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Take home messages The nitrogen (N) fertiliser demand for cereal cropping systems can increase due to two factors: 1. A reduction in the amount of soil organic N mineralised due to the continued decline of natural capital (soil organic carbon and total nitrogen) that occurs under cropping; and 2. An increased crop N demand due to higher yield potentials resulting from optimising other components of the cropping system. The amount of biological N fixation by pulse crops (chickpea/mungbean) is related to the crop yield and biomass and the availability of soil mineral N from mineralisation or carry-over of residual fertiliser. Where deep phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) application increases chickpea biomass (and grain yield), there is generally more N fixed. While some of this is re-exported in grain, the greater residue return means more N is carried forward to the next crop. Growers have a selection of fertiliser N management practices that have differing strengths and weaknesses – it is not a one-size-fits-all model for CQ (or northern region) farming systems. The 4R framework allows choice of rate, source, time and place for any nutrient applied to be implemented suiting each growers’ preferences, with on-going research addressing several themes in regional Qld.

Take home messages The nitrogen (N) fertiliser demand for cereal cropping systems can increase due to two factors: 1. A reduction in the amount of soil organic N mineralised due to the continued decline of natural capital (soil organic carbon and total nitrogen) that occurs under cropping; and 2. An increased crop N demand due to higher yield potentials resulting from optimising other components of the cropping system. The amount of biological N fixation by pulse crops (chickpea/mungbean) is related to the crop yield and biomass and the availability of soil mineral N from mineralisation or carry-over of residual fertiliser. Where deep phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) application increases chickpea biomass (and grain yield), there is generally more N fixed. While some of this is re-exported in grain, the greater residue return means more N is carried forward to the next crop. Growers have a selection of fertiliser N management practices that have differing strengths and weaknesses – it is not a one-size-fits-all model for CQ (or northern region) farming systems. The 4R framework allows choice of rate, source, time and place for any nutrient applied to be implemented suiting each growers’ preferences, with on-going research addressing several themes in regional Qld.

Take home messages The nitrogen (N) fertiliser demand for cereal cropping systems can increase due to two factors: 1. A reduction in the amount of soil organic N mineralised due to the continued decline of natural capital (soil organic carbon and total nitrogen) that occurs under cropping; and 2. An increased crop N demand due to higher yield potentials resulting from optimising other components of the cropping system. The amount of biological N fixation by pulse crops (chickpea/mungbean) is related to the crop yield and biomass and the availability of soil mineral N from mineralisation or carry-over of residual fertiliser. Where deep phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) application increases chickpea biomass (and grain yield), there is generally more N fixed. While some of this is re-exported in grain, the greater residue return means more N is carried forward to the next crop. Growers have a selection of fertiliser N management practices that have differing strengths and weaknesses – it is not a one-size-fits-all model for CQ (or northern region) farming systems. The 4R framework allows choice of rate, source, time and place for any nutrient applied to be implemented suiting each growers’ preferences, with on-going research addressing several themes in regional Qld.

Take home messages The nitrogen (N) fertiliser demand for cereal cropping systems can increase due to two factors: 1. A reduction in the amount of soil organic N mineralised due to the continued decline of natural capital (soil organic carbon and total nitrogen) that occurs under cropping; and 2. An increased crop N demand due to higher yield potentials resulting from optimising other components of the cropping system. The amount of biological N fixation by pulse crops (chickpea/mungbean) is related to the crop yield and biomass and the availability of soil mineral N from mineralisation or carry-over of residual fertiliser. Where deep phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) application increases chickpea biomass (and grain yield), there is generally more N fixed. While some of this is re-exported in grain, the greater residue return means more N is carried forward to the next crop. Growers have a selection of fertiliser N management practices that have differing strengths and weaknesses – it is not a one-size-fits-all model for CQ (or northern region) farming systems. The 4R framework allows choice of rate, source, time and place for any nutrient applied to be implemented suiting each growers’ preferences, with on-going research addressing several themes in regional Qld.

Take home messages The nitrogen (N) fertiliser demand for cereal cropping systems can increase due to two factors: 1. A reduction in the amount of soil organic N mineralised due to the continued decline of natural capital (soil organic carbon and total nitrogen) that occurs under cropping; and 2. An increased crop N demand due to higher yield potentials resulting from optimising other components of the cropping system. The amount of biological N fixation by pulse crops (chickpea/mungbean) is related to the crop yield and biomass and the availability of soil mineral N from mineralisation or carry-over of residual fertiliser. Where deep phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) application increases chickpea biomass (and grain yield), there is generally more N fixed. While some of this is re-exported in grain, the greater residue return means more N is carried forward to the next crop. Growers have a selection of fertiliser N management practices that have differing strengths and weaknesses – it is not a one-size-fits-all model for CQ (or northern region) farming systems. The 4R framework allows choice of rate, source, time and place for any nutrient applied to be implemented suiting each growers’ preferences, with on-going research addressing several themes in regional Qld.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

The efficiency of soil water accumulation during fallow periods, and the availability of that soil water for use by crops are key drivers of northern farming system productivity and profitability. In 2015 seven farming systems experiments were established from central Queensland to central New South Wales to answer the question; Can system performance be improved by modifying farming systems in the northern grains region? To assess this soil water dynamics were monitored under different farming systems, along with soil nitrogen, pathogens, crop biomass, grain yield and variable costs, as measures of system performance. Analysis of soil water accumulation during the fallows and its subsequent use by sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops, showed a cost to all crops for converting biomass to grain yield. This cost was least for chickpea (50 mm), followed by wheat (100 mm) and highest for sorghum (150 mm), and should be deducted from crop water use to calculate water-use-efficiency (WUE). The WUE was lowest for pulse crops (10 kg/mm), but sorghum and wheat returned the same WUE (17 kg/mm). Northern growers typically store plant-available-water (PAW) in the fallow as a buffer against variable quantity and timing of in-crop rainfall. Crops produced a better than average WUE when planted with at least 60 mm PAW in a high in-crop rainfall season, or 120 mm of PAW with low in-crop rainfall.

Take home messages • At average fertiliser costs, return on investment to nitrogen applications exceed 5:1, i.e. every dollar spent on nitrogen results in $5 of additional profit • When N prices double, growers are still receiving $2.10 in profit for every dollar spent on nitrogen, and at triple the cost nitrogen is still expected to return $0.85 in additional profit for every dollar spent • With higher N prices profitable N responses to winter cereals are only expected under favourable grain prices or seasonal conditions • Soil testing and precision/variable nutrient application become more valuable as nutrition costs rise.

Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR), caused by the necrotrophic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is a major, but unpredictable disease of canola in Australia. However, there is no disease rating system for current canola varieties. Over the last four years the most common varieties of canola grown in Western Australia were assessed in the field using natural disease occurrence, and in glasshouse experiments using manual inoculations, to determine their susceptibility to SSR. The results highlighted the complexity and unpredictable nature of SSR with infection levels and varietal response varying depending on seasonal conditions and time of infection, despite limited levels of genetic resistance to SSR in current varieties. It is suggested that a disease rating system should not be based purely on inseason plant infection, but should also include potential for future infections through the contribution of sclerotia from infected plants to the system.

Take home message Shorter season, faster maturing crops can leave residual surface water from unutilised late season rain and/or residual deep water due to shallower roots and quicker maturity Legumes such as lentils, fababeans, field pea, and chickpea often leave 20-40 mm extra residual soil water compared to canola and winter cereals Higher residual water may not remain at sowing of next crop – fallow efficiency differences between crops and seasons can influence this – e.g. low cover after legumes For summer crops, mungbean typically leaves 20mm more residual water than sorghum/maize while cotton leaves 20mm less (i.e. mungbean > sorghum/maize > cotton) Early-sown, slower maturing crops (e.g. early sown winter crops) can dry the profile deeper (>2m) and utilise deep stored soil to support higher yield in dry springs. The legacy of drier soil may warrant changes to crop sequence and management to avoid yield penalties Extra residual water at sowing can increase grain yield of subsequent crops when water is limited during the critical period for yield determination so the marginal WUE (i.e. extra yield per mm of extra soil water available) can be very high (>60kg/ha/mm) As the value of the residual water is seasonally dependent, understanding how management (crop choice, sowing dates, N management) can be adjusted to capture value from such legacies across a sequence of crops is the goal of current farming systems research.

Take home message Shorter season, faster maturing crops can leave residual surface water from unutilised late season rain and/or residual deep water due to shallower roots and quicker maturity Legumes such as lentils, fababeans, field pea, and chickpea often leave 20-40 mm extra residual soil water compared to canola and winter cereals Higher residual water may not remain at sowing of next crop – fallow efficiency differences between crops and seasons can influence this – e.g. low cover after legumes For summer crops, mungbean typically leaves 20mm more residual water than sorghum/maize while cotton leaves 20mm less (i.e. mungbean > sorghum/maize > cotton) Early-sown, slower maturing crops (e.g. early sown winter crops) can dry the profile deeper (>2m) and utilise deep stored soil to support higher yield in dry springs. The legacy of drier soil may warrant changes to crop sequence and management to avoid yield penalties Extra residual water at sowing can increase grain yield of subsequent crops when water is limited during the critical period for yield determination so the marginal WUE (i.e. extra yield per mm of extra soil water available) can be very high (>60kg/ha/mm) As the value of the residual water is seasonally dependent, understanding how management (crop choice, sowing dates, N management) can be adjusted to capture value from such legacies across a sequence of crops is the goal of current farming systems research.

Background: Palliative care-related postdoctoral training opportunities are critical to increase the quantity and quality of palliative care research. Objective: To describe the history, activities, challenges, and future goals of the National Postdoctoral Palliative Care Research Training Collaborative. Design: National web-based survey of participating program leaders. Measurements: Information about participating programs, trainees, challenges faced, and future goals. Results: Nine participating programs at academic institutions across the United States focus on diverse aspects of palliative care research. The majority of 73 current and former fellows are female (75%) and white (84%). In total, 38% of fellows (n = 28) have MD backgrounds, of whom less than half (n = 12) completed hospice and palliative medicine fellowships. An additional 38% of fellows (n = 28) have nursing PhD backgrounds and 23% (n = 17) have other diverse types of PhD backgrounds. Key challenges relate to recruiting diverse trainees, fostering a shared identity, effectively advocating for trainees, and securing funding. Future goals include expanding efforts to engage clinician and nonclinician scientists, fostering the pipeline of palliative care researchers through expanded mentorship of predoctoral and clinical trainees, increasing the number of postdoctoral palliative care training programs, and expanding funding support for career development grants. Conclusion: The National Postdoctoral Palliative Care Research Training Collaborative fills an important role in creating a community for palliative care research trainees and developing strategies to address shared challenges.

Take home message Shorter season, faster maturing crops can leave residual surface water from unutilised late season rain and/or residual deep water due to shallower roots and quicker maturity Legumes such as lentils, fababeans, field pea, and chickpea often leave 20-40 mm extra residual soil water compared to canola and winter cereals Higher residual water may not remain at sowing of next crop – fallow efficiency differences between crops and seasons can influence this – e.g. low cover after legumes For summer crops, mungbean typically leaves 20mm more residual water than sorghum/maize while cotton leaves 20mm less (i.e. mungbean > sorghum/maize > cotton) Early-sown, slower maturing crops (e.g. early sown winter crops) can dry the profile deeper (>2m) and utilise deep stored soil to support higher yield in dry springs. The legacy of drier soil may warrant changes to crop sequence and management to avoid yield penalties Extra residual water at sowing can increase grain yield of subsequent crops when water is limited during the critical period for yield determination so the marginal WUE (i.e. extra yield per mm of extra soil water available) can be very high (>60kg/ha/mm) As the value of the residual water is seasonally dependent, understanding how management (crop choice, sowing dates, N management) can be adjusted to capture value from such legacies across a sequence of crops is the goal of current farming systems research.

Take home message Shorter season, faster maturing crops can leave residual surface water from unutilised late season rain and/or residual deep water due to shallower roots and quicker maturity Legumes such as lentils, fababeans, field pea, and chickpea often leave 20-40 mm extra residual soil water compared to canola and winter cereals Higher residual water may not remain at sowing of next crop – fallow efficiency differences between crops and seasons can influence this – e.g. low cover after legumes For summer crops, mungbean typically leaves 20mm more residual water than sorghum/maize while cotton leaves 20mm less (i.e. mungbean > sorghum/maize > cotton) Early-sown, slower maturing crops (e.g. early sown winter crops) can dry the profile deeper (>2m) and utilise deep stored soil to support higher yield in dry springs. The legacy of drier soil may warrant changes to crop sequence and management to avoid yield penalties Extra residual water at sowing can increase grain yield of subsequent crops when water is limited during the critical period for yield determination so the marginal WUE (i.e. extra yield per mm of extra soil water available) can be very high (>60kg/ha/mm) As the value of the residual water is seasonally dependent, understanding how management (crop choice, sowing dates, N management) can be adjusted to capture value from such legacies across a sequence of crops is the goal of current farming systems research.

Take home message Shorter season, faster maturing crops can leave residual surface water from unutilised late season rain and/or residual deep water due to shallower roots and quicker maturity Legumes such as lentils, fababeans, field pea, and chickpea often leave 20-40 mm extra residual soil water compared to canola and winter cereals Higher residual water may not remain at sowing of next crop – fallow efficiency differences between crops and seasons can influence this – e.g. low cover after legumes For summer crops, mungbean typically leaves 20mm more residual water than sorghum/maize while cotton leaves 20mm less (i.e. mungbean > sorghum/maize > cotton) Early-sown, slower maturing crops (e.g. early sown winter crops) can dry the profile deeper (>2m) and utilise deep stored soil to support higher yield in dry springs. The legacy of drier soil may warrant changes to crop sequence and management to avoid yield penalties Extra residual water at sowing can increase grain yield of subsequent crops when water is limited during the critical period for yield determination so the marginal WUE (i.e. extra yield per mm of extra soil water available) can be very high (>60kg/ha/mm) As the value of the residual water is seasonally dependent, understanding how management (crop choice, sowing dates, N management) can be adjusted to capture value from such legacies across a sequence of crops is the goal of current farming systems research.

Take home message Shorter season, faster maturing crops can leave residual surface water from unutilised late season rain and/or residual deep water due to shallower roots and quicker maturity Legumes such as lentils, fababeans, field pea, and chickpea often leave 20-40 mm extra residual soil water compared to canola and winter cereals Higher residual water may not remain at sowing of next crop – fallow efficiency differences between crops and seasons can influence this – e.g. low cover after legumes For summer crops, mungbean typically leaves 20mm more residual water than sorghum/maize while cotton leaves 20mm less (i.e. mungbean > sorghum/maize > cotton) Early-sown, slower maturing crops (e.g. early sown winter crops) can dry the profile deeper (>2m) and utilise deep stored soil to support higher yield in dry springs. The legacy of drier soil may warrant changes to crop sequence and management to avoid yield penalties Extra residual water at sowing can increase grain yield of subsequent crops when water is limited during the critical period for yield determination so the marginal WUE (i.e. extra yield per mm of extra soil water available) can be very high (>60kg/ha/mm) As the value of the residual water is seasonally dependent, understanding how management (crop choice, sowing dates, N management) can be adjusted to capture value from such legacies across a sequence of crops is the goal of current farming systems research.

Take home message Shorter season, faster maturing crops can leave residual surface water from unutilised late season rain and/or residual deep water due to shallower roots and quicker maturity Legumes such as lentils, fababeans, field pea, and chickpea often leave 20-40 mm extra residual soil water compared to canola and winter cereals Higher residual water may not remain at sowing of next crop – fallow efficiency differences between crops and seasons can influence this – e.g. low cover after legumes For summer crops, mungbean typically leaves 20mm more residual water than sorghum/maize while cotton leaves 20mm less (i.e. mungbean > sorghum/maize > cotton) Early-sown, slower maturing crops (e.g. early sown winter crops) can dry the profile deeper (>2m) and utilise deep stored soil to support higher yield in dry springs. The legacy of drier soil may warrant changes to crop sequence and management to avoid yield penalties Extra residual water at sowing can increase grain yield of subsequent crops when water is limited during the critical period for yield determination so the marginal WUE (i.e. extra yield per mm of extra soil water available) can be very high (>60kg/ha/mm) As the value of the residual water is seasonally dependent, understanding how management (crop choice, sowing dates, N management) can be adjusted to capture value from such legacies across a sequence of crops is the goal of current farming systems research.

Take home message • While summer crops offer rotational options in the farming system, choose the correct crop to match your available soil water and crop history • Sorghum is a reliable performer often exceeding other options in terms of $ returned per mm used • Cotton and maize require higher water availability and produce less reliable WUE ($/mm). However, cotton has legacy impacts on water availability for subsequent crops that should be considered • Mungbean can produce higher $/mm in low water availability situations (<200 mm of rain + soil water). Repeated sowings of mungbeans are likely to induce yield reductions due to disease • Sorghum crops sown with > 150 mm of plant available water will maximise crop WUE and profitability. Every extra mm at sowing could be worth as much as $35-70 extra return/ha • Higher density sorghum crops may provide greater crop competition against weeds and potential upside yield benefits in good season. We have seen limited legacy benefits (e.g. improved ground cover) or costs (e.g. greater soil water/nutrient extraction) for soil water or nutrient availability.

Background: As the prevalence of chronic disease increases among older adults in the United States, the need for medical interventions to adequately manage disease is also growing. Increased prescription drug use and care by multiple health providers among older adults are associated with potentially inappropriate prescribing, which may lead to adverse drug events. The HomeMeds Medication Assurance Program (HomeMeds program) is an in-home medication risk assessment for older adults to identify and prevent potentially inappropriate prescribing. Objective: To determine the effectiveness of the HomeMeds program by describing the attitudes about the program among the target population, identifying barriers and facilitators to the program, and evaluating the results of medication risk assessments. Methods: Qualitative data were collected through focus group sessions with members of the target population and key informant interviews with HomeMeds program staff and experts in geriatric clinical pharmacy. Quantitative data were collected using the HomeMeds program database. Results: Barriers to participation in the program were a lack of awareness about the susceptibility and severity of potentially inappropriate prescribing among older adults, trust in the health care system to accurately track medications, and fear of breach in confidentiality. Clients who took five or more medications were more likely to have an alert generated in the HomeMeds system than clients who took fewer medications. Despite this, less than 35% of alerts resulted in follow-up consultations between the partnering pharmacist and client. HomeMeds staff experienced challenges with recruiting individuals and providing clinically relevant recommendations about medications. Conclusion: The public health significance of this study is that community programs that implement medication risk assessments may not be effective in preventing potentially inappropriate prescribing in older adults. Improvements to t

Take home messages • Large gaps in profitability are possible between the best and worst systems – differences of $92-494/ha per year were found between systems at each site • Intensity is the major factor driving good/poor economic performance of the farming system - more so than crop choice. Matching intensity to environmental potential seems to be the most important lever to optimise farming system profitability • Increasing crop intensity increased costs and risks, but potentially higher crop income wasn’t realised over the dry run of seasons and hence has produced lower gross margins than more conservative systems • Lower crop intensity had lower system gross returns, but because of lower inputs and costs may achieve a more favourable return on investment at lower risk when there are limited planting opportunities. These systems have achieved lower gross margins than the baseline system in all but one comparison • Increasing legume frequency has the potential to capitalise on favourable legume prices but using long-term prices has rarely exceeded gross margins of baseline systems • Increasing nutrient supply incurred higher costs and required favourable seasonal conditions to increase grain yields and gross margins – this rarely occurred over the experimental years (excluding Trangie 2016 and Emerald 2017 where significant crop responses were obtained) • Systems involving crops with higher price variability (e.g. pulses, cotton) had limited downside risk but increased upside opportunities of higher economic returns. Even when comparing recent and long-term grain prices, the relative profitability ranking of systems rarely changed • Selecting a crop system is a long-term decision with unknown future yield and prices, hence choose systems that maximise system productivity and resilience, rather than responding to current commodity prices.

Take home messages • Grain legumes have utilised soil mineral nitrogen (N) to the same extent as cereal crops and have higher N export which often offsets N fixation inputs • Additional applied N reduced the depletion of background soil mineral N status at most sites; we are recovering a high percentage (>50%) in soil mineral pool. • Application of ~50 t/ha of compost or manure (10 t/ha OC) coupled with N fertiliser rates for 90th percentile yield potential has dramatically increased the soil mineral N in four years • Decreasing cropping frequency has reduced N export and so stored more N over the longer fallows, which has reduced N fertiliser requirements for following crops • Long fallows are mineralising N and moving N down the soil profile even under some very dry conditions • Most excess N is not lost in the system rather it is moved down the soil profile for future crops • The marginal WUE of crops (i.e. the grain yield increase per extra mm of available water) is lower when crops have less than 100 mm prior to planting. Hence, waiting until soil moisture reaches these levels is critical to maximise conversion of accumulated soil moisture into grain • The previous crop influences the efficiency of fallow water accumulation with winter cereals > sorghum > pulses. Long fallows are also less efficient than shorter fallows (<8 months). This has implications for assuming how much soil moisture may have accumulated during fallows.

Take home message • While summer crops offer rotational options in the farming system, choose the correct crop to match your available soil water and crop history • Sorghum is a reliable performer often exceeding other options in terms of $ returned per mm used • Cotton and maize require higher water availability and produce less reliable WUE ($/mm). However, cotton has legacy impacts on water availability for subsequent crops that should be considered • Mungbean can produce higher $/mm in low water availability situations (<200 mm of rain + soil water). Repeated sowings of mungbeans are likely to induce yield reductions due to disease • Sorghum crops sown with > 150 mm of plant available water will maximise crop WUE and profitability. Every extra mm at sowing could be worth as much as $35-70 extra return/ha • Higher density sorghum crops may provide greater crop competition against weeds and potential upside yield benefits in good season. We have seen limited legacy benefits (e.g. improved ground cover) or costs (e.g. greater soil water/nutrient extraction) for soil water or nutrient availability.

Take home messages • Large gaps in profitability are possible between the best and worst systems – differences of $92-494/ha per year were found between systems at each site • Intensity is the major factor driving good/poor economic performance of the farming system - more so than crop choice. Matching intensity to environmental potential seems to be the most important lever to optimise farming system profitability • Increasing crop intensity increased costs and risks, but potentially higher crop income wasn’t realised over the dry run of seasons and hence has produced lower gross margins than more conservative systems • Lower crop intensity had lower system gross returns, but because of lower inputs and costs may achieve a more favourable return on investment at lower risk when there are limited planting opportunities. These systems have achieved lower gross margins than the baseline system in all but one comparison • Increasing legume frequency has the potential to capitalise on favourable legume prices but using long-term prices has rarely exceeded gross margins of baseline systems • Increasing nutrient supply incurred higher costs and required favourable seasonal conditions to increase grain yields and gross margins – this rarely occurred over the experimental years (excluding Trangie 2016 and Emerald 2017 where significant crop responses were obtained) • Systems involving crops with higher price variability (e.g. pulses, cotton) had limited downside risk but increased upside opportunities of higher economic returns. Even when comparing recent and long-term grain prices, the relative profitability ranking of systems rarely changed • Selecting a crop system is a long-term decision with unknown future yield and prices, hence choose systems that maximise system productivity and resilience, rather than responding to current commodity prices.

Take home message • While summer crops offer rotational options in the farming system, choose the correct crop to match your available soil water and crop history • Sorghum is a reliable performer often exceeding other options in terms of $ returned per mm used • Cotton and maize require higher water availability and produce less reliable WUE ($/mm). However, cotton has legacy impacts on water availability for subsequent crops that should be considered • Mungbean can produce higher $/mm in low water availability situations (<200 mm of rain + soil water). Repeated sowings of mungbeans are likely to induce yield reductions due to disease • Sorghum crops sown with > 150 mm of plant available water will maximise crop WUE and profitability. Every extra mm at sowing could be worth as much as $35-70 extra return/ha • Higher density sorghum crops may provide greater crop competition against weeds and potential upside yield benefits in good season. We have seen limited legacy benefits (e.g. improved ground cover) or costs (e.g. greater soil water/nutrient extraction) for soil water or nutrient availability.

Take home messages • Grain legumes have utilised soil mineral nitrogen (N) to the same extent as cereal crops and have higher N export which often offsets N fixation inputs • Additional applied N reduced the depletion of background soil mineral N status at most sites; we are recovering a high percentage (>50%) in soil mineral pool. • Application of ~50 t/ha of compost or manure (10 t/ha OC) coupled with N fertiliser rates for 90th percentile yield potential has dramatically increased the soil mineral N in four years • Decreasing cropping frequency has reduced N export and so stored more N over the longer fallows, which has reduced N fertiliser requirements for following crops • Long fallows are mineralising N and moving N down the soil profile even under some very dry conditions • Most excess N is not lost in the system rather it is moved down the soil profile for future crops • The marginal WUE of crops (i.e. the grain yield increase per extra mm of available water) is lower when crops have less than 100 mm prior to planting. Hence, waiting until soil moisture reaches these levels is critical to maximise conversion of accumulated soil moisture into grain • The previous crop influences the efficiency of fallow water accumulation with winter cereals > sorghum > pulses. Long fallows are also less efficient than shorter fallows (<8 months). This has implications for assuming how much soil moisture may have accumulated during fallows.

Take home messages • Large gaps in profitability are possible between the best and worst systems – differences of $92-494/ha per year were found between systems at each site • Intensity is the major factor driving good/poor economic performance of the farming system - more so than crop choice. Matching intensity to environmental potential seems to be the most important lever to optimise farming system profitability • Increasing crop intensity increased costs and risks, but potentially higher crop income wasn’t realised over the dry run of seasons and hence has produced lower gross margins than more conservative systems • Lower crop intensity had lower system gross returns, but because of lower inputs and costs may achieve a more favourable return on investment at lower risk when there are limited planting opportunities. These systems have achieved lower gross margins than the baseline system in all but one comparison • Increasing legume frequency has the potential to capitalise on favourable legume prices but using long-term prices has rarely exceeded gross margins of baseline systems • Increasing nutrient supply incurred higher costs and required favourable seasonal conditions to increase grain yields and gross margins – this rarely occurred over the experimental years (excluding Trangie 2016 and Emerald 2017 where significant crop responses were obtained) • Systems involving crops with higher price variability (e.g. pulses, cotton) had limited downside risk but increased upside opportunities of higher economic returns. Even when comparing recent and long-term grain prices, the relative profitability ranking of systems rarely changed • Selecting a crop system is a long-term decision with unknown future yield and prices, hence choose systems that maximise system productivity and resilience, rather than responding to current commodity prices.

Take home messages • Large gaps in profitability are possible between the best and worst systems – differences of $92-494/ha per year were found between systems at each site • Intensity is the major factor driving good/poor economic performance of the farming system - more so than crop choice. Matching intensity to environmental potential seems to be the most important lever to optimise farming system profitability • Increasing crop intensity increased costs and risks, but potentially higher crop income wasn’t realised over the dry run of seasons and hence has produced lower gross margins than more conservative systems • Lower crop intensity had lower system gross returns, but because of lower inputs and costs may achieve a more favourable return on investment at lower risk when there are limited planting opportunities. These systems have achieved lower gross margins than the baseline system in all but one comparison • Increasing legume frequency has the potential to capitalise on favourable legume prices but using long-term prices has rarely exceeded gross margins of baseline systems • Increasing nutrient supply incurred higher costs and required favourable seasonal conditions to increase grain yields and gross margins – this rarely occurred over the experimental years (excluding Trangie 2016 and Emerald 2017 where significant crop responses were obtained) • Systems involving crops with higher price variability (e.g. pulses, cotton) had limited downside risk but increased upside opportunities of higher economic returns. Even when comparing recent and long-term grain prices, the relative profitability ranking of systems rarely changed • Selecting a crop system is a long-term decision with unknown future yield and prices, hence choose systems that maximise system productivity and resilience, rather than responding to current commodity prices.

Take home messages • Grain legumes have utilised soil mineral nitrogen (N) to the same extent as cereal crops and have higher N export which often offsets N fixation inputs • Additional applied N reduced the depletion of background soil mineral N status at most sites; we are recovering a high percentage (>50%) in soil mineral pool. • Application of ~50 t/ha of compost or manure (10 t/ha OC) coupled with N fertiliser rates for 90th percentile yield potential has dramatically increased the soil mineral N in four years • Decreasing cropping frequency has reduced N export and so stored more N over the longer fallows, which has reduced N fertiliser requirements for following crops • Long fallows are mineralising N and moving N down the soil profile even under some very dry conditions • Most excess N is not lost in the system rather it is moved down the soil profile for future crops • The marginal WUE of crops (i.e. the grain yield increase per extra mm of available water) is lower when crops have less than 100 mm prior to planting. Hence, waiting until soil moisture reaches these levels is critical to maximise conversion of accumulated soil moisture into grain • The previous crop influences the efficiency of fallow water accumulation with winter cereals > sorghum > pulses. Long fallows are also less efficient than shorter fallows (<8 months). This has implications for assuming how much soil moisture may have accumulated during fallows.