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Trinity College Dublin was proud to host, in April 2016, the Second International Conference on Telecollaboration in Higher Education, with the theme "New Directions in Telecollaborative Research and Practice." Over two and a half days, 150 participants offered 95 research presentations, posters, and "problem shared" sessions. Following a preface (Breffni O'Rourke) and introduction (Sake Jager, Malgorzata Kurek, and Breffni O'Rourke), selected papers from this conference presented herein include: (1) Telecollaboration and student mobility for language learning (Celeste Kinginger); (2) A task is a task is a task is a task… or is it? Researching telecollaborative teacher competence development--the need for more qualitative research (Andreas Müller-Hartmann); (3) Learner autonomy and telecollaborative language learning (David Little); (4) Developing intercultural communicative competence across the Americas (Diane Ceo-DiFrancesco, Oscar Mora, and Andrea Serna Collazos); (5) CHILCAN: a Chilean-Canadian intercultural telecollaborative language exchange (Constanza Rojas-Primus); (6) Multifaceted dimensions of telecollaboration through English as a Lingua Franca (ELF): Paris-Valladolid intercultural telecollaboration project (Paloma Castro and Martine Derivry-Plard); (7) Student perspectives on intercultural learning from an online teacher education partnership (Shannon Sauro); (8) Blogging as a tool for intercultural learning in a telecollaborative study (Se Jeong Yang); (9) Intergenerational telecollaboration: what risks for what rewards? (Erica Johnson); (10) Telecollaboration, challenges and oppportunities (Emmanuel Abruquah, Ildiko Dosa, and Grazyna Duda); (11) Exploring telecollaboration through the lens of university students: a Spanish-Cypriot telecollaborative exchange (Anna Nicolaou and Ana Sevilla-Pavón); (12) A comparison of telecollaborative classes between Japan and Asian-Pacific countries -- Asian-Pacific Exchange Collaboration (APEC) project (Yoshihiko Shimizu, Dwayne Pack, Mikio Kano, Hiroyuki Okazaki, and Hiroto Yamamura); (13) Incorporating cross-cultural videoconferencing to enhance Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) at the tertiary level (Barbara Loranc-Paszylk); (14) Multimodal strategies allowing corrective feedback to be softened during webconferencing-supported interactions (Ciara R. Wigham and Julie Vidal); (15) Problem-solving interaction in GFL videoconferencing (Makiko Hoshii and Nicole Schumacher); (16) Interactional dimension of online asynchronous exchange in an asymmetric telecollaboration (Dora Loizidou and François Mangenot); (17) Telecollaboration in secondary EFL: a blended teacher education course (Shona Whyte and Linda Gijsen); (18) It takes two to tango: online teacher tandems for teaching in English (Jennifer Valcke and Elena Romero Alfaro); (19) Getting their feet wet: trainee EFL teachers in Germany and Israel collaborate online to promote their telecollaboration competence through experiential learning (Tina Waldman, Efrat Harel, and Götz Schwab); (20) Teacher competences for telecollaboration: the role of coaching (Sabela Melchor-Couto and Kristi Jauregi); (21) Preparing student mobility through telecollaboration (Marta Giralt and Catherine Jeanneau); (22) What are the perceived effects of telecollaboration compared to other communication-scenarios with peers? (Elke Nissen); (23) The "Bologna-München" Tandem -- experiencing interculturality (Sandro De Martino); (24) Comparing the development of transversal skills between virtual and physical exchanges (Bart van der Velden, Sophie Millner, and Casper van der Heijden); (25) Making virtual exchange/telecollaboration mainstream -- large scale exchanges (Eric Hagley); (26) Searching for telecollaboration in secondary geography education in Germany (Jelena Deutscher); (27) Communication strategies in a telecollaboration project with a focus on Latin American history (Susana S. Fernández); (28) Students' perspective on Web 2.0-enhanced telecollaboration as added value in translator education (Mariusz Marczak); (29) Intercultural communication for professional development: creative approaches in higher education (Linda Joy Mesh); (30) Illustrating challenges and practicing competencies for global technology-assisted collaboration: lessons from a real-time north-south teaching collaboration (Stephen Capobianco, Nadia Rubaii, and Sebastian Líppez-De Castro); (31) Telecollaboration as a tool for building intercultural and interreligious understanding: the Sousse-Villanova programme (Jonathan Mason); (32) Vicious cycles of turn negotiation in video-mediated telecollaboration: interactional sociolinguistics perspective (Yuka Akiyama); (33) A corpus-based study of the use of pronouns in the asynchronous discussion forums in the online intercultural exchange MexCo (Marina Orsini-Jones, Zoe Gazeley-Eke, and Hannah Leinster); (34) Cooperative autonomy in online lingua franca exchanges: A case study on foreign language education in secondary schools (Petra Hoffstaedter and Kurt Kohn); (35) Emerging affordances in telecollaborative multimodal interactions (Aparajita Dey-Plissonneau and Françoise Blin); (36) Telecollaboration in online communities for L2 learning (Maria Luisa Malerba and Christine Appel); (37) Fostering students' engagement with topical issues through different modes of online exchange (Marie-Thérèse Batardière and Francesca Helm); (38) A conversation analysis approach to researching eTandems--the challenges of data collection (Julia Renner); and (39) DOTI: Databank of Oral Teletandem Interactions (Solange Aranha and Paola Leone). An author index is included. Individual papers contain references.

This volume enlarges upon questions concerning censorship and self-censorship and provides case studies as well as theoretical reflection on the relationship between new technology and media freedom. The seven essays included in this collection deal with two central contemporary problems of the mass media--freedom and democracy. The papers are: "Exit the Censor, Enter the Regulator" (Leonard R. Sussman); "Impact of New Information and Communication Technologies on Information Diversity in North America and Western Europe" (Nicholas Garnham); "The Impact of Electronic Mass Media in Sweden" (Charly Hulten); "Video-Cassette Recorders in Ghana: Impact on Press Freedom in Sub-Saharan Africa" (S. T. Kwame Boafo); "New Communication Technologies and Information Freedom in Latin America" (Rafael Roncagliolo); "New Communication Technologies and Press Freedom: A Chilean Case Study" (Fernando Reyes Matta); and "The Media as Fourth Estate: A Survey of Journalism Educators' Views" (Colin Sparks and Slavko Splichal). The first three papers are concerned with the larger picture and the larger media; the second three are concerned with the "marginal" rather than the dominant media; and the final paper deals with some of the problems of the media and democracy in terms of their staff and resources. (TMK)

This monograph offers papers presented at the 1998 annual meeting of the British Association for Applied Linguistics. After an introduction entitled "The Pluralisation of Literacy" (Teresa O'Brien), the papers are: (1) "National Literacy Strategies: A Debate" (Jill Bourne, Gunther Kress, Brian Street, and Alison Sealey); (2) "Literacy and Oracy Assessment in an Early Years Intervention Project" (Sheena Gardner and Pauline Rea-Dickins); (3) "The Role of Social Class and Home Literacy Practices in Literacy Proficiency in a Group of Chilean Adolescents" (John Gibbons, Elizabeth Lascar, and Maria Isabel Mizon Morales); (4) "'How Many Bumps Does a Dromedary Have?': Literacies in the EFL Classroom" (Paula Kalaja and Ann Pitkanen-Huhta); (5) "Critical Literacy as Classroom Interaction" (Catherine Wallace); (6) "Authoring in Student Academic Writing: Regulation and Desire" (Theresa Lissis); (7) "Contrastive Rhetoric: New Research Avenues" (Ulla Connor); (8) "The 1998 Reform of German Orthography" (Sally Johnson); (9) "Women's Literacy in a Rural Pakistani Community" (Shirini Zubair); (10) "Issues for a Working Agenda in Literacy" (Gunther Kress); and (11) "Label Literacy: Factors Affecting the Understanding and Assessment of Baby Food Labels" (Guy Cook and Kieran O'Halloran). (Papers contain references.) (SM)

Drawing from the information presented at a conference sponsored by the Harvard Graduate School of Education and the Mid-Atlantic Regional Technology in Education Consortium, educators, researchers, and policymakers translate theory into practice to provide a hands-on resource that describes different models for scaling up success. This resource includes illustrative examples of best practices that are grounded in real-life case studies of technology-based educational innovation, from networking a failing school district in New Jersey to using computer visualization to teach scientific inquiry in Chicago. The book demonstrates how lessons learned from technology-based educational innovation can be applied to other school improvement efforts. Following a Foreword (Ellen Condliffe Lagemann) and Preface, the book includes eleven chapters: (1) Moving from Successful Local Practice to Effective State Policy: Lessons from Union City (Fred Carrigg, Margaret Honey, and Ron Thorpe); (2) Dewey Goes Digital: Scaling Up Constructivist Pedagogies and the Promise of New Technologies (Martha Stone Wiske and David Perkins); (3) Adapting Innovations to Particular Contexts of Use: A Collaborative Framework (Barry J. Fishman); (4) Designing for Scalable Educational Improvement: Processes of Inquiry in Practice (Susan R. Goldman); (5) Scaling Up Professional Development in the United Kingdom, Singapore, and Chile (Laurence C. Peters); (6) Technology as Proteus: Digital Infrastructures That Empower Scaling Up (Chris Dede and Robert Nelson); (7) Scaling Up Data Use in Classrooms, Schools, and Districts (Sam Stringfield, Jeffrey C. Wayman, and Mary E. Yakimowski-Srebnick); (8) Foundations for Success in the Great City Schools: Lessons from Some Faster-Improving Districts (Michael Casserly and Jason C. Snipes); (9) Scaling Up Technology-Based Educational Innovations (Barbara Means and William R. Penuel); (10) Critiquing and Improving the Use of Data from High-Stakes Tests with the Aid of Dynamic Statistics Software (Jere Confrey and Katie M. Makar); and (11) Scaling Up Success: A Synthesis of Themes and Insights (Chris Dede and James P. Honan). Information about the contributors, acknowledgments, and indexes by both name and subject conclude the book.

This collection of short papers is an outcome of the third conference on virtual exchange in higher education hosted by the Pedagogical University in Krakow in April 2018. Following the focus of the conference on virtual exchange in service of social inclusion and global citizenship, the papers collected in this volume offer first-hand insights into theoretical and practical considerations on the most recent stage of this rapidly developing form of learning. The publication will be of particular interest to academic educators, researchers, administrators, and mobility officers planning to implement virtual exchange in their unique academic contexts.

This collection of 20 papers addresses child development and early intervention issues related to literacy acquisition from a cross-cultural perspective. Titles of the papers are: (1) "Preparing Young Children for Literacy: Issues in Theory and Practice" (Lotty Eldering and Paul Leseman); (2) "Jomtien Revisited: A Plea for a Differentiated Approach" (John Bennett); (3) "Interaction of Context with Development: Theoretical Constructs for the Design of Early Childhood Education Programs" (Robert Serpell); (4) "Orientations on Culture: Some Comments on Intervention Programs" (Ype Poortinga); (5) "Interaction between Development Processes and Social-Cultural Context" (T. S. Saraswathi); (6) "Modification of Cognitive Components: Consequences for Early Intervention" (Fons van de Vijver); (7) "Many Kinds of Deprivation: Young Children and Their Families in South Africa" (Linda Richter); (8) "The Developmental Niche: Implications for Children's Literacy Development" (Sara Harkness and Charles Super); (9) "Linguistic Development as Related to Literacy" (Catherine Snow); (10) "How Parents Provide Young Children with Access to Literacy" (Paul Leseman); (11) "Literacy Development in a Multilingual Context" (Ludo Verhoeven); (12) "Responding to Children's Needs: Integrated Child Development Services in India" (Rajalakshmi Muralidharan and Venita Kaul); (13) "Empowerment of Parents: 'Proyecto Padres e Hijos' in Chile" (Johanne Filp and Ximena Valdes); (14) "Culture Sensitive Home Intervention: The Dutch HIPPY Experiment" (Lotty Eldering and Paul Vedder); (15) "A Model of Multipurpose Non-Formal Education: The Case of the Turkish Early Enrichment Project" (Cigdem Kagitcibasi); (16) "Success for All: Prevention and Early Intervention in Elementary Schools" (Robert Slavin and Nancy Madden); (17) "Critical Issues in the Evaluation of Preschool Intervention Programs" (Jan Slavenburg); (18) "Cooperative, Community-Based Evaluation of Preschool Programs" (Howard Richards and Loren Pierce); (19) "Researchers, Program Developers, and the Children Out There" (Nico van Oudenhoven); and (20) "Family, School, and Literacy: Recommendations for Intervention Programs." Most papers include a reference list. (MDM)

The School Textbook Division from the Chilean Ministry of Education has carried out experience-sharing instances and reflection processes oriented to improve the quality of textbooks, adapting them to new learning strategies, to the demands of the school system as well as to the state-of-the-art in research in education worldwide. Since the successful First international Seminar on school textbooks--SITE 2006, the Textbook Division has decided to keep on with these initiatives that feedback Public Politicies in relation to the provision of textbooks and the development of academic competences. Along the same lines, the International Seminar on History and Social Science Textbooks took place in November 2008; forty outstanding Chilean and foreign experts lectured in conferences and panels full of enthusiastic audiences. This experience allowed the exchange of studies and researches among those who work in the didactic of social sciences and/or are involved in the area of history and social sciences textbooks, both nationally and internationally, and contribute to their quality concerning the didactic design and the treatment of their contents, considering new approaches in relation to historicity and spatiality of the social phenomena. Diversity and richness of the works that dealt with the key topics of the Seminar--didactic of history and social sciences in textbooks; new approaches to the didactic of history, geography and other social sciences and its application to school textbooks; analysis of contents in history and social science textbooks and the formation of citizens through these textbooks--also favored the exchange of experiences and orientations in relevant topics such as historical memory and construction of local identities, national and global, cultural and social diversity: multiculturalism and cultural pluralism. In this way we have been able to put forward the discussion about the importance and the real value of history and social sciences textbooks in the formation of our students as citizens, comparing the Chilean experiences to those of other countries. The publication of the works exposed in the Seminar, expresses the commitment of the Ministry of Education to the development of textbooks as an important pedagogical resource. At the same time, it is an invitation to the academic community, especially in the area of Education and Social Sciences, to develop competences and increase the existing capacities in the production, use, training and research on school textbooks. (Individual papers contain references, tables, and figures.) [This book was produced by the Gobierno de Chile, Ministerio de Edcucacion de Chile. Cover title may vary. The contents presented herein represent the proceedings of the International Seminar on History and Social Sciences Textbook (Santiago, Chile, November 11-12, 2008).]

The chapters in this book originated as papers for a conference, School Choice and Educational Change, held in March 2000 at Michigan State University. An introductory chapter provides a comparative analysis of the lessons learned from international experience with school-choice policies, based on a review of case studies in several countries. The papers/chapters are as follows: "Does Privatization Improve Education? The Case of Chiles National Voucher Plan" (Martin Carnoy and Patrick J. McEwan); "School Choice in New Zealand: A Cautionary Tale" (Edward B. Fiske and Helen F. Ladd); "School Choice and Educational Change in England and Wales" (Geoffrey Walford); "Market Forces and Decentralization in Sweden: Impetus for School Development or Threat to Comprehensiveness and Equity?" (Holger Daun); "School Choice Policies and Their Impact on Public Education in Australia" (Max Angus); "Education Reform and School Choice in South Africa" (John Pampallis); "School Choice in the Peoples Republic of China" (Mun C. Tsang); "Public Support for Private Schools in Post-Communist Central Europe: Czech and Hungarian Experiences" (Randall K. Filer and Daniel Munich). (WFA)

In June 2001, the International Institute for Educational Planning convened a policy forum on the organization, functioning, and effectiveness of national ministries of education. This book presents eight key papers from that forum. The forum discussed how differences in organizational structures and mechanisms affect adjustability and effectiveness of educational policies and their implementation process. The forum also attempted to compare and draw lessons from a selected number of experiences in which the absence or presence of sound political leadership and adequate links with stakeholders at all levels of the system have played a major role in the success or failure of educational reform. The discussions, and the papers in the book, were arranged around four major points: (1) steering from above: the link between political leadership and administration; (2) steering from below: the ministry's interaction with the operational level (schools, teachers, students, etc.); (3) steering from outside: the relationship between the ministry and the main stakeholders outside the system (teachers' unions, parents' associations, mass media, etc.); and (4) steering from within: the ministry's internal organizational structures and regulating mechanisms. (Author/WFA)

This collection of essays examines efforts by groups and lobbyists to move education from the public to the private sector. There are 14 papers in 7 sections: The first section, "Introduction," includes: (1) "Studying Privatization in Education" (Henry M. Levin) and (2) "Educational Vouchers and the Media" (Lee D. Mitgang and Christopher V. Connell). The second section, "Implementation Issues," includes: (3) "The Legal Status of Privatization and Vouchers in Education" (Frank R. Kemerer) and (4) "Information and Choice in Educational Privatization" (Mark Schneider). The third section, "Preschools and Higher Education," includes: (5) "Preschools and Privatization" (Ellen Magenheim) and (6) "Privatization in Higher Education" (Arthur Levine). The fourth section, "International Dimensions," includes: (7) "Privatization through Vouchers in Developing Countries: The Cases of Chile and Columbia" (Martin Carnoy and Patrick J. McEwan) and (8) "Privatization in Industrialized Countries" (Geoffrey Walford). The fifth section, "Charter Schools," includes: (9) "Assessing the Growth and Potential of Charter Schools" (Pearl Rock Kane and Christopher J. Lauricella) and (10) "Privatization and Charter School Reform: Economic, Political, and Social Dimensions" (Amy Stuart Wells and Janelle Scott). The sixth section, "Perspectives of Stakeholders," includes: (11) "Vouchers, Privatization, and the Poor" (Gary Natriello) and (12) "Teachers and Privatization" (Caroline Hodges Persell). The seventh section, "Evaluation Designs," includes: (13) "Criteria for Evaluating School Voucher Studies" (David E. Myers) and (14) "Designing Education Voucher Experiments: Recommendations for Researchers, Funders, and Users" (Fred Doolittle and Wendy Connors). (Each paper contains references.) (SM)

This volume collects several case studies on the relationship between government and higher education in developing nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In particular these studies ask whether specific forms of government regulation help to solve the crisis of higher education in the developing world better than other forms of regulation. The papers are: "Government and Higher Education in Developing Nations: A Conceptual Framework" (G. Neave and F. van Vught); "Ghana: Relations between Government and Universities" (A. Sawyerr); "Kenya: Management of Higher Education in Developing Countries: The Relationship between the Government and Higher Education" (I. M. Omari); "Tanzania: The State and Higher Education" (J. C. Sivalon and B. Cooksey); "Uganda: Higher Education and the State" (T. O. Eisemon); "People's Republic of China: Autonomy and Accountability: An Analysis of the Changing Relationships between the Government and Universities" (W. Min); "India: Government and Higher Education" (T. Majumdar); "Philippines: The Anatomy of the Government-Higher Education Relationship" (A. Gonzalez); "Singapore: University Autonomy versus State Control: The Singapore Experience" (V. Selvaratnam); "Argentina: The Federal Government and the Universities": (C. Marquis); "Brazil: Higher Education and Government" (S. Schwartzman and L. Klein); "Chile: Government and Higher Education" (J. J. Brunner); "Mexico: Towards State Supervision? Changing Patterns of Governance in Mexican Higher Education" (D. C. Levy); "Conclusion" (G. Neave and F. van Vught). Contains a subject index. Most papers contain references. (JB)

This volume contains 13 papers on experiences with reform and innovation in higher education and their implications for developing countries. Four themes are highlighted: higher education and development, performance assessment, sustainable financing, and effectiveness in governance and management. The papers include: "Introduction: Improvement and Innovation in Higher Education" (Adriaan M. Verspoor); "The University System: Engine of Development in the New World Economy" (Manuel Castells); "Universities, Technological Change, and Training in the Information Age" (Martin Carnoy); "Economic Returns from Investments in Research and Training" (Edwin Mansfield); "Performance of Higher Education: Measures for Improvement. Evaluation of Outcomes" (Ulrich Teichler and others);"Performance Indicators for Higher Education: A Critical Review with Policy Recommendations" (Herbert R. Kells); "Enhancing the Financial Sustainabilty of Higher Education Institutions" (Adrian Ziderman); "Mechanics of Allocating Public Funds to Universities, Their Implications on Efficiency and Equity" (Edita A. Tan); "Foreign Assistance for University Development in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia" (Thomas Owen Eisemon and Moussa Kourouma); "Problems of Privatization" (Daniel C. Levy); "Autonomy and Accountability in Government/University Relationships" (Frans A. van Vught); "Higher Education in Chile: Effects of the 1980 Reform" (Jose Joaquin Brunner and Guillermo Briones); and "Conclusion: Higher Education Reform in Perspective" (Jamil Salmi). Most papers contain references. (JB)

This book on the culture and processes of adult learning contains 16 papers organized into sections on power, purpose, and outcomes; adulthood and learning; and learners' experience and facilitating learning. The following papers are included: "'Really Useful Knowledge', 1790-1850" (Johnson); "Feminist Challenges to Curriculum Design" (Parsons); "Competency and the Pedagogy of Labour" (Field); "Chile, Santiago: Breaking the Culture of Silence" (Archer, Costello); "Unpaid Work in the Home and Accreditation" (Butler); "Education for Adults" (Squires); "Is There Any Way out of the Andragogy Morass?" (Davenport); "Adult Development" (Tennant); "The Process of Experiential Learning" (Kolb); "Access: Towards Education or Miseducation? Adults Imagine the Future" (Weil); "Black Students in Higher Education" (Rosen); "Teaching Learning: Redefining the Teacher's Role" (Gremmo, Abe); "Developing Learning Skills in Vocational Learning" (Downs); "The Interpersonal Relationship in the Facilitation of Learning" (Rogers); "The Utilization of Learning Objectives--A Behavioural Approach" (Curzon); and "What Is Skill and How Is It Acquired?" (Sloboda). Many papers contain substantial bibliographies. Also included are 25 tables/figures. (MN)

This book contains the following papers on distance vocational education programs: "Vocational Education at a Distance" (Oliveira, Rumble); "An Introduction to Case Studies" (Oliveira, Rumble); "'Working on Work': Orientation on Work and the Labour Market in the Netherlands" (Bender, Bronkhorst); "Expanding Distance Learning through Technology Transfer to Employers in Colombia" (Ruiz); "The British Open College: A Flexible Response" (Innes); "Vocational Training at a Distance in Chile: Struggling to Survive" (Irigoin); "Distance-Taught Computer Education for Managers and Professional at the University of Victoria" (Muzio); "The Technician Training Scheme at the National Extension College, United Kingdom" (Morpeth, Rumble); "Banking Education in Indonesia" (Budimulia, Suparman, Romiszowski); "The Wye College External Programme and Third World Agriculture" (Bryson, Hakimian); "The National Technological University (NTU)" (Fwu et al.); "Use of Interactive Multimedia for In-company Training" (Dondi, Ricuperati); "Distance Training for Telecommunications Managers: The Telecom/Telematique International Course on Project Management" (Nettleton); "The Technical Open Polytechnic, New Zealand" (Rajasingham, Nicoll, Romiszowski); and "The Future of Vocational Education at Distance" (Oliveira, Rumble). Several papers contain substantial bibliographies. (MN)

This book presents research into the ways in which Indigenous peoples of the Andes create, transmit, maintain, and transform their knowledge, and the related processes of teaching and learning. Most chapters are based on papers delivered at a round-table conference at the University of Cambridge (England) in 1996 and include contributions from researchers in anthropology, sociology, cultural studies, and linguistics in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile. Sections focus on multiple media in the creation and transmission of knowledge (social and linguistic contexts of knowledge, weaving, color perception, and music); knowledge and power (within the community and across cultures); and conflicting paradigms of knowledge (school-community relations, health knowledge, and agricultural knowledge). Following an introduction by Rosaleen Howard, Francoise Barbira-Freedman, and Henry Stobart, the chapters are: (1) "'Yachay': The 'Tragedia del fin de Atahuallpa' as Evidence of the Colonisation of Knowledge in the Andes" (Rosaleen Howard); (2) "Transmission of Knowledge through Textiles: Weaving and Learning How To Live" (Lindsey Crickmay); (3) "Coloured Knowledges: Colour Perception and the Dissemination of Knowledge in Isluga, Northern Chile" (Penny Dransart); (4) "Interlocking Realms: Knowing Music and Musical Knowing in the Bolivian Andes" (Henry Stobart); (5) "Coming to Power: Knowledge, Learning and Historic Pathways to Authority in a Bolivian Community" (Astvaldur Astvaldsson); (6) "Juggling Knowledge, Juggling Power: The Role of the Professional Indigenous Activist in San Pablo, Ecuador" (Janet Lloyd); (7) "Why Nazario Is Leaving School: Community Perspectives on Formal Schooling in Rural Bolivia" (Pedro Plaza Martinez); (8) "Local Knowledge in Health: The Case of Andean Midwifery" (Barbara Bradby); and (9) "Learning and Re-Learning How To Plant: The Impact of New Crops on the Spread and Control of New Agricultural Knowledge in the Ecuadorian Andes" (Nicole Bourque). (Contains references in each chapter and an index) (SV)

This book, consisting of 13 papers, deals with the theory, practice, and reactions to participatory research in the area of social research for development. Included in the volume are the following papers: "Breaking the Monopoly of Knowledge: Research Methods, Participation, and Development," by Budd Hall; "Creating Alternative Research Methods: Learning to Do It by Doing it," by Paulo Freire; "The Militant Observer: A Sociological Alternative," by Rosisca Darcy and Miguel Darcy de Oliveira; "Persons, Not Respondents: Alternative Approaches in the Study of Social Processes," by Michael Pilsworth and Ralph Ruddock; "A Critique of Monopolistic Research," by Rajesh Tandon; "Participatory Research or Pretense? Reflections on the Research Phase of an Indonesian Experiment in Non-Formal Education," by Nat J. Colletta; "The Ambiguities of Peasant Participation: Problems of Participatory Research in a Non-conventional Education Project in Senegal," by Oliver LeBrun; "Research as Education for Development: A Tanzanian Case," by Marja-Liisa Swantz; "Research in the New Communities Project: An Urban Housing Estate in England," by Paul Fordham, Geoff Poulton, and Lawrence Randle; "Peasant Participation, Adult Education, and Agrarian Reform in Chile," by Francisco Vio Grossi; "One Step Forward: A Community Project in Northern Canada," by James A. Draper; "Agricultural Farm Workers' Union in India," by Kalpana Tandon and Kawaljit Singh; and "Ambiguities in Participatory Research," by L. Dave Brown. (MN)

One of the larger of the native peoples of South America, the Araucanians include different ethnic subgroups, some of which are now extinct. Once geographically spread extensively over the southern cone of South America, at present they are reduced to only two closely related groups: (1) the Mapuche of southern Chile, the largest one; and (2) the Argentinian Araucanians of the southwestern Neuquen province. These groups share the problems of misery, pauperization, unemployment and economic exploitation of the working masses of the Chilean people, especially of the peasantry to which class most of them belong. They are also the object of racial discrimination. Consequently, they are subject to a double exploitation. Although principally their problem is a socioeconomic one, it is aggravated by the racial discrimination against them; consequently, they also have problems of lack of ethnic freedom and absence of equal opportunities for cultural expression. With special emphasis on the large Chilean Mapuche group, this paper discusses the: origin and evolution of Araucanian society, traditional Araucanian culture and society, sociocultural changes in the reservation system, demographic aspect, impact of agrarian reforms, and counter agrarian reform and the Indian communities. (Author/NQ)

Climate change poses challenges for many economic and societal sectors, particularly the wine sector. The wine sector is of particular importance to many economies, especially in the context of Chile, where it has contributed significantly to the country΄s economic development, as in 2005, wine accounted for 10% of exports. This paper assesses the vulnerability of the wine sector to climate change in the context of other stresses via a case study of the Maule Region, Chile. The research used a vulnerability approach, which is based on the empirical documentation of exposures, adaptive strategies and adaptive capacity. Problematic climatic exposures, including spring frosts, wet falls and drought, were identified and placed in the context of other forces important to producers, including market price, currency fluctuations, national and international rules and regulations, and labour availability. Producers΄ experiences with climate have not warranted the development of an extensive suite of adaptation strategies to manage climate risks. The results indicate that the current strategies may not be effective in the future because they are not suited to anticipated changes in water availability and the temperature regime. Although future climate change may be beneficial and create opportunities, many of the producer-identified climatic exposures are projected to be exacerbated in the future, and the current management systems may not have the capacity to address climate variations beyond the currently experienced regime. This has considerable implications for the sector΄s viability and economic profitability. With this in mind, large producers have greater access to capital than their smaller counterparts, placing them in a better position to take advantage of opportunities and successfully manage risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Civil war breaks the bonds of society and of government … ; it gives rise, within the Nation, to two independent parties, who regard each other as enemies and acknowledge no common judge. [A]n insurrection is transformed into a war between two belligerent parties regularly organised, when it is conducted by both sides by veritable governments, by armies that respect the laws and usages of international wars; such a civil war takes the character of an international war. Even further beneath the positivist war horizon than intervention, reprisals and other measures short of war, in nineteenth-century legal doctrine, were civil wars. In Western thought, there was a long tradition of regarding civil conflict as fundamentally distinct from true war. To Plato, for example, the terms ‘war’ and ‘civil strife’ referred to ‘two different realities’. Similarly, in Roman law, the distinction between latrociniae (bandits, pirates and the like) and true enemies, or hostes, had been fundamental. Cicero stressed that enemies were bodies of people with whom a peace treaty could be concluded, thereby excluding brigands and such persons. Concretely, this meant that none of the rituals associated with war-making and war-waging was applicable to struggles against mere law-breakers. Nor did the rules on the conduct of war apply. In particular, faith did not have to be kept with bandits, as it did with true foreign enemies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International Law, as such, … does not consider the justice or injustice of a war. From the purely legal standpoint, all wars are equally just or unjust; or, properly speaking, they are neither just nor unjust. International Law merely takes cognizance of the existence of war as a fact, and prescribes certain rules and regulations which affect the rights and duties of neutrals and belligerents during that continuance. The justice of war in general or of a certain war in particular are questions of the gravest importance and of the most vital interest, but they belong to the domain of international ethics or morality rather than to that of International Law. In the nineteenth century, the two dissident streams of thought on war, together with the voluntary-law portion of the mainstream tradition, were woven together to form a grand, if sometimes uneasy, synthesis to which the label ‘positivism’ has been affixed. This achievement marked, in many ways, the logical culmination of trends that had been developing since the seventeenth century. One result was to make the law of war more elaborate and detailed than it had ever been before. In fact, it brought so much order and detail to the subject as to make of war an institution of law, as routine and dispassionately studied as, say, the law of inheritance or trusts or contract. Like them, war was an everyday feature of the social world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION In 1999, the UK government allocated £6 million of new money for research and information gathering in support of the government's strategy to reduce drug-related crime. Part of the £6 million was used to set up a national program of research to investigate drug use and crime among arrestees. In July 1999, after two developmental stages, a program of arrestee monitoring was established in the United Kingdom under the title of the New English and Welsh Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (NEW-ADAM) program. The program was designed primarily to collect urine specimens and to conduct personal interviews with recently arrested offenders to understand better the nature of the drug-crime connection. The surveys were also to provide information on related issues, such as use of weapons and guns in crime, gang membership, and drug markets. The program was initially funded to run for three years with the view of continuing funding subject to review. The broad aim of this book is to present the findings of the NEW-ADAM surveys. Some of the results of the NEW-ADAM program have already been published in government reports and in articles in peer-reviewed journals. However, other findings have not yet been published. As a result, the findings of the NEW-ADAM program have not been fully documented in a single source. This book brings together the results of the NEW-ADAM program in a single volume by summarizing the findings of previously published papers and presenting new findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION After the Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991 and market reforms were initiated, the economic performance of the successor states was more than disappointing. By the end of the 1990s, output (GDP) fell by about 50 percent compared to the highest prerecession level of 1989 (see Fig. 1). Investment dropped even more, income inequalities rose greatly so that real incomes declined dramatically for the majority of the population, and death rates increased by about 50 percent with a concurrent decline in life expectancy. In Russia output fell by 45 percent in 1989–98; suicide rates, crime rates, and murder rates skyrocketed; and death rates increased from 1 percent in the 1980s to 1.5 percent in 1994 and remained at this higher level thereafter, which was equivalent to over 700,000 additional deaths annually (see Fig. 2). Over a period of several years, such population losses are comparable to the impact of World War II on Soviet society. By way of comparison, during the Second World War national income in the USSR fell by only 20 percent in 1940–2, recovered to its 1940 level in 1944, fell again by 20 percent in 1944–6 during the conversion of the defense industry, but exceeded its 1940 level by nearly 20 percent by 1948. In some of the former Soviet states that were affected by military conflicts (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Russia, and Tajikistan), GDP in 2000 was only 30 to 50 percent of its pretransition levels; in Ukraine, even without the military conflict GDP fell by nearly two-thirds (see Fig. 1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

STUDIES ATTEMPTING to explain the origin of the Industrial Revolution in England usually go no farther back than the late seventeenth century. There were a few attempts in the 1960s to take the story to the medieval period. A. R. Bridbury tried to demonstrate that the economic growth that led to the First Industrial Revolution can be traced to the late Middle Ages. In 1968 Sidney Pollard and David Crossley made such an attempt. Then in 1969, in a rather provocative paper, Max Hartwell invited historians to take a long-term view of the thousand years of English economic history that preceded the Industrial Revolution, in part, to mitigate the parochialism arising from, “the tendency of each historian to elevate his period, his growth factor, his depression or crisis, to a status of prime importance, either in the history of capitalism or of industrialization … ” More recently, in an intellectual effort covering more than 20 years and devoted to the development of an institutional theory of economic history and economic performance, Douglass North has traced the rise of the Western World from the era of the hunters and gatherers to the Industrial Revolution in England. North's central focus is to identify the critical long-term institutional changes that determined the direction of long-term economic change and performance, the central factors responsible for major institutional shifts over long periods of time, and the mechanisms by which change was effected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Milk fluoridation represents an example of the use of potential nondental resources in achieving oral health objectives. For the situations equivalent to those prevailing in Chile, milk fluoridation would be successful within the setting of existing food programs, largely acceptable to the community, likely to be sustainable with minimal external input, and could be readily integrated into the food program activities. From a societal perspectives, milk-fluoridation produce health improvements in a cost-effective way. From an economic perspective, it offers good value for money for public health programmes. This study estimates that a milk-fluoridation programme targeting children living in nonfluoridated areas of rural Chile would have savings to the society, and that the concerned with dental caries averted would implied health gains to the community. Public health policy and practice have the potential of bringing considerable monetary and human benefits. There is a lack of studies evaluating the economic as well as the health consequences of community-based dental caries prevention in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A strong and capable bureaucracy is likely to lead to better public policies. On the one hand, there is the obvious direct effect of the quality of the bureaucracy on the quality of policy implementation. On the other, our analytical framework emphasizes that political agreements leading to effective public policies are more likely to obtain in environments in which it is more feasible to delegate policy implementation to a quality bureaucracy. (The quality of the bureaucracy is an important component of the quality of the environment for political transactions.) A high-quality bureaucracy does not descend from heaven, but it is itself the product of conscious political decisions over time. The building of a bureaucracy, “civil service policy,” is a policy in itself. In the language of our framework, it is a policy with special investment-like transaction characteristics, and such policies place large demands on the implementation capacity of political systems. Thus, a poor bureaucracy worsens the policy-making environment, and a poor policy-making environment is unlikely to create a quality bureaucracy. We argue in this chapter that Argentina has suffered from this vicious circle. Political actors do not have a quality bureaucracy onto which to delegate policy implementation, and the weaknesses of the bureaucracy are themselves the result of the poor quality of the overall policy-making environment in Argentina. In this chapter, we expose some problems of the Argentine bureaucracy, and we argue that those problems are due to the lack of any relevant principal interested in providing long-term incentives to bureaucratic actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Legislatures are critical institutions in the effective functioning of a democratic system and in the policy-making process. In terms of the framework developed in Part I, Congress is the most natural arena for the institutionalized political exchanges necessary to sustain effective public policies. The ability of the congressional arena to play such a role varies substantially from country to country. At the more proactive and constructive end of the spectrum, the U.S. Congress is able to develop its own legislative proposals and has an active role in directing the policy agenda as well as in overseeing policy implementation. Congress itself is institutionalized in a manner that facilitates intertemporal exchanges and that leads to the accumulation of policy capabilities (Weingast and Marshall 1988; Krehbiel 1991). This, in turn, is associated with legislators having the right human capital characteristics to make them productive in those roles (Diermeier, Keane, and Merlo 2005). The extensive literature on the U.S. Congress provides a detailed and relatively comprehensive understanding of this institution and a set of widely accepted truisms. Members of the U.S. Congress serve long terms in office. They specialize in the topics of committees on which they serve. They play an active role in the policy-making process. As an institution, the U.S. Congress engages in considerable oversight of the public bureaucracy, and it is at the center of policy making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE FRAMEWORK We view public policies as the outcome of intertemporal transactions among political actors. Our dependent variable, Y ([1] in Figure 1.1), represents the features of public policies: their stability, adaptability, coordination, and other qualities. The appendix to this chapter discusses these dependent features in more detail. We explain policies and their features as the outcome of a policy-making game ([2] in Figure 1.1), emphasizing the intertemporal nature of the transactions underlying policy choices and implementation. Formally, let G: X × Z → Y denote the policy-making game, played under the rules of the game X over the issues with characteristics Z, in which the characteristics of policies Y are determined. The transactions that political actors are willing and able to undertake will depend on the political characteristics of the policy issues under consideration ([3] in Figure 1.1). More specifically, we follow the literature on transaction cost politics in emphasizing some transaction characteristics of policy issues, such as the intertemporal patterns of payoffs for different actors. The vector Z summarizes those transaction characteristics. As in transaction cost economics, different political issues can be characterized by a number of properties. These properties are important in determining the ease of implementing a particular agreement. They include the number and cohesiveness of the political actors involved, the degree of irreversibility of the assets involved in the policy, the intertemporal pattern of payoffs to the actors, the duration of the policy exchanges involved, the ease with which performance can be measured, the observability of shocks, the urgency with which the policy needs to be implemented, and the degree to which the policy benefits broad or narrow interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General Bonaparte, following the footsteps of Alexander would have entered India not as a devastating conqueror … but as a liberator. He would have expelled the English forever from India so that not one of them would have remained and … would have restored independence, peace, and happiness to Asia, Europe, and to the whole world … All the Princes in India were longing for French intervention. There is an evident divide between the global North and South. The Non-aligned Movement – with 113 members, the most representative group of countries outside the United Nations itself – three times rejected ‘the so-called “right of humanitarian intervention” ’ after the Kosovo War in 1999 and the subsequent statements from UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan. Many developing countries assert a claim to the privilege of managing world order on a shared basis but exhibit a strong reluctance to accept the responsibility flowing from such privilege, for example with respect to protecting the victims of humanitarian atrocities. Some of the big and powerful countries insist on claiming the benefits flowing from collective decision-making, in the form of greater legitimacy and authority, but resist the constraints on policy options that would result from a genuinely shared process of international policy-making. Curiously, the two feed on each other. The South points to the North's monopoly of power and privilege to excuse its own lack of a sense of international responsibility; the North points to the many instances of the South's failure to honour the international responsibility to protect to justify its refusal to restrict international policy-making to the collective UN forum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

War is so awful that it makes us cynical about the possibility of restraint, and then it is so much worse that it makes us indignant at the absence of restraint. Our cynicism testifies to the defectiveness of the war convention, and our indignation to its reality and strength. No century [compared to the twentieth century] has had better norms and worse realities. Apparently the phrase “international humanitarian law” (IHL) was first used by the ICRC in 1953. In this chapter I will first show that there remains a lack of clarity about the precise scope of IHL. Then I will show that there is often confusion about its relation to international human rights law (HRL). Finally I will show that in relation to IHL the ICRC exercises three roles by whatever name: helping to develop the law, helping to disseminate the principles and rules of the law, and helping to apply the law. The central point of this chapter is not to provide a legal commentary on the specifics of IHL, but rather to discuss its practical relevance to victims of conflicts through the efforts of the ICRC. A theme running throughout this chapter is that one can overemphasize IHL as a technical legal subject compared to humanitarian diplomacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is not enough to call upon great humanitarian principles. In a fluid situation it is necessary to lay down rules of behaviour which must be respected by everyone, from the [ICRC] President down to the last delegate. From the historical overview presented in the previous chapters one can extract and analyze the basic principles and policies of the ICRC. These principles and policies allow us to situate the organization more clearly in international relations by allowing us to distinguish the ICRC's role, strategy, and tactics from other relevant actors. In the “international community” one finds numerous actors dealing from time to time with humanitarian affairs – states, United Nations organs and agencies, Doctors Without Borders, Amnesty International, the European Union's Humanitarian Office, and so on. The ICRC, while not ruling out the possibility of some type of cooperation with most of these, cooperates (or not) according to a particular set of principles and policies. The ICRC has historically marched to its own drummer. Two fundamental subjects To set the stage, we can focus briefly on two fundamental subjects: the ICRC's core role of humanizing war, and the relevance to the organization of the official seven Red Cross principles. Limiting versus opposing war From the beginning, the ICRC approach to protecting war victims left itself open to the charge that it was in bed with governments and their bellicose policy makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there are some signs of change in the right direction, there is still a great need for the ICRC to “open the windows” … On the whole, the ICRC seems to have blurred the differences between the discretion which their work requires and an obsession with needless secrecy. The Cold War years presented various challenges to the ICRC. Under concerted criticism not only from communist but also from certain western democratic circles, the ICRC staved off unwanted changes in its composition and mandate mainly through its performance in various conflicts – in Palestine and Hungary, for example. It also played its traditional role in helping to further develop international humanitarian law. By the middle of the Cold War, the organization was engaged broadly in complex ways not only in the Global South but also in Europe – not only in “developing areas” but also in Greece and Northern Ireland. There was clearly a need for its traditional roles during the Cold War, even if the ICRC was slow to anticipate some needed changes at headquarters as well as in the field. Its controversial performance in the conflict in Nigeria during 1967–70 led to important changes in Geneva. There were other opportunities for striking change, as in response to the 1975 Tansley Report on the Re-appraisal of the Red Cross, or at the 1974–77 diplomatic conference that produced two protocols additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chile and the “Semisavage” Sister Republics If the Araucanians were “savage” for educated Chileans of the early republic, their Latin American neighbors were at least “semisavage,” according to an 1850 news-sheet. Chileans' views of the other Latin American countries were invariably tinged by the superiority complex we have noted. Spanish America, for El Mercurio in 1841, was a “universal shipwreck … from Mexico to Buenos Aires,” and for a magazine of the following year, “a gladiatorial circus.” According to El Ferrocarril in 1859 (not a good year for Chilean boastfulness on this score), every steamship brought news of “revolutionary chaos” in the sister republics. The general perception was often confirmed by foreigners living in Chile. Sermonizing in Santiago cathedral during the dieciocho of 1854, an Ecuadorian priest drew a lurid picture of the sister states – “many … with more resources than you” – and the “stormy waves of anarchy” that battered them, not to mention their “nameless tyrants.” Father Noboa's point was fair. The other Spanish American republics were all passing through turbulent times, their histories regularly punctuated by palace revolutions, civil wars, regional struggles, dictatorial governments, and, in some cases, repressive atrocities that made Chile's Conservative regime seem a paragon of benevolence. Educated Chileans could read news reports from virtually every part of Latin America (although many more from Europe) in the press. Most of their attention (to judge from press articles and congressional debates) was focused on their immediate neighbors: Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What can be described as the Chilean worldview (educated Chileans' cosmovisión or imaginario, as Spanish-speakers sometimes call it nowadays) has obvious connections with the ways in which both political ideas and political behavior developed in the mid-century years, not to mention the program of reform espoused by both Conservatives and Liberals. For this reason alone, it needs to be examined as part of the general pattern of ideas and politics. What kind of a country did educated Chileans of the early republic think they were living in? How did they “imagine the nation”? What were their feelings about it? How did they see its future and interpret (or start to interpret) its past? Since they often looked beyond their own frontiers, we need to ask how they saw their country fitting into the postcolonial Latin American pattern. What were their attitudes to the great world beyond South America, especially Europe and the United States? To what extent did they take Europe or the United States as models for their own future? The following two chapters illustrate the multitude of answers Chileans gave to these questions. The Chilean Superiority Complex Qué escena tan sublime Oh Patria ves hoy día! Una era en agonía Y otra era que te imprime Su sello constructor! What a sublime scene, Oh homeland, do you see today! One era of agony And another era which imprints Its constructive seal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On Saturday, April 17, 1830, a three-hour battle was fought near the confluence of the Claro and Lircay rivers, just outside the town of Talca in the Central Valley of Chile. The smaller of the two armies was led by General Ramón Freire, the liberal-minded hero of the wars of independence who had been Chile's president a few years earlier. His adversary, General Joaquín Prieto, another veteran of independence, was the champion of the Conservatives who had recently seized power in Santiago, the capital, bringing to an end the series of false starts that had marked Chilean politics since 1823, mostly under the leadership of politicians calling themselves Liberals. With reinforcements brought by Colonel José María de la Cruz from Chillán, Prieto had assembled a force of around twenty-two hundred. It quickly overwhelmed Freire's seventeen hundred soldiers, many of whom fled for their lives across the little Lircay river, leaving behind them around two hundred dead. General Prieto's victory at the Battle of Lircay (as it became known) assured the triumph of the new Conservative regime. Eleven days earlier, the Valparaiso trader Diego Portales had taken over two of the three portfolios in the Chilean cabinet, thus becoming the most powerful figure in the country. At Portales's behest, General Prieto would soon be elected president of the republic. His victory at Lircay and Portales's rise to power ushered in more than a quarter century of Conservative rule in Chile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ALLIANZ IN 1940 when the Allianz concern celebrated its fiftieth anniversary on January 13, 1940, Germany was once again at war, and thus a certain sobriety was in order despite the victories of 1939. The concern presented itself to its various constituencies in a two-volume Festschrift: the first, an informative and useful history of the company by Wilhelm Kisch entitled “Fifty Years Allianz. A Contribution to the History of German Private Insurance” the second, a picture chronicle of the concern that was a balance of photos of major executives in times past and present, leading representatives of the concern's external service, festive events, various headquarters buildings, vacation homes belonging to the concern, and sporting events. Certainly the goal was to present Allianz and the role of private insurance in the most favorable light possible, but Kisch's narrative was not heavy-handed and was reasonably free of hyperbole. Not surprisingly, it contained a number of positive references to the National Socialist regime and its values; the photo volume showed what can only be termed a requisite number of pictures of uniformed employees and Swastika flags, so that one was aware who held power in Germany and of the Allianz concern's “devotion.” The film Allianz produced for the occasion, Allianz 1890–1940, which can justly be called a high-quality cinematic self-presentation of the concern, was similarly constructed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Spanish military conquests on the American mainland between, roughly, 1520 and 1540, are justly famous, or infamous, episodes in the history of European expansion. In those two decades a small number of Spaniards, probably not above 10,000 even if late-comers and people behind the front lines are counted, overcame native polities containing many millions in central and southern Mexico, Central America and the regions of South America we now know as Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. Great and sometimes acrimonious controversy still surrounds the question of how many millions of Indians there were. The answer will probably never be known for certain. The most sober study of the Peruvian case suggests a range of 4–12 or even 15 million; and for central and southern Mexico, serious arguments have been made for figures from 6 to 25 million. These are the best-studied regions – the heart of the Inca empire, and almost the whole of the Aztecs'. The pre-conquest populations of other areas are still less precisely (if that is the word) known. For understanding the conquests, the numbers in any case do not matter much. Whether high or low estimates are taken, the invaders were still outnumbered by thousands to one. Controversy abounds, too, over the means of conquest, though it is less heated, and has more to do with the ranking of explanations than with identifying them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to the consequences of their own deeds and the basic statutes calling for their arrest and expulsion, unnaturalized foreigners resident in the Indies had another major worry. The kings periodically issued decrees calling for special efforts to round up these illegal aliens and to send both the foreigners and their wealth to Spain at the earliest opportunity. These cédulas came, characteristically, when the crown was most worried about the potential dangers foreigners represented to the empire. Need for the money that might be forthcoming in the seizure of the wealth of these persons also played an important part in the timing of orders for direct action against foreign residents. These round-ups thus tended to come just before or during wartime when both the royal concern for imperial defense and the need for increased revenues were most in evidence. There were several such ‘reprisals’ (represalias) in the course of the eighteenth century. The last came in 1794 and 1795 when orders went out to arrest all Frenchmen and to sequester their holdings. Philip V directed the first roundup of the century during the War of Spanish Succession. In a cédula dated 24 July 1702, Philip told Viceroy Alburquerque of New Spain that England, Holland, and the Hapsburgs had declared war. Alburquerque was therefore to take ‘appropriate measures to embargo all Germans, Dutchmen, and Englishmen’ in his jurisdiction. He was to allow absolutely none of these foreigners nor any goods or estates pertaining to them to escape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]