain the social license to operate in extractive industries. The present study takes into account the analysis of two successful cases in the mining sector to obtain and maintain the social license to operate, Quellaveco project located in the department of Moquegua and Tintaya project located in the department of Cusco. Also, this work includes interviews with experts linked to these cases, which helps for a deeper understanding of the nature of these processes and helps to validate relevant aspects which facilitate the obtaining and maintaining of the social license to operate. Among the main findings this research found that there are several factors of success which contribute to the processes of concertation, negotiation, establishing success indicators and monitoring and tracking mechanisms to achieve and maintain the social license to operate: (a) adequate identifying stakeholders, their interests, expectations; (b) values, culture and history; (c) lower asymmetries between the technical and organizational capacities of the stakeholders; (d) identifying local leaders to facilitate and contribute to these processes; (e) negotiating transformational approach; (f) prioritizing problems; (g) objectivity; (h) compliance agreements; (i) diffusion of compliance agreements; (j) active participation of the stakeholders in the monitoring and tracking through the formation of working groups; and (k) involvement of the various internal areas of the company. Also, to achieve a successful maintenance of the social license to operate, this research suggest to consider these processes as dynamic, not as statics, and these processes should be considered throughout the entire project life cycle.

El presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo identificar y entender los principales procesos de concertación y negociación, así como los indicadores de éxito y mecanismos de monitoreo y seguimiento para mantener la licencia social en las industrias extractivas. Para la presente investigación se toma en cuenta el análisis de dos casos exitosos del sector minero para obtener y mantener la licencia social; el proyecto Quellaveco ubicado en el departamento de Moquegua y el proyecto Tintaya ubicado en el departamento de Cusco. Asimismo, este trabajo contempla entrevistas a expertos vinculados estrechamente con dichos casos para entender a mayor profundidad la naturaleza de dichos procesos y validar cuales son los aspectos relevantes que facilitan obtener y mantener la licencia social. Entre los principales hallazgos se encontró que existen varios factores clave que contribuyen con los procesos de concertación, negociación, establecimiento de indicadores de éxito y mecanismos de monitoreo y seguimiento para lograr obtener y mantener la licencia social, entre los que destacan: (a) una adecuada identificación de stakeholders, sus intereses y expectativas; (b) valores, cultura e historia de los stakeholders; (c) la disminución de asimetrías existentes entre las capacidades técnicas y organizativas de los actores; (d) la identificación de líderes locales legítimos que faciliten y contribuyan con estos procesos; (e) un enfoque de negociación transformacional; (f) priorización de necesidades; (g) objetividad; (h) cumplimiento de los acuerdos; (i) difusión del cumplimiento de los acuerdos; (j) participación activa de los distintos actores en el monitoreo y seguimiento por grupos de trabajo; y el (k) involucramiento de las diversas áreas internas de la empresa. Asimismo, para lograr mantener exitosamente la licencia social se deben considerar estos procesos como dinámicos, no estáticos y deben contemplarse a lo largo de todo el ciclo de vida del proyecto., This research aims to identify and understand the main processes of concertation and negotiation, as well as success indicators and monitoring and tracking mechanisms to maintain the social license to operate in extractive industries. The present study takes into account the analysis of two successful cases in the mining sector to obtain and maintain the social license to operate, Quellaveco project located in the department of Moquegua and Tintaya project located in the department of Cusco. Also, this work includes interviews with experts linked to these cases, which helps for a deeper understanding of the nature of these processes and helps to validate relevant aspects which facilitate the obtaining and maintaining of the social license to operate. Among the main findings this research found that there are several factors of success which contribute to the processes of concertation, negotiation, establishing success indicators and monitoring and tracking mechanisms to achieve and maintain the social license to operate: (a) adequate identifying stakeholders, their interests, expectations; (b) values, culture and history; (c) lower asymmetries between the technical and organizational capacities of the stakeholders; (d) identifying local leaders to facilitate and contribute to these processes; (e) negotiating transformational approach; (f) prioritizing problems; (g) objectivity; (h) compliance agreements; (i) diffusion of compliance agreements; (j) active participation of the stakeholders in the monitoring and tracking through the formation of working groups; and (k) involvement of the various internal areas of the company. Also, to achieve a successful maintenance of the social license to operate, this research suggest to consider these processes as dynamic, not as statics, and these processes should be considered throughout the entire project life cycle., Tesis

El presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo identificar y entender los principales procesos de concertación y negociación, así como los indicadores de éxito y mecanismos de monitoreo y seguimiento para mantener la licencia social en las industrias extractivas. Para la presente investigación se toma en cuenta el análisis de dos casos exitosos del sector minero para obtener y mantener la licencia social; el proyecto Quellaveco ubicado en el departamento de Moquegua y el proyecto Tintaya ubicado en el departamento de Cusco. Asimismo, este trabajo contempla entrevistas a expertos vinculados estrechamente con dichos casos para entender a mayor profundidad la naturaleza de dichos procesos y validar cuales son los aspectos relevantes que facilitan obtener y mantener la licencia social. Entre los principales hallazgos se encontró que existen varios factores clave que contribuyen con los procesos de concertación, negociación, establecimiento de indicadores de éxito y mecanismos de monitoreo y seguimiento para lograr obtener y mantener la licencia social, entre los que destacan: (a) una adecuada identificación de stakeholders, sus intereses y expectativas; (b) valores, cultura e historia de los stakeholders; (c) la disminución de asimetrías existentes entre las capacidades técnicas y organizativas de los actores; (d) la identificación de líderes locales legítimos que faciliten y contribuyan con estos procesos; (e) un enfoque de negociación transformacional; (f) priorización de necesidades; (g) objetividad; (h) cumplimiento de los acuerdos; (i) difusión del cumplimiento de los acuerdos; (j) participación activa de los distintos actores en el monitoreo y seguimiento por grupos de trabajo; y el (k) involucramiento de las diversas áreas internas de la empresa. Asimismo, para lograr mantener exitosamente la licencia social se deben considerar estos procesos como dinámicos, no estáticos y deben contemplarse a lo largo de todo el ciclo de vida del proyecto., This research aims to identify and understand the main processes of concertation and negotiation, as well as success indicators and monitoring and tracking mechanisms to maintain the social license to operate in extractive industries. The present study takes into account the analysis of two successful cases in the mining sector to obtain and maintain the social license to operate, Quellaveco project located in the department of Moquegua and Tintaya project located in the department of Cusco. Also, this work includes interviews with experts linked to these cases, which helps for a deeper understanding of the nature of these processes and helps to validate relevant aspects which facilitate the obtaining and maintaining of the social license to operate. Among the main findings this research found that there are several factors of success which contribute to the processes of concertation, negotiation, establishing success indicators and monitoring and tracking mechanisms to achieve and maintain the social license to operate: (a) adequate identifying stakeholders, their interests, expectations; (b) values, culture and history; (c) lower asymmetries between the technical and organizational capacities of the stakeholders; (d) identifying local leaders to facilitate and contribute to these processes; (e) negotiating transformational approach; (f) prioritizing problems; (g) objectivity; (h) compliance agreements; (i) diffusion of compliance agreements; (j) active participation of the stakeholders in the monitoring and tracking through the formation of working groups; and (k) involvement of the various internal areas of the company. Also, to achieve a successful maintenance of the social license to operate, this research suggest to consider these processes as dynamic, not as statics, and these processes should be considered throughout the entire project life cycle.