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In recent decades, the field of family language policy (FLP) has expanded in breadth to reconceptualize the notion of family structure and the rich variety of motivations of transnational families. In an age spotlighted by the blurring of linguistic and cultural borders, this study was guided by one overarching question: As a parent, would you be willing to compromise the development of your child’s heritage language in exchange for your child increasing their social capital, improving their English language skills, and becoming a global citizen? Interviews were conducted with three sets of highly-educated, multilingual parents who lived abroad for work and to afford their children future linguistic, cultural, and economic opportunities. Results found that as the parents realized these opportunities, the children’s relationship to the parents’ first language and culture deteriorated; however, the parents took these challenges in stride, not losing sight of the skills their children were currently developing. Further, owing to their positive outlook, the parents considered their children’s heritage language attrition as a temporary outcome that the children could ameliorate down the road, should they so choose.

Based on Spolsky's (2004) tripartite framework for language policy, this study explores language practices, language ideology, and language management in relation to minority languages, Putonghua, and English in ethnic minority families in Yunnan, China. Through observations of and interviews with nine interethnic marriage families in Kena Village and Anmin Village, we found that although people in both villages recognise the value of their native languages in ethnic identification and cultural inheritance, people in Anmin Village make efforts to teach the children Mosuo, while children in Kena Village usually acquire Malimasa naturally. Such differences are associated with sociolinguistic environment and child agency. Meanwhile, Putonghua is widely used in television programmes and smartphone applications and acquired by the young generation due to national policy and the spread of smartphones and television. Families in both villages demonstrated similar aspirations for their children's English learning, but low socioeconomic status affected their ability to invest in foreign language learning. The results suggest that in the special context of multi-ethnic and multilingual villages in Yunnan the agency of rural parents and grandparents is relatively weak, and family language policies are mainly influenced by meso – (e.g. school) and macro- (e.g. socioeconomic environment, national policy) level factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At a meso level, families have shown an imperative role in language policy in general and language education in particular. Predicated on the theories of family language policy and a transdisciplinary framework for L2 development, this study was undertaken to explore what three generations of a family did with the foreign languages they had learned in order to build and maintain their multilingual family. Data was gathered through informal interviews with the family members as well as field notes taken by the principal researcher during each visit to the family. The findings indicate that the members conformed to the prevalent discourses of L2 learning in mainstream education. They had specific strategies to sustain 'old-fashioned' L2s while simultaneously demonstrating their complete openness to emergent L2s. Of acute significance in research results is their interaction with L2s in multiple ways of learning and the system of values and ideologies they associated with the L2s in the monolingual context of Vietnam. The study offers implications for family stakeholders' engagement in the policy, research, and practice of language education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Framed by family language policy (FLP), in conjunction with the Douglas Fir Group's ecological transdisciplinary framework for second language acquisition, this multiple case study investigates the FLPs of two Hmong–American families in relation to a Hmong–English dual‐language program (DLP) where their children are enrolled. Interviews, artifacts, and family‐recorded interactions were utilized to get a full understanding of what factors at the different levels of interaction shaped their FLP. The findings reveal that both sets of parents perceived the relationship between the home and school as a partnership for their children's heritage language development, with the school taking on the onus for Hmong literacy. This resulted in both families’ more secondary role and, thus, home language practices that merely supplement the school content. Importantly, while both sets of parents held similar beliefs regarding the role of the DLP in heritage language maintenance, it was their beliefs in the value of Hmong that led to the different FLPs between the families. The article concludes with limitations and implications for schools interested in wanting to better serve their heritage language learners and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to reveal different stakeholders’ beliefs and opinions on heritage language maintenance and complementary schools in the Netherlands, namely those of parents, educators, and students. A case study was conducted at a Chinese school in the south of the Netherlands. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 respondents (N = 21) consisting of nine parents, eight educators, and four students. The results reveal that (1) Chinese parents value their children learning both Dutch and Mandarin due to economic, socio-cultural, and identity factors; (2) Heritage language maintenance is perceived by parents and educators as vital in ethnic grouping (sense of belonging), connection with the heritage culture, and for instrumental purposes. They also recognise Mandarin as a new diasporic linguistic standard replacing Cantonese; (3) Chinese parents view complementary schools as a platform to strengthen their ethnic bonding and community formation. Despite students’ perceptions of heritage language maintenance do not align with adults’ (parents and educators) views, their identity construction in complementary schools is in line with adults’ expectations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family language policy (FLP) is a key focus of immigrant families, as parents are considered to play a vital role in children’s bilingual language development. Nevertheless, many parents report that they do not have an FLP. Accordingly, their FLP planning style is unplanned and spontaneous. This study compares families’ FLP planning styles (overt vs. covert). Data was collected via questionnaires from parents and their English-Hebrew bilingual children (n = 82). Children’s receptive and expressive vocabulary of both languages were assessed to explore the impact of FLP planning style. Results confirm that families present with a desire for proficient outcomes in both languages. However, families with an overt planning style present with more pro-heritage language policies (e.g. promoting English use with siblings). Those with a covert planning style lean towards pro-societal language policies and children may be allowed to speak any language at home. Differences in FLP planning did not significantly impact ratings of home language use or children’s vocabulary. The perceived value of English as a global language may be partially responsible for the findings. The study confirms that although there are many effective ways to raise a bilingual child, FLP planning has implications for the bilingual language learning environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anti-Russian sentiment or ‘Russophobia’ has been on the rise around the world since the 2022 invasion of Ukraine (Washington Post, 2022). Negative attitudes towards Russians and the Russian language can potentially influence the desires and practices of Russian-speaking parents in using the language with their children in contexts outside of Russia. This article examines the language ideologies and family language policies of a diverse group of Russian-s peaking mothers in Finland before the Ukraine war. Most of the mothers noted in interviews that some form of Russophobia (e.g. perceived negative attitudes, cutting off funding for Russian programmes, and/or their own stereotypes about Russians) influenced their own use of Russian in certain contexts, their perceptions of their Russian-speaking children, and/or their language education decisions. This article explores an understudied area of family language policy, that is how xenophobia and/or racism in the context of conflict (in this case after the annexation of Crimea in 2014) influence a minority migrant group's use of their home language abroad. By situating mothers’ family language planning and ideologies in the larger sociohistorical context, this paper contributes to an expanded view of family external or non-linguistic factors in family language policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the findings from a study that explored how the language practices and management to which 156 students from universities in China reported being exposed at home, alongside their language beliefs, use of their entire linguistic repertoire when reading, listening, speaking, and writing at university, and emotions related to being multilingual predicted the language practices and management they envisioned for their own families. Data were gathered through a comprehensive questionnaire administered on campus. The results revealed that the more participants reported exposure to multilingual language practices at home and the stronger their beliefs in the benefits of a multilingual upbringing, the more determined they were to implement multilingual language practices with their own families. Moreover, using languages fluidly at university correlated positively with participants’ desire to adopt a more conscious approach to language management in their future families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on language shift in Singapore have focused on the language use within ethnic communities. However, despite increasing numbers of interethnic marriages, very few studies have explored the effect of such marriages on LS. This article explores the language practices within Malay-Chinese mixed marriages and examines how language policies in these marriages and families are negotiated. Through the analysis of surveys and interviews with 16 Malay-Chinese interethnic families, this study found that English transcends both Malay and Mandarin in terms of language use in all domains. The linguistic choices of participants are also dependent on their interlocutors. Parental ideologies, both overt and covert, point to Mandarin being perceived as important for their children's future while Malay was perceived to be a more familial language. This paper also highlights the influence government policies have on Singaporeans' perceptions on the status of languages. The data points unambiguously to language shift in progress within these families, away from either Mandarin or Malay towards English. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transnationals constitute one-third of the population of the economically prosperous Singapore. Applying a family language policy (FLP) framework and collaborative autoethnography from data (interviews, videos, and diaries) spanning 13 years, this study delves into the linguistic journey of an Italian-Chinese family with two children born in Singapore. The analysis demonstrates the dynamics of language ideologies, management, and practices, following changes in parental beliefs, children's linguistic proficiencies and agency, availability of resources within the family and the host country, and unexpected events like COVID-19. The article highlights how multilingual parents' ideologies shape up owning to individual experiences, beliefs, and aspirations, and how these ideologies are translated into language choices and day-to-day language maintenance, vis-à-vis Singapore's English-centric policies. This unique longitudinal case study also touches on features pertaining to transnational families in Singapore, such as the perception of the local variety 'Singlish,' caregiving, and schooling options, illustrating the intricate interplay of micro and macro factors governing family multilingualism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Special Issue came about as the result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which brought unprecedented shifts in the conditions and opportunities for language education. In the context of heritage languages, there were significant challenges for learners, parents, and teachers, but there were also new opportunities for rethinking the ways in which languages were taught and passed on to the next generation. In this Special Issue, we take an ecological perspective on language policy and planning (henceforward LPP) and focus on micro- and meso-level LPP related to language learning and the intergenerational transmission of heritage languages. While the approach taken in this volume aligns with the notion that macro, meso and micro perspectives, goals and activities are not independent of each other but form a complex ecology (Baldauf, 2006), our focus here is not on formal policy making and implementation, but on the practices surrounding language learning, teaching and use, as forms of LPP (Liddicoat, 2020). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT In recent years, China has implemented a national language policy promoting the use of Putonghua (Standard Chinese) in ethnic minority schools. This study investigates how mesolevel institutions (i.e., schools) have responded to this macro‐level national language policy change, and how the institutional policy changes have affected Korean‐Chinese bilingual family language policies in Yanbian, China. Based on an analysis of the teaching and learning materials used in schools and data gathered through interviews with and observations of 16 Korean‐Chinese bilingual families, this study finds that schools have actively responded to macro‐level policy changes with organised, large‐scale language practice activities. As a result of factors such as educational pressure and broader societal ideologies, families have been pressured to align with the meso‐level language policy despite their desire to maintain their heritage language and culture. Consequently, it is likely that future generations of Korean‐Chinese individuals, who would previously have been ‘born’ bilinguals, may become monolinguals. This study contends that in countries with a unified language ideology and a dominant language, the impact of macro‐level policy reforms can restrict or promote micro‐level family language policies through the mediating influence of meso‐level institutions. Family language policy researchers may need to recognise that there is a one‐way, rather than two‐way, relationship between the aims of the state and the desires of families in such contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses family language policy and the tensions between mothers' and children's language beliefs in two Vietnamese immigrant families in Melbourne. These tensions have frequently been discussed from the parental perspective, but it is less common to include the children's voice. We draw on a larger in-depth qualitative study of family language policy in Vietnamese families living in Australia to explore the language beliefs of both children and adults. Employing Fitzsimmons-Doolan's [2018. "Language Ideology Change Over Time: Lessons for Language Policy in the U.S. State of Arizona and Beyond." TESOL Quarterly 52 (1): 34–61. doi:10.1002/tesq.371] notions of pro-multilingual and pro-monolingual ideologies and Bourdieu's [1986. "The Forms of Capital." In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by J. G. Richardson, 241–258. Greenwood Press] concept of capital, we explore family language policy from the perspectives of both children and their mothers, and show how these perspectives are associated with each other. Findings reveal the pro-monolingual stance of the children in opposition to the pro-multilingual stance of their mothers where the children and their mothers appeared to attach different degrees of value to English and Vietnamese. The findings reinforce the complexities in realising family language policy across languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored the family language policy, bilingual parenting profiles, and the predictors among Chinese parents in Singapore. Altogether 175 parents of Chinese-English bilingual preschoolers (aged 2;6–5;6) were sampled and surveyed. The research results indicated that: (1) a majority of the parents (93.7%) believed in early bilingualism but differed in their beliefs about the appropriate starting age for early bilingualism; (2) two latent profiles of bilingual parenting emerged: Radical Bilingual Parenting (n = 91, 52.00%, bilingual reading activities from Age 2, longer hours of bilingual parent–child conversation); Moderate Bilingual Parenting (84, 48.00%, bilingual reading activities after Age 3, shorter hours of bilingual parent–child conversation); and (3) child's age, their preschool education experience, and parents' belief about the appropriate age to start early bilingualism predicted the profile of bilingual parenting. Implications for language policymaking and early bilingual parenting are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the first large-scale study of resources as a form of language management – that is, a way of influencing children's language practices. We introduce the distinction between child-directed resources (i.e. those providing parents with opportunities to engage with their children in the languages they are transmitting) and parent-directed resources (i.e. those providing parents with information about multilingual child-rearing). This study focused on the awareness and use of, as well as the desire for, such resources among Québec-based parents (n = 819) raising infants/toddlers (0-4 years) with multiple languages in the home. Data were collected with a questionnaire. Quantitative data were analyzed statistically, and qualitative data were analyzed using a computer assisted discourse study. We compared parents transmitting at least one immigrant heritage language – usually in addition to English and/or French (HL parents), and parents transmitting only English and French (non-HL parents). Overall, the findings show that non-HL parents were comparatively satisfied with existing child- and parent-directed resources in English and French. By contrast, HL parents had a stronger desire for additional resources in their HLs. All parents desired multilingual resources. The paper discusses the theoretical and practical contributions of this study as well as directions for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dynamic nature of multilingual families and their language policies has been touched upon by numerous studies. Adding to the field, the present study assesses the stability of family language policy in a standardised and quantitative manner. To this end, a linguistically heterogenous sample consisting of 488 multilingual families raising young children in Belgium's Flemish Community was surveyed twice, eighteen months apart. Based on the collected longitudinal survey data, the present study offers statistically verifiable evidence for the (partially) dynamic character of family language policy. Firstly, parental beliefs in a multilingual advantage were strengthened and a change was found in language-specific beliefs regarding children's language acquisition. Secondly, the families' practices demonstrate a shift towards the Dutch institutional language, particularly in parental language use when communicating with each other and with their child, and in the child's overall exposure. The observed shift in practices and beliefs underscores not only parents' continuous assessment of their children's linguistic needs and development, but also the societal environment influencing this assessment and adjustment. However, while significant changes in language beliefs and practices were uncovered, the more conscious and explicit component of language management proved stable across time, corroborating the independent character of the three family language policy components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examines the role of maternal years of education and family language policy (FLP) in monolingual and bilingual children's acquisition of Hebrew plural morphology. The case of the Hebrew plural system is especially interesting when examining the influence of the above factors on morphological performance, given that it demands both a mastery of morphological rules (characterized by a high degree of transparency in Hebrew) and a lexicon-based mastery of exceptions. Participants were 146 children, 74 bilinguals (heritage language: Russian; societal language: Hebrew) and 72 Hebrew monolinguals, aged 5–8 (kindergarten, first grade, and second grade), from the same schools and neighborhoods. A Hebrew pluralization, sentence completion task that included 99 items from two categories: fully regular words whose plural forms are based on a morphological rule and non-regular words whose plural forms (also) require lexical and/or morpho-lexical knowledge. The parents of the bilingual children filled out a questionnaire with questions on background variables (e.g., maternal education) and language practice in both languages by different family members and language use at home. The findings indicated that maternal education contributes differently and distinctly to the linguistic performance of children from different linguistic backgrounds. For monolingual children, an increase in the number of years of maternal education is associated with an increase in the likelihood of success in the lexical and morpho-lexical aspects of Hebrew. By contrast, for bilingual children, no significant contribution of maternal education to children's performance was found. For bilingual participants, their performance in the lexical and morpho-lexical aspects of the Hebrew plural system was consistently influenced by FLP across all school settings—increased use of Russian at home was associated with a lower likelihood of success in the societal language. FLP characteristics were not found to be related to maternal education. These findings have clinical implications for both assessment and intervention processes when working with bilingual children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the role of natural translation in heritage speakers' bilingual communication in relation to the family language policies (FLP) adopted to maintain heritage language in Italian and German multilingual families. In order to investigate this, in spring 2023, a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to both parents and children. The sample consists of 60 Russian-speaking bilingual HS living in Italy and Germany, where they have access to regular primary education and attend, in some cases, private Russian courses or schools. The informants do not receive specific translation training from or into the Russian language (they only practice translation at school from or into Italian/German), and they translate, in most cases, as an occasional activity, closer to the function of mediation or brokering. The role of translation in relation to FLP seems particularly relevant when comparing the two samples, considering different family compositions: mostly bi-ethnic in Italy and mono-ethnic in Germany. The survey showed that in daily life, both parents and children use translation, often as a specific kind of bilingual communication. In the Italian part of the sample, the strategy called OPOL prevails, and translation is a frequent activity in the domestic sphere. In the German one, instead, the separation of language use contexts is widespread, and all family members speak both Russian and German, making translation activity less relevant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transnational families in Indonesia currently still have many difficulties in developing and creating an ideology of language use that they implement in their families, with a variety of languages to maintain their family's ethnic identity. This research explores three research questions, as follows. (1) How did parents perceive the roles of various languages in shaping their children's future? (2) What languages were used in the family? This research finds the choice of language use within the context of Indonesian transnational families with different ethnic backgrounds. Employing a qualitative approach with a case study design (Yin, 2014), this study employs 2 participants, a woman, and her mother, both of them are scholarship awardees, who negotiate language ideologies, practices, and policies within their families among linguistic diversity and transnational mobility. Through thematic analysis (Saldana, 2012) of data collection from semi-structured interviews and observation, revealed several initial, open, and axial codes. This finding of this research reveals 1). The differences ideology between two generation. 2). The family's efforts to balance maintaining English and Bahasa Indonesia language. The implication of this study is made for the language policy maker and other transnational parent. In conclusion, this study highlights the complexities of language use in transnational families and demonstrates that these families face challenges and opportunities in creating an environment that supports language learning.

Intentional bilingualism is becoming increasingly popular in EFL countries, where many second-language speakers of English raise their children as a bilingual, with English alongside the local language. This article explores a case of intentional bilingualism spanning the first four years of a child, Ipek, who lives in Türkiye and has been exposed to Turkish and English since birth. As part of a longitudinal qualitative study, field and reflective notes were analysed to outline the key elements of Ipek’s context, including the participants, tools, methods and techniques. The insights and experiences gained in the study may contribute to developing effective strategies for developing intentional bilingualism.

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the role of natural translation in heritage speakers’ bilingual communication in relation to the family language policies (FLP) adopted to maintain heritage language in Italian and German multilingual families. In order to investigate this, in spring 2023, a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to both parents and children. The sample consists of 60 Russian-speaking bilingual HS living in Italy and Germany, where they have access to regular primary education and attend, in some cases, private Russian courses or schools. The informants do not receive specific translation training from or into the Russian language (they only practice translation at school from or into Italian/German), and they translate, in most cases, as an occasional activity, closer to the function of mediation or brokering. The role of translation in relation to FLP seems particularly relevant when comparing the two samples, considering different family compositions: mostly bi-ethnic in Italy and mono-ethnic in Germany. The survey showed that in daily life, both parents and children use translation, often as a specific kind of bilingual communication. In the Italian part of the sample, the strategy called OPOL prevails, and translation is a frequent activity in the domestic sphere. In the German one, instead, the separation of language use contexts is widespread, and all family members speak both Russian and German, making translation activity less relevant.

Heritage language maintenance is affected by many different factors. Particularly for families in subtractive bilingual environments, it is crucial to have a well-defined family language policy (FLP). Even with an established FLP, major disruptions and changes, as well as smaller shifts in families’ lives, can significantly affect children’s multilingual development and threaten heritage language maintenance. These shifts can be sudden or gradual. This study focuses on the importance of bringing the need for a FLP into multilingual families’ awareness and explores the challenges of sustaining it. More specifically, this study uses two parents’ reflections regarding their own families’ language policies to gain a better understanding of the challenges and to make recommendations to other families. It is guided by the following questions: To what extent are parents aware of their family’s multilingual habits and policies? How can parents support their children’s heritage language development in the face of significant disruptions or even subtle life changes? Two linguists raising multilingual children in different contexts agreed to become accountability partners to gain a better understanding of their own dynamic situations and support each other to become more intentional in their family multilingual development. Data were collected over a six-month period. Findings suggest that intentionality increased due to the accountability partnership. Furthermore, this study challenged several of the researchers’ assumptions, particularly regarding the amount of heritage language spoken, how transitions affect the family, what it takes for linguistic changes to occur, and the ease of tracking one’s own family’s linguistic habits. This study suggests that having a FLP is not sufficient, but that it requires periodic updating, and changes need to be implemented to match the evolving plan.

Aims and objectives: This paper highlights the conflicting language ideologies and translanguaging practices of a transcultural (Korean/Canadian) Korean/English-speaking family residing in South Korea through the lens of family language policy. Methodology: This paper draws on qualitative case study methods. Data collected consisted of interview data, language portraits, audio and video recorded family discussion of the language portraits, familial meals, and board/card game playing, as well as participant journal entries. The data from this paper comes from a larger project. Data and analysis: Data were gathered from four members of a multilingual family residing in South Korea. Data were coded and analyzed iteratively using thematic analysis. Findings: Findings from this paper suggest that language ideologies among multilingual family members vary due to the influence of local language ideologies and individual language experiences; this can lead to a disconnect between language practices and language ideologies and a multilingual identity in children. Originality: To my knowledge, this paper is the first study to use a family language policy lens in a transcultural multilingual family in South Korea. In addition, the study utilized unique data collection activities such as the video-recorded discussion of family member language portraits. Significance: This paper argues for parents in multilingual families to take a translanguaging stance when considering their language policies in the home to support their children's multilingual identities. This is the first paper to take this stance by involving all family members, and by using multiple sources of data, including language practices. Furthermore, this paper takes a critical approach to the lens of family language policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Governmental language policies in China have varied across recent decades, including the intensive promotion of Mandarin as a language of unification and public championing of regional varieties. Concomitantly, increasing urbanisation, regional migration, and cross-linguistic marriage have led to greater use of Mandarin in private domains. Given the varied status of regional language varieties by city, language ideologies and home practices play an increasingly important role in shaping youth language proficiencies, and maintaining dialect diversity. This paper examines links between parental language ideologies and child language proficiencies in three Chinese cities. The analysis of 167 interviews with young adult children and their parents reveals that parents tend to hold one of four ideological stances: Mandarin-dominant, dialect-dominant, bilingual diglossic, and 'whatever works'. Furthermore, we find that location matters: families differ by region in their ideologies and support for local varieties. Moreover, parental language ideology predicted children's current language proficiencies: parents who reported having explicit pro-Mandarin language ideology tended to have young adult children with lower levels of reported skill in the regional dialect. However, the strength of that relationship varies by city. We conclude by considering the implications of these findings for language policy and the promotion of dialect diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family language policy (FLP) impacts the maintenance of heritage language(s) in the family domain, where parents play a crucial role in making language-related decisions for their children. Globalisation, immigration, the COVID-19 pandemic, and digital communication have all affected FLP. Studies are now calling for examining how dispersed transnational families incorporate digital practices as a part of their FLP, given the shift from the exclusive use of traditional face-to-face communication to the inclusion of digital communication media such as Skype and WhatsApp. This research examines the viability of utilising Spolsky's tripartite framework to study the new concept of 'networked FLP,' a term coined by Curdt-Christiansen and Huang, which acknowledges dispersed families and digital communication. We examine data from ten Bengali immigrant families in Australia with dispersed senior family members living abroad. Our findings enrich the concept of networked FLP by highlighting the digital affordances that networked FLP provides to dispersed transnational families and the importance of socio-cultural and emotional factors when applying Spolsky's framework to FLP with digital media. We show that family bonding, maintaining heritage culture, and emotional connections are the primary motivations for digital communication, while language learning is secondary. Our study finds that it is essential to incorporate sociocultural and emotional factors when investigating networked FLP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article explores English immersion as a type of family language policy in the Spanish region of Castilla-La Mancha. Although the field of family language policy (FLP) has exponentially grown in the last decade to include a range of multilingual contexts across the world, the policies regarding the use of English in monolingual Spanish households have received little attention. Due to the global spread of English, Spanish families invest in their children's language education by maximizing opportunities for exposure to English inside and outside the home. This sociolinguistic ethnography of a group of 15 monolingual Spanish families with no to advanced English proficiency explores the interplay of English language ideologies, language socialization practices, and emotional investments in narratives of language experiences. This article discusses the enactment of agency among these families to sustain English immersion, which is driven by families' English learning trajectories, professional development identities, and affective stances shaping lived experiences with English. Two main research questions organize this article: (1) How do Spanish families envision, manage, and implement English immersion practices? (2) How do these English immersion policies shape the sociolinguistic order at home and beyond for their children? Based on the findings provided by narratives of language experiences among these families, this study addresses the tensions and dilemmas related to English immersion in the field of family language policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research explores the language attitudes of second-generation Arabic speakers in Italy, examining their perspectives on both Italian and Arabic. The study assesses these attitudes within the complex sociolinguistic environment of Arabic, which is heavily influenced by a diglossic view between Standard Arabic and Arabic dialects. The findings highlight nuanced attitudes toward Italian, Standard Arabic, and Arabic dialects, influenced by factors such as social integration, communicative utility, and cultural identity. Italian is perceived as a tool for social advancement and integration. In contrast, Arabic dialects are essential for maintaining cultural and familial ties, yet they often face marginalization in formal education settings and encounter social stigma. Conversely, Standard Arabic is esteemed in formal and religious settings despite its limited everyday use. This analysis reveals a dynamic interplay of attitudinal responses to these languages, illustrating a rich mosaic of multilingual and multicultural identities. The results call for policies that acknowledge and promote linguistic diversity in Italy, aiming to enhance social integration and protect linguistic rights. These policies should include educational reforms that treat Standard Arabic and Arabic dialects equitably, supporting their role in fostering inclusive and comprehensive linguistic-cultural integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the family language policies of three intercultural parent couples in Canada. Drawing upon a larger study of their perceptions of childhood and childrearing, and recognising the families as microcosms reflecting larger wholes, this paper revisits the narrative case studies composed in the original research to examine each couple’s language ideologies. In this study, the developmental niche framework was employed in analysis of the parents’ experiences and perspectives as they pursued, considered, or rejected multilingualism for their children. The parent couples included (1) one French Canadian spouse born and raised in Canada and one in Uganda; (2) one Scottish/English spouse born and raised in Canada and one in The Netherlands; and (3) a Plains Cree spouse born and raised in Canada and one in Romania. Findings were that not all participants desired to impart a heritage language to their children due to social, cultural, political, and economic realities and histories. Participants who did desire multilingualism for their children reported being unsuccessful due to various intervening factors: the affective dimension, differing parental language ideologies and impact beliefs, parental cognitions of language use, child agency, a lack of language community, and an autochthonous minority language. Further interpretive studies are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study focuses on Polish families returning from migration to English-speaking countries and their family language policies in a language-shift situation. It aims to discover what language(s) parents and children associate their identities with and how they navigate through their development. The data for the project comes from content analysis of 4 interviews with selected families. The results show a discrepancy between parental ideologies and their adolescent children’s linguistic identities. While parents aim to maintain and develop the heritage language, Polish, abroad and on return, the children’s primary identity is associated with English, which causes their difficulties in reintegration into the Polish school environment on return. Additionally, the age of return matters: young adolescents (aged 10-15) continue to seek ties with English-speaking communities and plan to return to the country of their childhood while younger children (their siblings) who returned at the time of onset of Polish school time managed to adapt to the new situation. The study’s findings should be relevant to parents, teachers and psychologists who wish to aid the children in developing harmonious bilingualism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Informed by Family Language Policy (FLP) and Community of Practice (CoP) as the main theoretical frameworks, this study explores the characteristics of language practices at the home of a Korean-English bilingual family. In particular, this study examines how a mother creates educational discourse at home and promotes the construction of knowledge with her eight-year-old child. Data was collected throughout one year, and interviews with the mother, recordings of the family interactions, and ethnographic information were analyzed. The analysis focuses on the bilingual interactions between the mother and the child, how the collaborative process of constructing knowledge impacts family dynamics, and what resources family members draw upon. The findings reveal that the family members construct home as a space for collaborative learning by sharing their bilingual resources. In this process, maintaining Korean serves as a tool to access Korean resources for academic support. Discussion of bilingualism in the newly arrived immigrant family and how they negotiate and establish their FLP to maximize knowledge construction in the home as a bilingual and bicultural space will follow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on multilingualism in the home has approached the family as a fixed unit thus neglecting the dynamic view of the family and its intersection with family language practices. The present study aims to address this gap by focusing on Russian-speaking mothers in Finland who have raised their children bilingually in single-parent as well as in dual-parent families. Russian speakers are the largest minority language group in Finland, and their number is constantly growing. The current study is a contribution to the research on family language practices in the Finnish context. It examines the nexus of shifts in family configurations and language practices and explores how the dynamic changes in family constellations shape language practices in four families. The study reveals that creating new kinships leads to shifts in the language practices of the peripheral family members and that forming voluntary kin can expand heritage language use and enable an overhearer and bystander role for children. Non-residential family members expand the family's linguistic repertoire and support the legitimacy of already established practices. Being sole caretakers enables mothers to encourage language practices that they consider beneficial for their children without encountering any resistance from other family members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complexity of language contact and intercultural communication has generated various issues in relation to language use and education. As one of the many Chinese dialects (fangyans), the Chaoshan dialect (Teochew) has been affected by the extensive promotion of Putonghua, the key lingua franca across China, and English, the lingua franca for international communication. Therefore, it is worth exploring the current situation and sustainability of Teochew from the perspective of multilingualism. This study used a questionnaire and interviews with local Chaoshan people as the research instruments with which to investigate the perspective of family language policy, the usage frequency of Teochew on different occasions and among different groups, parents' and students' levels of Teochew mastery and the factors influencing the family language policy of Teochew. It also aimed to determine the participants' first-language practices and attitudes towards Teochew. The findings reveal that the majority of the participants have positive attitudes regarding the inheritance and development of Teochew; however, the future of sustainable development shows a weakening trend. The paper concludes by emphasising the significance of maintaining Teochew as one of the many fangyans in China, in addition to the lingua franca, as seen from a multilingual perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper explores the pivotal role of mothers in maintaining the Lithuanian language within the Lithuanian diaspora, drawing upon Spolsky's family language policy theory and Curdt-Christiansen's dynamic family language policy model. Analyzing data collected in 2011–2013 and 2015–2017, the study investigates various factors shaping family language policy, with a particular focus on the mother's influence. It examines the interplay between the mother's role, emigrants' language ideology, Lithuanian identity, language acquisition, proficiency, and language usage across different domains and emotional dimension of language attitudes. Quantitative analysis, considering respondents' parents' ethnicities, reveals that respondents with Lithuanian mothers exhibit stronger connections to Lithuanian identity, more frequent acquisition of Lithuanian as their first language, higher proficiency, and increased usage of Lithuanian within the family and as an inner language. Moreover, positive language attitudes towards the heritage Lithuanian language are more pronounced among those with Lithuanian mothers. However, emotional attitudes towards language did not significantly differ based on parental ethnicity. The paper concludes by discussing the heightened responsibility of mothers in language maintenance within the diaspora and the challenges they face in fulfilling this role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine had a significant impact on the Russian-speaking identity, reformulating existing linguistic and cultural boundaries and shaping Russian speakers' self-perception and vision of the world. We focus on families with children who are trying to balance their inner and outer life in order to stabilize the positive environment of the upbringing process and analyze how adults explain to the children the need to learn the Russian, Ukrainian and other languages. This can shed light on the challenges and strategies employed in alleviating prejudiced attitudes against immigrants' languages and cultures which can cause alienation from the roots in the one-and-a-half and second generation. The research questions were: How has the war altered language policies in families with different ethnic backgrounds? What changes in home language use strategies do parents propose? Material and methods: Material drawn from numerous posts of Facebook discussions have been analyzed with the help of thematic analysis. Results and discussion: We observe that in many multilingual families with Ukrainian roots the war has led to a greater emphasis on the Ukrainian language use as an attempt to reinforce ties to their cultural heritage and express support for the country. Russian is increasingly viewed as the language of the aggressor; moreover, Russian culture is devalued and rejected. Some families have become more open to new language learning, especially the languages of their new environment, and try to identify themselves as multicultural and multiethnic personalities. On the other hand, in those families where parents work or study in the fields in which Russian is widely used, adults prioritize the development of Russian language skills in their children in order to improve their future educational and professional opportunities. We explore attitudes and challenges faced by parents in Russian-speaking families, as they demonstrate the complexities of identity formation and language transmission while making salient the interplay between parents' personal experiences, their aspirations for their children's cultural identity, and the pressures of integration into the local society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines heritage language maintenance, cultural identity formation, and language attitudes within the Tamil community in Medan, Indonesia. Employing ethnolinguistic identity theory and family language policy perspectives, it investigates factors influencing Tamil language transmission and its impact on ethnic identity. Surveys of 10 Tamil families reveal significant generational differences in attitudes towards Tamil maintenance. While 85% of parents view it as crucial for cultural preservation, only 50% of children share this sentiment, prioritizing societal assimilation. Both groups recognize the value of bilingualism and the cultural disconnection stemming from limited Tamil proficiency. Challenges including discrimination, insufficient community support, and inadequate resources hinder intergenerational language transmission. This study offers unique insights into the complex dynamics shaping heritage language maintenance in diasporic communities, highlighting the need for targeted interventions to support linguistic and cultural continuity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

鑑於家庭語言政策雖屬個人作為，卻深具社會影響力（Spolsky, 2012），本研究深度訪談臺灣兩位對於 2030 雙語政策之語言選擇和家庭語言規劃策略持對立態度的母親，並記錄其二人的日常對話和共讀會話錄音以供分析。這兩位母親各育有年齡 5-8 歲的子女，一位選擇臺灣方言（閩南語）作為家庭的主要語言，另一位則選擇華語。選擇臺灣方言的母親認為，華語是一種霸權語言，對臺灣母語之存續構成威脅，而另一位母親則認為長期以來華語被視為臺灣的國語，她的孩子應該具備華語能力，研究發現，這兩位母親的家庭背景與人生經歷使其對 2030 雙語政策有不同看法，一位遵循政策，另一位則認為將對保存臺灣遺產形成威脅，但面對臺灣家庭普遍存在的單一語言使用環境，兩位母親皆對 2030 雙語政策在實際操作中的有效性感到懷疑，甚至擔心它可能產生不良的語言發展效果。本研究細膩描述在臺灣 2030 雙語政策背景下的家庭語言規劃動態，期透過理解個人信念、社會規範和語言實踐間的相互作用，提供在多語言環境中有助於孩子語言發展的家庭語言政策建議。 Family Language Policy (FLP) is a private practice with public ramifications (Spolsky, 2012). This study employs Spolsky’s framework to explore the language choices and home language planning strategies of two Taiwanese mothers holding contrasting attitudes toward Taiwan’s Bilingual 2030 Policy. Both mothers, whose children were between 5-8 years old at the time of the study, participated in in-depth interviews. Furthermore, the study documented their daily conversations and shared reading session recordings for analysis. Although both mothers were from Taiwanese families, one mother chose the Taiwanese dialect and another chose Mandarin Chinese as the main language of the family. These choices illuminate contrasting perceptions of the social language context in Taiwan. Specifically, the mother who opted for Taiwanese perceived Mandarin Chinese as a hegemonic language that posed a threat to their Taiwanese mother tongue, whereas the other mother felt that her child should be raised to speak Mandarin Chinese, long entrenched as Taiwan’s national language. The results reveal contrasting beliefs toward the Taiwanese government’s policy of bilingualism between Mandarin Chinese and English: One followed the policy, whereas the other perceived it as a threat to preserving her Taiwanese heritage. The two mothers’ ideologies, deeply rooted in their personal histories and experiences, were significantly influences on the FLP that they set. Because Taiwanese dialect–only and English language–only environments do not exist in Taiwan, both mothers sought external support to bolster their children’s language proficiency. However, both mothers shared a common concern regarding the effectiveness of a bilingual policy in a country where families exist in a monolingual home environment. This study traces the nuanced dynamics of family language planning in the context of Taiwan’s Bilingual 2030 Policy. Illuminating the complex interplay between individual beliefs, broader societal norms, and language practices enables a deeper understanding of how family-level decisions shape a child’s linguistic development in a multilingual context

Following uncertainty surrounding the Zimbabwe Exemption Permits and changes to immigration policies and laws regulating the employment of foreigners in South Africa, Zimbabwe has been witnessing the return migration of families from South Africa. This phenomenon is also exacerbated by the increasing xenophobic sentiment infecting South African society. Some returnees are accompanied by children who were born in South Africa and speak South African languages. Coming from a country that does not support the teaching of immigrant language presents unique challenges for their schooling and assimilation into the Zimbabwean linguistic and cultural milieu. Families are thus faced with the task of ensuring their children’s linguistic re-socialisation to align with the language requirements of the new setting. Drawing on the concept of Family Language Policy, this qualitative study focused on the reflections of purposively selected Zimbabwean parents who have recently returned from South Africa to understand how their language ideologies contextually shape decisions around children’s language socialisation in South Africa and upon return to Zimbabwe. Findings show that their family language policies are largely aspirational, reflecting the families’ imagined future identities and changing life trajectories. Their dynamic family language policies are also a response to the sociopolitical and educational context of the hostland and homeland.

This study investigates how parental language ideologies and attitudes shape Family Language Policy (FLP) in Italian transnational families in the UK. There has been an increasing interest in FLP research in recent years; however, the Italian community in the UK is under-studied. This exploratory study aimed at investigating how language ideologies in Italian transnational families affect language practices and management. The findings suggest that language ideologies such as the ‘bilingual advantage’ have a significant impact on language practices and management in the family domain. However, language ideologies are not always in line with language practices with conflicting language ideologies being more common in mixed marriage families. Additionally, the study offers new insights into the complexities of emotions surrounding FLP and bilingual upbringing as well as how parental future aspirations can shape FLP. Further research is suggested with regards to the role that siblings' dynamics can play on the negotiation of FLP as well as longitudinal research which will offer insights into the constantly evolving linguistic environment of transnational families.

Each multilingual transnational family is unique and thus deserves to be carefully studied in terms of its family language policy (FLP). Speaker-centered approaches can provide a deeper understanding of linguistic diversity in a multilingual setting. The studied Russian-Italian family is raising a multilingual boy (8:2) in Finland. The multilingual repertoire includes Russian, Italian, Finnish, English, and Hebrew. In this case-study, an ethnographic approach is used to explore the multilingual family repertoire by presenting their lived experiences and language practices. I discuss the FLP and child's active role in shaping the family's linguistic practices (child agency). The following methods were combined: semi-structured interviews, language background surveys, written diary entries, self-recordings of interactions in the family, and a language portrait that depicts the child's multilingual repertoire. The interviews and other recordings were transcribed manually. The following research questions guided the study: (1) How do the family members describe their FLP? (2) How does the FLP evolve through everyday interactions (language practices)? (3) How does the child exercise his agency in the family setting? The results reveal that the family's language practices follow predominantly an one person-one language (OPOL) strategy; consequently, the child speaks a different language with each parent. However, the analysis of the language ideologies reveals positive attitudes toward both multilingualism and all the languages in the family's repertoire, which explains the multilingual practices having multiplicity and unexpectedness. FLP is shaping the family language practices. Evidence of language hierarchy can be explained by a number of family-external and family-internal social factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With a focus on an under-studied group of immigrants in the UK, this paper examines Iranian families' language ideologies and practices at home in relation to Persian acquisition and maintenance for their children. Working within a family language policy (FLP) framework, we draw on sociolinguistic data from semi-structured interviews with eighteen mothers to understand how parental beliefs, their everyday language practices and the attempts they make to maintain, improve, or alter their language use will lead to their children's heritage language acquisition and maintenance. The results of the study suggest that the success in heritage language development and maintenance boils down to parental pro heritage language ideologies and their everyday small-scale practices. It was also found that the interrelationship between language and cultural values and a successful FLP was further reinforced by the parents' migration trajectory and proficiency in English as the societal language. This research also showed that the large size of this diaspora in the UK (particularly in London), their close-knit social network, availability of heritage language weekend schools and the possibility of frequent visits to the home country create a conducive situation for the Iranian diaspora to raise their children bilingually. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on Brunei Malay have made inconsistent findings: while some have asserted that this variety is thriving and is in no way endangered, others have found that its use is now waning. As the dynamics of family speech can inform what is happening linguistically at the community level, this study seeks to investigate the family language policies of the Brunei Malays by assessing parents' language ideologies, practices and management strategies. This is done via a survey involving 178 ethnically Malay parents. The overall results paint an unpromising picture of the future of Brunei Malay, shaped by the parents' weak beliefs on this Malay variety, and defined further by their home language practices and management strategies. The majority of the Brunei Malay families are bilingual, but English features prominently in most investigated items. The findings reveal that the parents are motivated to maintain Brunei Malay but have little confidence in their abilities to pass down the home language to their children. That a majority agrees for the introduction of lessons on Brunei Malay in schools is an indicator that the home domain is no longer adequate for the maintenance of this Malay variety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Arab Emirates has a unique multilingual landscape with over 100 languages considered as the first languages of its population, English as the dominant lingua franca for communication among virtually all residents, and Arabic as the official language. The Emirati (native Arab citizens) families with young children have been in a unique sociolinguistic dilemma, and little is known about how they deal with the dilemma. This study aimed to address the gap. Individual ethnographic interviews were conducted with 20 Emirati families by trained Emirati ethnographic interviewers. Focused open and axial coding generated three dimensions of family literacy policy (FLP). Language ideology encapsulates the parents’ perception, assumption, and aspiration about Arabic and English and the child’s learning of the two languages. Language behavior features environmental control, motivational control, and task control concerning language education. Language metacognition foregrounds the parents’ evaluation of their child’s language learning and reflection on their own language behaviour. The three dimensions of FLP are reciprocally related. The three-dimensional model may serve as a useful conceptual framework for future investigation into FLP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (henceforth IMAR) of China, children of bilingual parents are increasingly becoming monolingual in the socially dominant language – Mandarin. Mongolian language, representing the unique culture and identity of Mongolian ethnic groups, is facing a decline in usage within the family setting. This case study investigates the Family Language Policy (henceforth FLP) and its interaction with mainstream and minority language education through observations, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires with two distinct groups. Group 1 demonstrates the contemporary implementations and challenges of FLP among 5 bilingual parents and Group 2 offers the historical perspectives of 9 bilingual adults with their retrospective account of childhood language experiences. Through comparing the two groups, we identified the critical role of FLP in supporting the development of children's minority languages. We also uncovered challenges and inconsistencies that parents encountered in implementing FLP. These issues stem from a variety of factors, including economic, sociocultural, and political influences, as well as individual factors, such as expectations and language experiences from both parents and children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study investigates mainland Chinese parents’ ideologies on bilingualism and biliteracy, specifically for those who chose Mandarin-English bilingual education for their children. We explored children’s language and literacy usage at home as they attend school with Mandarin and English as the instructional languages. Three hundred and eight survey responses were collected from parents in Shanghai, China. Results from an exploratory factor analysis showed that parents generally held positive attitudes toward both bilingualism and bidialectalism. Additionally, multiple correspondence analyses demonstrated that parents who reported more multilingual usage in daily conversation at home with their children generally aspired for their children to develop an identity of being a global citizen, whereas parents who reported more Mandarin literacy activities engagement typically expected their children to (a) have a flexible mind for learning regardless of the instructional language, (b) become internationally competitive, and (c) be communicative within diverse social groups. It is suggested that parental perceptions of the importance of bilingualism and bidialectalism should be taken into consideration in curriculum planning and language policy making. Understanding parents’ perception of bilingualism may facilitate schools to partner with parents and devise responsive language education goals in schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language policy studies must include family language policy. Chinese-relevant research needs improvement, but international-relevant research has matured. Nevertheless, the number of professionals such as Yuming Li and Curdt-Christiansen who are conducting research in this field is increasing. The Spolsky triple theoretical framework improves knowledge of family language policy and explains family language policy research. More international communication and population movements will complicate family language. Policy research will also generate new questions and findings. China's internal research mostly centers around challenges, study findings, and visual aspects, necessitating a comprehensive comprehension. This study uses 38 papers on family language policy research from 2016 to 2022 in the Chinese Journal of Language Policy and Planning (CJLPP), an authoritative Chinese journal. It does qualitative analysis to assess the status and progress of family language policy research in China. The research findings indicate that the focus of family language policy studies in journals has primarily centered around two specific themes during the period of 2017–2019. The family language policy study was imbalanced, homogenized, qualitative, and theme-based. Through statistics and analysis of family language policy publications in "Research on Language Strategy," this study summarizes existing research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family language policy (FLP) provides a critical framework to explain the planning of language use in the home. It constitutes a dynamic construct that sheds light on variations in the language acquisition of bilingual children, potentially explaining the shifts that may occur in language dominance and preference. The environment and life experiences are thought to shape FLP, yet little is known about the function of age. This study examines the association of FLP with children's chronological age and the age they become bilingual. Data were collected via questionnaires from parents and their bilingual children (n = 82) aged 5.08–14.08 (M = 8.98, SD = 3.27) speaking English (heritage language) and Hebrew (societal language). Correlations and logistic regressions indicate a relationship between FLP and dimensions of age. Findings reveal that age may have repercussions for parent language beliefs, patterns of language use within the home, and the adoption of language promotion strategies. Younger children and children with a later age of onset of bilingualism are associated with families who lean towards a pro-heritage language FLP. Considering dimensions of age enhances our understanding of FLP and may offer a greater insight into how languages are supported in the bilingual home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of heightened global transnational movements and the proximate geographical positioning of Poland and Ireland, this study investigates the impact of the transnational nature of Polish families’ migration experiences in The Republic of Ireland on their family language policy. This research endeavours to address a gap in the literature surrounding the influence of transnationalism on family language policy within Polish-speaking migrant families in Ireland. Grounded in Curdt-Christiansen's [Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. 2018. “Family Language Policy.” In Oxford Handbook of Language Policy and Planning, edited by J. W. Tollefson and M. Pérez-Milans. New York: Oxford University Press.] interdisciplinary model of family language policy, this investigation draws on an ethnographic inquiry into three Polish-speaking families in Ireland. The study focuses on families with first- and second-generation migrant children. Data were gathered through a combination of semi-structured interviews and children's reflective language diaries. The results depict the transnational nature of family life, with recurrent travel between Ireland and Poland evident across all three families. To sustain connections with Poland, parents implemented specific language management strategies. The study underscored the participants’ recognition of the interdependence between the use of the Polish language and the continuation of connections with Poland, as well as the capacity to uphold family life across Ireland and Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many heritage speakers in diaspora communities are multilingual individuals, often speaking two or more heritage languages alongside the societal majority language as well as another lingua franca (i.e. English). This paper examines the multilingual practices of 26 Filipino speakers in Italy (15 from the first generation and 11 second generation) in the framework of Family Language Policy. Four main findings emerge from the sociolinguistic interviews: (1) the multilingualism of the first generation is reduced in second generation, with Philippine regional languages seldom transmitted to children; this is reflected in a varied attitude toward these languages; (2) in parent–children interactions the mixing of Filipino and Italian prevails, thus, although Italian is present, Filipino is always maintained, confirming an overall positive attitude; (3) English is never selected as the only language of communication, but rather in combination with Italian or Filipino; (4) in the second generation, the exclusive use of Italian occurs with peers or younger interlocutors (e.g. siblings, partners, children). This study further contributes to our understanding of linguistic choices among multilingual migrants by allowing a comparison with other Filipino diasporic communities in Asia, North America and Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]