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The article presents step by step instructions for making contemporary sequins holiday tree.

The article presents step-by-step instructions for making log cabin pincushion caddy and paper piecing. INSET: Paper-Piecing Fundamentals.

This article offers information on using polymer clay and mixed media in craft projects. It notes that polymer clay brands can be mixed together with no negative effects on sculpting projects. It recommends storing these clays in a cool place and away from sunlight. Included is a guideline for a fun and safe use of polymer clay. It points out the importance of baking in successfully creating crafts with polymer clay. Recommended tools and supplies are needle tools, paint brushes, paper, embossing tools, pliers and wire.

The article offers information on how to create a portrait including the initial sketch using cheap paper and B pencil, cleaning and refining details, and quality drawing paper lay out. It states that portrait is a satisfying artwork that records an image of a person. It mentions several things needed in making a portrait including B pencil, Tracing paper marked with 1cm squares, and A4 Cartridge paper. It also mentions several portraits such as the portrait of W. H. Auden and Rudolf Nureyev.

The article explores the important role of commercial forestry, lifecycle of paper and environmental management in a designer's ability to work sustainably. Sustainable forestry ensures responsible practices like increase protection of soils, wildlife and waterways. Paper production starts when raw materials are pulped to make useable fiber. Printers are cited as possible key partners in adopting sustainable production practices. Also included is how paper products and eco-friendly printer can lessen the effect of graphic design on the environment.

A discussion about packaging materials is presented. Various materials for packaging are continually being developed, including paper, plastic and fake fur. Package designs may involve blending materials or combining different material types. Materials may be organized according to weight, feel and cost.

The article presents the author's insights on the materials used in making rustic cards. The author mentions that pencils and a fine tipped pens labeled as permanent or waterproof are needed for outlining the images and for adding stitch and extra details. The author says that a white and not a watercolor paper to paint and sheets of colored A4 card are used as a card without being mounted. Moreover, the author also uses good brushes that hold a lot of paint without flooding the paper.

The article describes the basic equipment and materials needed for the projects in the July 2008 issue of "Quilled Wild Flowers." Several types of basic equipment include a cork quilling board, pins and quilling tools, cocktail sticks, tweezers and scissors. Other materials include rotating craft table, quilling papers and permanent marker pens.

The article presents information on the materials and equipment used for quilling. Quilling papers come in various colors but beginners are advised to buy a rainbow-mix pack of papers. Metallic- and pearl-edged papers are often used for Christmas, wedding, and anniversary quilling designs. There are varieties of tools used for quilling including glue, cork board or fiberboard, and pins.

The article provides the materials that will be used in the projects featured in the issue. It indicates that paper punching requires only a punch and some paper to get started on. It cites several useful punches such as the border and circle punches, the corner punches and the tumble punches. It points out that plain coloured papers are the most versatile although patterned papers are available. It mentions paint tins, small boxes and box canvasses which can be decorated with punched paper.

The article offers information on materials which can be used to paint perspective, detail and depth using watercolors. It list the materials in order of importance, in terms of how they ease the process and improve the result. These materials include paper, paints, brushes, sketching materials, and painting boards.

The article presents the materials required to create a three-dimensional picture, or decoupage, which includes cards and papers, printed sheets, and outline stickers.

The article offers information on the Curious Paper Collection project made by Viva Dolan Communications and Design Inc. for Arjo Wiggins, the second largest paper company in the world. The design firm decided to introduce six grades of paper with a common graphic element and the application of humor. A slipcase contains the six swatch books, as well as a stationery system, and an advertising campaign featuring full-page color and inserts printed on Curious Paper grade.

The article offers information on several materials and equipment that can be used for rubber stamping. Each type of rubber stamps has its own advantage, however one's choice of stamp affects the image to be depicted. A watermark ink creates a wonderful watermark effect on any paper or matte-finish card. Chalk pads are useful since these serve as pigment inkpads which dry with a matte chalk finish.

Chapter 19 of the book "Run to Earth: A Novel," by M. E. Braddon is presented. Running out of foreign letter-paper, Captain George Jernam asked his wife, Rosamond Duncombe, for assistance. She gave her a key to his father's desk to get new letter-papers. While writing the letter, Jernman suddenly glanced at a small bent Brazilian coin with "G" initial scratched on it. It was the coin that Jernam gave to his brother before parting with him.

The article discusses the contribution of radio frequency identification systems (RFID) in various applications. Contactless smart cards are divided into three groups based upon the applicable standards namely close coupling, remote coupling and vicinity coupled. Public transport is one of the applications where the greatest potential exists for the use of RFID systems, particularly contactless smart cards. The replacement of conventional paper tickets by a modern electronic fare management system based on contactless smart cards provides a multitude of benefits to all those involved.

This article focuses on the steps to research a paper in gerontology. Research and writing can be intimidating to many students, especially in a field such as gerontology, which is a new subject to most. But research and writing needn't be frightening. Doing the background research for a term paper in gerontology is more than writing a paper itself. The key is not to work harder but to work smarter. By building on other people's work, and giving credit to them where credit is due, one save his time and devote his best efforts to expressing what they really have to say. The process is the same as the one that takes place in science. At every stage in the research process, they need to ask themselves, What is the question one is asking? (What information am I trying to find?) One don't ask this question only once. For example, suppose a person are trying to find out what percentage of people are retired at ages 60 and 70. At first, the question may seem simple.

The article provides information on the forest management in Indonesia. The drive to sustain export earnings has more focused on expanding the production of pulp and paper and tree crops, especially oil palm. Not only has the use of forest resources been unsustainable, the distribution of benefits has been highly inequitable. Large-scale commercial logging activities have been a leading cause of deforestation and land degradation, although small-scale farmers have become a significant part of the process.

The article offers step-by-step instructions on how to make a colorful sheet of paper for a book cover.

The article offers step-by-step instructions for making plant papers.

States and elites The culture of the Ottoman period has often been analyzed by using the same criteria applied to the periods before and after it, Mamluk Egypt (1250–1517) and the nineteenth century. This is problematic for two reasons, firstly because of the very different roles played by the state in relation to culture and learning and secondly because of the role of elites in providing models and patterns of culture. The influence of the ruling class in shaping culture can change between one period and another, and can be greater at certain times than at others. When the state is centralized, the ruling class is much more likely to play a dominant role than it is in a decentralized state. The cultural production is more likely to be polished and refined when ruling classes dominate the direction that it takes, and less so when their role is reduced. When the state is decentralized, as it was during the Ottoman period, and the structures at the top are weaker, the cultural forms and patterns from below are more likely to emerge. Therefore, rather than compare this period to those before or after it, we may approach it through the larger framework of its changing social and political structures. In both Mamluk Egypt and Egypt under the rule of Muhammad 'Ali and his descendants (nineteenth century), the state was very centralized and played an active role in financing and shaping culture and in education. Likewise the ruling elites were actively involved in creating cultural models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pattern of Sino-Korean tributary relations Korea is often referred to as a model Chinese tributary state. Indeed, it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of Korea's tributary relations with China in the development of Korean political institutions and higher culture. Beginning in the seventh century, when the Korean kingdom of Silla entered into an alliance with the T'ang, the Koreans became skilled at adapting Chinese institutions to their own needs. Later, the kingdom of Koryŏ (Chinese: Kao-li, A.D. 918–1392) continued this pattern of adaptation, watching closely as the Liao, Chin, and Mongol states rose in succession, and evolving forms of tributary relations with each in turn. Korea came under more direct imperial control with the completion of the Mongol conquest in 1270. Thereafter, Koryŏ princes were reared in Peking and were married to Mongol princesses, and Mongol commanderies were established at P'yŏng-yang and Ssangsŏng. During the decades of Yüan overlordship, as the Koryŏ ruling lineage intermarried with the Yüan imperial family, certain other Korean houses became powerful by marrying daughters to high Yüan officials. Over time, Korean ties to the Yüan became so important that the Koryŏ regime was ill-prepared to cope with the fall of the Yüan in the mid-fourteenth century. In many respects, the fall of Koryŏ and the rise of the state of Chosŏn in 1392 was related to the transition from the Yüan to the Ming dynasty in China, and the evolving relationship between China and Korea during the Ming period is a good example of how the tributary system served each side, both as a political tool and security mechanism, and as a conduit for trade and cultural transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employers' organisations have been around for a very long time, indeed, such organisations pre-dated the industrialisation process in Britain. Adam Smith, in his classic treatise.The Wealth of Nations, was amongst the earliest of commentators to identify the existence of semi-clandestine masters' committees. Such combinations, Smith argued, operated across a number of trades and industries, working to regulate product prices, lower wages and control working hours. The master tailors, for example, formed a number of alliances throughout the second half of the eighteenth century, ostensibly to combat industrial action by their workers, who developed one of the most militant of eighteenth-century unions. Draconian union-bashing and violent strikebreaking tactics were often resorted to by such combinations. In one dispute in 1764, 23 master tailors imported over 1,000 strikebreakers, including 230 from outside Britain. The master tailors' combination dissolved rapidly after breaking this strike. This pattern of brief, temporary, ephemeral combinations of masters to address specific industrial relations crises characterised the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Rarely, during this period, were employers' associations sustained for any length of time. Presumably, in most instances, individual capitalists could effectively discipline and control their labour force without the necessity for forging wider class alliances. Nevertheless, the extent of employer organisation, even in this early period, should not be underestimated. As the work of Yarmie, Musson, Coleman and Turner has shown, formal employers' combinations dealing with labour relations existed in the cotton, printing, coal, shipbuilding, worsted, cutlery and paper trades during the period of illegality under the multifarious individual trade and general Combination Acts in the late eighteenth century and during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technical progress is a function of bourgeois money. The functions of the faculties of science in the later nineteenth century were teaching, research, and service to agriculture, industry, and government at municipal, departmental, and national levels. An extra duty of faculties, resulting from the organization of a unified system of education and the historical connection between lycée and faculty, was their time-consuming responsibility for the baccalaureate examinations, a particularly heavy burden in large towns. The examination figures for the University of Paris in 1893–4 show the problem. Fortunately a light teaching load gave the French university scientist some time for research. Probably the most striking feature of the provincial faculties of science was the development of a system of institutes of applied science, each of which was usually headed by a leading scientist interested in regional industry and agriculture. The careers of Pasteur in Lille, Schützenberger in Mulhouse and in Paris, Haller in Nancy, Sabatier in Toulouse, and the Berthelots and Le Chatelier in Paris provide a paradigm of the activity of the academic scientist whose research was intimately connected with the economic life of the region and the nation. In developing institutes of applied science and technology the University saw itself as fulfilling a vital social function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In France Cybèle has more worshippers than Christ. Higher agricultural education A perusal of nineteenth-century scientific literature, especially the journals, soon reveals the large role that science was capable of playing in agriculture and the degree to which farmers and all sorts of politicians were coming to rely on scientists to tell them how to increase production. The patron saint of French agricultural education is Mathieu de Dombasle, who opened near Nancy the first serious agricultural school in 1824. This noble failure encouraged the engineers Polonceau and Auguste Bella to found in 1828, with royal support, the more scientifically oriented Institution royale agronomique de Grignon, near Paris. In 1848 the Second Republic created a national organization of agricultural education: seventy departmental farm-schools to produce good farm workers; regional schools of agriculture; and, capstone of the system, the Institut national agronomique de Versailles. In line with policies in most western countries, the Third Republic promoted scientific agriculture on a scale unprecedented in French history. An autonomous Ministry of Agriculture emerged in 1881 from the clutches of the ministries in which it had been held captive for most of the century. Nineteen different ministers of agriculture served the forty-two governments that ruled France from 1881 to 1914. Given the composition of the Chamber of Deputies, it is not surprising that the ministry fell victim to a near monopoly by lawyers and doctors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lines of siege, 1886–89 The outlook from the savanna Although in retrospect the flurry of European diplomacy which attended the Berlin Conference of 1884–5 seems clearly designed to prepare for the European invasion of West Africa, economic and political uncertainties in Europe and indications of stiff resistance in Africa inhibited the formation of aggressive policies. In the immediate aftermath the European siege lines were strengthened, but the scale of the impending threat to African independence was still not generally predictable. Even if in retrospect it appears that external and internal pressures were producing a general crisis of authority, its local manifestations varied greatly in nature and in intensity, and it is not easy to trace this crisis to common causes. Obviously, the impact of the European economy and European power was strongest in coastal regions. Many inland kingdoms of the savanna and Sahel still knew Europeans only as isolated and powerless travellers, and they retained the preoccupations and priorities which their historical experience suggested. Bornu, for example, though affected by fluctuations in European demand for ivory and ostrich-feathers, had more urgent problems at home; the challenge which eventually in 1893 overthrew the al-Kānamī dynasty came from Rabah al-Zubayr, a well-armed state-builder from the Nilotic Sudan, who proved capable of mobilising support among over-mighty subjects of Kukawa. 'Umar b. 'Alī, Caliph of Sokoto, 1881–91, also faced difficulties in maintaining administrative control over the empire founded by Usuman dan Fodio and in enforcing the theocratic standards which justified its existence; but these were largely inherent in the attempt to hold together territories which it took four months to traverse from east to west, once the capital of charisma accumulated by the founders had become attenuated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

North of the equator It has become a truism of historical writing to conceive of Africa in the course of the nineteenth century as becoming increasingly a part of, and a product of, the expansion of Europe, which, beginning in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, had integrated ever larger areas of the world into a single economic system. In attempting an overview of the state of the continent on the eve of partition – roughly over the decade of the 1870s – a large number of questions arise from a consideration of this truism. To what extent was Africa already an adjunct of an economic system dominated by Europe? What was the relationship between Africa and this European system – was it one of an equal or an unequal exchange of commodities? To what extent was Africa dependent economically, if not yet politically? What social and ideological changes were beginning to follow from this dependency? Was Africa a fruit ripe for plucking in the 1870s, was there a certain inevitability about the forthcoming imperialist carve-up, or was partition an extraneous historical occurrence forced upon a continent which had within it other options for coping with the future? There are no answers to these questions that are at the same time simple and sensible. Certainly the answers to all such queries will differ, according to the region of Africa which is under scrutiny. Even within particular regions, the situation of individual states, societies or groups of people, their relations with each other and with the outside world (especially with the European capitalist economies) varied greatly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

So far, we have examined the structures of settlement, society, and economy in eighteenth-century New Granada and have seen something of the economic links that bound the colony to Spain. However, by focusing on the character of New Granada's social and economic structures, the foregoing chapters have tended to emphasize elements of continuity and evolution within the colony, without paying much attention to the external factors that affected its development. And yet, of course, the eighteenth century saw important changes in relations between Spain and her colonies, as the Bourbon kings who inherited the Hapsburg throne sought to reverse the seemingly inexorable process of decline that Spain had suffered during the seventeenth century. Not only did the new dynasty establish a more centralized and absolutist authority within the metropolis, but, by political, military, and economic reform, it also sought to bring about what has been called the “second conquest of America.” This was not a process that began immediately or proceeded smoothly. The first reforms were hesitant in tone and uneven in application, and the great age of reform did not arrive until the reign of Charles III. New Granada, however, felt the repercussions of change at the metropolitan center early in the century, when its trade and administration were touched by Madrid's earliest efforts to reassert control over the resources of its empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Of all the influences on the development of New Granada's political life during the eighteenth century, Bourbon policies are the most obvious. We have seen how, throughout the century, ministers of Bourbon monarchs sought to enhance royal authority and improve Spain's command of the region's resources, with varying degrees of intensity and success. The first conjuncture of Bourbon reform in New Granada, in 1717–23, was ineffectual, if not entirely futile. It did, however, clear the ground for a second conjuncture of administrative and commercial reorganization in 1739–40, from which New Granada emerged with a new framework for government, under the command of the viceroys, and a new framework for its overseas trade, carried by individual register-ships. Then, after a long phase of piecemeal, incremental reform, the government of Charles III inaugurated Bourbon New Granada's third and most radical reformist conjuncture in 1778, when Gálvez's new colonial program was applied to the region in the visita general of 1778–83. New Granada's political system was therefore affected by three major moments of reform during the eighteenth century. In the first, the crown reasserted royal authority, but failed to sustain its reorganization of New Granada's system of government. In the second, Madrid established a permanent viceregal government, which strengthened the networks of royal command in New Granada by installing a strong authority at the heart of the territory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]