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Single hot-wire velocity measurements have been conducted along a three-dimensional measurement grid to capture the flow-field induced by a 45 ∘ inclined slotted pulsed jet. Based on the periodic behavior of the flow, two different estimation methods have been implemented. The first one, considered as the reference baseline, is the conditional approach which consists in the redistribution of the experimental data into space- and time-resolved three-dimensional velocity fields. The second one uses a neural network to estimate 3D velocity fields given spatial coordinates and time. This paper compares the two methods for a complete flow-field estimation based on hot-wire measurements. Results suggest that the neural network is tailored to capture the phase-averaged dynamic response of the jet induced by the actuator, and identify the coherent structures in the flow field. Interesting performances are also observed when degrading the learning database, meaning that neural networks can be used to drastically improve the temporal or spatial resolution of a flow field estimation compared to the experimental data resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theory of heavy ion double charge exchange (DCE) reactions proceeding by effective rank-2 isotensor interactions is presented. Virtual pion–nucleon charge exchange interactions are investigated as the source for induced isotensor interactions, giving rise to the Majorana DCE (MDCE) reaction mechanism. MDCE is of a generic character, proceeding through pairs of complementary ( π ± , π ∓ ) reactions in the projectile and target nucleus. The dynamics of the elementary processes is discussed, where the excitation of pion–nucleon resonances are of central importance. Investigations of initial and final state ion–ion interactions show that these effects are acting as vertex renormalizations. In closure approximation, well justified by the finite pion mass, the second-order transition matrix elements reduce to pion potentials and effective two-body isotensor DCE interactions, giving rise also to two-body correlations in either of the participating nuclei. Connections to neutrinoless Majorana double beta decay (MDBD) are elucidated at various levels of the dynamics, from the underlying fundamental electro-weak and QCD scales to the physical scales of nuclear MDBD and MDCE physics. It is pointed out that heavy ion MDCE reactions may also proceed by competing electro-weak charge exchange processes, leading to lepton MDCE by electrons, positrons, and neutrinos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

B replying to b Shaun G. Ard et al. I Nature Communications i https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30566-3 (2022) In our 2020 Nature Communications paper[1], we reported a strong inverse kinetic isotope effect in the charge transfer reactions of NH SB 3 sb and ND SB 3 sb with Xe SP + sp ( SP 2 sp P SB 3/2 sb ) ions. 10.1039/D1SC01652K 3 Ard, S, Viggiano, A. A, Sweeny, B. C, Long, B. & Shuman, N. Inconsistent kinetic isotope effect in ammonia charge exchange reaction measured in a Coulomb crystal and in a selected-ion flow tube. For example, there is no sympathetic cooling of rotational or vibrational modes of trapped ions as the interaction range is too long (neighbouring ions are separated by 10-20 m); the reaction complex therefore will not undergo any inelastic collisions with other co-trapped ions. [Extracted from the article]

The charge exchange (CE) reaction is an effective probe to study the structure of atomic nuclei in the isospin dimension, which has been studied for decades. To expand the range of nuclei studied by CE reactions to a wider range and research the structure characteristics of unstable nuclei, including the isospin symmetry, spin-isospin excitation, and nuclear symmetry energy, a semi-cylindrical time projection chamber (scTPC) prototype was designed and constructed to probe ( 3 He,t) CE reactions in inverse kinematics. The 266 nm UV laser was used to achieve electron-drift-velocity calibration. The scTPC has an energy resolution (FWHM) of 5.6% for α particles emitted by 241 Am radioactive source. The position resolution of scTPC is described by the residual method. The spatial resolution on the pad plane is 409 μ m. And the position resolution in the drift direction is 326 μ m, equivalent to an angular resolution of 0.4 ∘ . These performances suggest that the scTPC can measure Δ E and particle tracks precisely. The successful development of the scTPC prototype provides better conditions for the next step of experimental data analysis and processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the slow-varying electric fields and the associated currents of a total of 35 negative upward lightning initiated by the Peissenberg tower, Germany. Thirty-four of which were from winter upward lightning and only one from summer upward lightning. It appears that all of the winter upward lightning were initiated without nearby preceding lightning activity (called “self-initiated” lightning) and only the summer lightning was triggered by nearby lightning activity (called “other-triggered” lightning). The slow-varying electric fields of the winter upward lightning showed a fast rise characterized by the 10–90% risetime, with an arithmetic mean of 13.8 ms. After attaining the maximum, the electric field turned into a slow decay being characterized by the time on half value which was evaluated to having the arithmetic mean of 441 ms. Transported charges to ground were on average 44.8 C and on maximum 165 C. The maximum value of the electric field was 39.9 kV/m on average, with the highest value being 64.5 kV/m. For the electric fields, higher values were prevented by recovery effects such as the corona from objects at ground and the redistribution of the charge in the thundercloud. Due to these effects, no or only weak correlations were found between the 10–90% risetime, the time on half value, the charge, and the maximum of the electric field. From additional measurements with a field mill, it was found that the electric field recovers to the starting level within some seconds. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Positive and negative pulsed discharge plasma is generated above test liquid containing NaCl in Ar atmosphere, and the spatiotemporal variation of pH value in the liquid is visualized by a colorimetric method using bromothymol blue. Furthermore, polarity effects on H2O2 generation are examined by electrochemical calculation and a colorimetric method using titanium sulfate. When the positive pulsed discharge plasma is generated, the pH value of the liquid is decreased by H+ generation through the dissociation of H2O+, formed by the charge exchange reaction between Ar+ and H2O, while the pH value of the vicinity of an earthed electrode is increased by OH− generation through the electrolysis of water. When the negative pulsed discharge plasma is generated, the pH value of the liquid is increased by OH− generation and H+ reduction, respectively, through the reaction of hydrated electrons with H2O and H+, while the pH value in the vicinity of the earthed electrode is decreased by H+ generation through the electrolysis of water. The generation of H2O2 is found to be promoted when the positive pulsed discharge plasma is generated, and this increase rate of H2O2 is in approximate agreement with the calculated generation rate of H2O2, which is produced from OH generated by electrolysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Pions produced in the development of extended atmospheric cosmic ray air showers subsequently decay to muons. The measured yield of those muons is generally underestimated by current phenomenological models and event generators optimized for cosmic ray physics. The importance of those disagreements motivates the feasibility studies for testing these models at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) energies, at the highest center-of-mass energies achievable in a laboratory. The interaction of a nucleus and a virtual pion created in a charge exchange reaction at the LHC is a similar process to those contributing to the development of air showers in case of cosmic rays. The crucial problem of such an analysis is the selection of charge exchange events with the highest possible efficiency and high purity from proton–proton collisions at the LHC. (2) For this we consider distributions of various measurable quantities given by event generators commonly used in cosmic ray physics. (3) We examine the expected distributions of energy deposited in different calorimeters of an LHC experiment. We consider the geometrical acceptance and energy resolution of the detectors at the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment, as an example. We determine a working point cut from the various options for event selection, and compare signal and background predictions using different models for a representative simple observable, such as average transverse momentum or charge particle yield. (4) A set of event selection cuts along these considerations is proposed, with the aim of achieving optimal efficiency and purity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A chemical reaction mechanism of chlorine plasma under low-pressure conditions that is widely used in the literature is validated against the experimental data of Y. Wang and J. K. Olthoff [J. Appl. Phys. 85, 6358 (1999)] for an inductively coupled plasma reactor. The model used in the present study is a self-consistent two-dimensional fluid plasma model coupled with Maxwell's equations. The quantities of interest in the plasma are the fluxes and energy distribution functions of Cl2+ and Cl+ ions. We find that the charge exchange reaction between Cl+ and Cl2 that is typically included in chlorine plasma reaction mechanisms results in poor predictability of the model compared to experiments. Neglecting this reaction allows for a correct prediction of the dominant ion species in the low-pressure chlorine plasma and dependence of their fluxes on the gas pressure. Additionally, neglecting the charge exchange reaction allows for a rather accurate prediction of ion energy distribution functions at the grounded electrode. Overall, we conclude that the rate coefficient of the charge exchange reaction between Cl+ and Cl2 reported in the literature significantly exceeds what may in fact explain the role of this process in a low-pressure plasma discharge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The plume of a cathodic arc operated in atmospheric pressure gas is examined using an intensified camera and a spectrograph. A 0.2-J pulse arc is shown to generate a glowing jet $\approx 10$ mm in extent. Images recorded in the first microseconds after ignition show that the jet has a smaller core \approx 2$ mm in length. A spatially resolved Stark broadening measurement is performed along the jet core. The measured electron density is 1– 2 \times 10^{20} \text{m}^{\vphantom {R^{R}}-3} . A model for the cathodic arc plasma–gas interaction is presented. The obtained equilibrium between the forward and reverse charge exchange processes is suggested as enabling the extended jet core. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The current rate constants agree reasonably well with the Coulomb crystal measurements for both the NH SB 3 sb and ND SB 3 sb reactions given the absolute uncertainties. The rate constants were measured by monitoring the first order decay of Xe SP + sp ( SP 2 sp P SB 3/2 sb ) as a function of the concentration of NH SB 3 sb /ND SB 3 sb . Ions were produced using an electron impact ion source yielding both ground Xe SP + sp ( SP 2 sp P SB 3/2 sb ) and excited state Xe SP + sp ( SP 2 sp P SB 1/2 sb ), then mass-selected and injected into a flow tube maintained at ~0.3 Torr of fast flowing helium gas. [Extracted from the article]

Gas giant exoplanets orbiting at close distances to the parent star are subjected to large radiation and stellar wind fluxes. In this paper, hydrodynamic simulations of the planetary upper atmosphere and its interaction with the stellar wind are carried out to understand the possible flow regimes and how they affect the Lyα transmission spectrum. Following Tremblin and Chiang, charge exchange reactions are included to explore the role of energetic atoms as compared to thermal particles. In order to understand the role of the tail as compared to the leading edge of the planetary gas, the simulations were carried out under axisymmetry, and photoionization and stellar wind electron impact ionization reactions were included to limit the extent of the neutrals away from the planet. By varying the planetary gas temperature, two regimes are found. At high temperature, a supersonic planetary wind is found, which is turned around by the stellar wind and forms a tail behind the planet. At lower temperatures, the planetary wind is shut off when the stellar wind penetrates inside where the sonic point would have been. In this regime mass is lost by viscous interaction at the boundary between planetary and stellar wind gases. Absorption by cold hydrogen atoms is large near the planetary surface, and decreases away from the planet as expected. The hot hydrogen absorption is in an annulus and typically dominated by the tail, at large impact parameter, rather than by the thin leading edge of the mixing layer near the substellar point. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article profiles Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) chemistry professor Daniel G. Nocera. It says that he was inspired by chemistry and physics teachers to take up a bachelor's degree in chemistry at Rutgers University in 1974 and started his doctoral studies in 1979. It discusses several chemical reactions he addressed including the transfer of two electrons to an atom of hydrogen, the orchestration of anaerobic metabolism in algae, and the proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET).

In this work, the suitability of atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) has been assessed for the determination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) by gas chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS). The APPI of target compounds has been tested in both positive and negative ion modes. Under positive ion mode, the analytes generated the molecular ion, which was favoured using dopants that promote charge exchange gas-phase reactions (i.e., benzene), while in negative ion mode, the ion [M−Cl+O]− for PCDFs and dl-PCBs were mainly formed, providing the best results using benzene and diethyl ether as dopants, respectively. Concerning PCDDs, highly chlorinated congeners were mainly ionized by means of the [M−Cl]− ion, whereas [M−Cl+O2]− was the base peak for tetraCDD and [M−Cl+O]− for penta- and hexaCDDs. Method quality parameters, in accordance with the current EU Regulation guidelines for food and feed analysis, showed the good performance of the two GC-APPI-HRMS (Orbitrap) methods since they provided high detection capability (low fg levels), good linearity, and satisfactory precision (RSD% < 9%). In addition, the GC-APPI-HRMS (Orbitrap) methods were validated by analysing selected environmental and feed samples and the results were compared to those obtained using conventional GC-EI-HRMS, demonstrating the good performance in the analysis of the target compounds. Hence, the GC-APPI-HRMS technique can be proposed as alternative to the conventional methods for the determination of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs in environmental and feed matrices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isotopic substitution has long been used to understand the detailed mechanisms of chemical reactions; normally the substitution of hydrogen by deuterium leads to a slower reaction. Here, we report our findings on the charge transfer collisions of cold Xe + ions and two isotopologues of ammonia, NH 3 and ND 3 . Deuterated ammonia is found to react more than three times faster than hydrogenated ammonia. Classical capture models are unable to account for this pronounced inverse kinetic isotope effect. Moreover, detailed ab initio calculations cannot identify any (energetically accessible) crossing points between the reactant and product potential energy surfaces, indicating that electron transfer is likely to be slow. The higher reactivity of ND 3 is attributed to the greater density of states (and therefore lifetime) of the deuterated reaction complex compared to the hydrogenated system. Our observations could provide valuable insight into possible mechanisms contributing to deuterium fractionation in the interstellar medium. Inverse kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) are rarely observed. Here, the authors report an inverse KIE in the charge transfer reaction of Xe + with ammonia. ND 3 reacts more than 3 times faster than NH 3 , despite no N-H or N-D bonds being broken, with implications for our understanding of interstellar chemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the framework of a single mathematical approach based on the first iteration of the Dodd–Greider equations, direct and two-step mechanisms of electron capture have been described, and their correlation with angular distributions of reaction products have been ascertained. The purpose of this modification of the Dodd–Greider integral equations for the quantum mechanical operator of three-particle scattering with rearrangement is taking into account the Coulomb asymptotic behavior of wave functions in the problem of inelastic scattering with redistribution. On this basis, the theory of the reaction of single-electron charge exchange was constructed when collision of the hydrogen-like atom with a positively charged ion is performed with taking into account the effects of the multiple Coulomb scattering of electron by ion target residue. In particular, the amplitude of the reaction is distinguished as the first iterative term for solving the Dodd–Greider equations for the operator of three bodies, and the short-acting interaction that causes the electron transitions is taken into account in the distorting potential. It has shown that in the one-fold scattering approximation, this method leads to the so-called first Coulomb–Born approximation, where asymptotic behavior of particles in the input and output channels of the reaction is described by two-particle Coulomb wave functions. A more detailed study of the reaction of the resonance charge transfer between proton and hydrogen atom showed that without a correct inclusion of the Coulomb interaction into the wave function of the final state, to recreate Thomas’ peak in the angular distributions of the products of this reaction cannot be. The proposed method provides a good agreement with the experimental data of both complete and differential cross-sections due to advantages of this method, in particular, rather full consideration of the interaction after the collision and rapid convergence of the series of the Dodd–Greider perturbation theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of the mechanisms of nuclear reactions on the population of isomeric states 44mSc (6+), 196mAu (12-), 198mAu (12-), 195mHg (13/2+), 197mHg (13/2+), 198mTl (7+), 196mTl (7+) obtained in reactions induced by beams of weakly bound and radioactive nuclei 3He, 6Li, 6He are studied. In direct reactions involving cluster transfer, the isomeric ratio is lower than in reactions, where fusion with evaporation of nucleons occurs. In the case of charge exchange reactions with beams of weakly bound nuclei, the isomeric ratios change only slightly. If the reaction Q-value is positive, neutron transfer is observed with high probability in interactions of all weakly bound nuclei with both light and heavy stable target nuclei. Cross sections and their isomeric ratios differ for nucleon stripping and pickup channels owing to the difference in population of excited single-particle and collective states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have employed first-principle calculations to study transformation of graphene's electronic structure under functionalization by covalent bonds with different atomic and molecular groups - epoxies, amines, PFPA. It is shown that this functionalization leads to an opening in the graphene's band gap on order of tens meV, but also leads to reduction of electrical conductivity. We also discuss the influence of charge exchange between the functionalizing molecule and graphene's conjugated electrons on electron transport properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The remarkable observations in the pion-induced and charge-exchange reactions on a nucleus are the significant shift and broadening of the ▵ (1232)-peak relative to free pion-nucleon scattering. For the forward going massless leptons, the weak process (νl; l) on a nucleon, according to Adler's partially conserved axial current theorem, is connected to the pion-nucleon scattering. This mechanism is also applicable to the nucleus. Therefore, the modification of the ▵ -peak in a nucleus can be seen in the (νl; l) reaction since it is connected to the pion-nucleus scattering. To investigate this issue quantitatively, the double differential cross sections of the forward going ejectile l energy distribution in the (νl; l) reaction are calculated in the ▵ -excitation region for both proton and nucleus. The measured pion-nucleon and pion-nucleus scattering cross sections in the quoted energy region are used in these reactions as an input. Since the (νl; l) reaction is connected to the pion-induced scattering, the features of the previous reaction is shown analogous to those of the latter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: The presence of neutral hydrogen in the shock proximity changes the structure of the shock and affects the spectra of particles accelerated through the first-order Fermi mechanism. This phenomenon has profound implications for the interpretation of the multifrequency spectra of radiation from supernova remnants. Aims: Neutrals that undergo charge exchange with hot ions downstream of the shock may result in fast neutrals moving towards the upstream gas, where they can suffer additional charge exchange or ionisation reactions, thereby depositing energy and momentum upstream. Here we discuss the implications of this neutral return flux, which was already predicted in our previous work on neutral mediated supernova shocks, and show how the spectra of accelerated particles turn out to be appreciably steeper than p-4, thereby affecting the gamma ray spectra from supernova remnants in general and from Tycho specifically. Methods: The theory that describes non-linear diffusive shock acceleration in the presence of neutral hydrogen has been developed in recent years. Here we use a semi-analytical theory developed in previous work and specialise our predictions to the case of the Tycho supernova shock, where there is evidence from gamma ray observations that the spectrum of the parent cosmic rays is steeper than expected from the traditional theory of diffusive shock acceleration. Results: We show that, if the fraction of neutral hydrogen in the vicinity of the Tycho supernova shock is, as suggested by observations, ~70-90%, then spectra of accelerated protons steeper than p-4 may be a natural consequence of charge exchange reactions and the associated neutral return flux. The spectral shape is affected by this phenomenon for particles with energies below ~100-1000 GeV, for which the diffusion length is less than or at most comparable to the path length of charge exchange and ionisation upstream of the shock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. A model of heliosheath density and energy spectra of α-particles and He+ ions carried by the solar wind is developed. Neutralization of heliosheath He ions, mainly by charge exchange (CX) with neutral interstellar H and He atoms, gives rise to ∼0.2-∼100 keV fluxes of energetic neutral He atoms (He ENA). Such fluxes, if observed, would give information about plasmas in the heliosheath and heliospheric tail. Methods. Helium ions crossing the termination shock (TS) constitute suprathermal (test) particles convected by (locally also diffusing through) hydrodynamically calculated background plasma flows (three versions of flows are employed). The He ions proceed from the TS towards heliopause (HP) and finally to the heliospheric tail (HT). Calculations of the evolution of α- and He+ particle densities and energy spectra include binary interactions with background plasma and interstellar atoms (radiative and dielectronic recombinations, single and double CX, stripping, photoionization and impact ionizations), adiabatic heating (cooling) resulting from flow compression (rarefaction), and Coulomb scattering on background plasma. Results. Neutralization of suprathermal He ions leads to the emergence of He ENA fluxes with energy spectra modified by the Compton-Getting effect at emission and ENA loss during flight to the Sun. Energy-integrated He ENA intensities are in the range ∼0.05-∼50 cm-2 s-1 sr-1 depending on spectra at the TS (assumed kappa-distributions), background plasma model, and look direction. The tail/apex intensity ratio varies between ∼1.8 and ∼800 depending on model assumptions. Energy spectra are broad with maxima in the ∼0.2-∼3 keV range depending on the look direction and model. Conclusions. Expected heliosheath He ENA fluxes may be measurable based on the capabilities of the IBEX spacecraft. Data could offer insight into the heliosheath structure and improve understanding of the post-TS solar wind plasmas. HT direction and extent could be assessed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most ultrafast transient absorption studies of primary electron transfer in reaction centers from purple bacteria have been performed in complexes isolated from their natural lipid membrane environment using detergent. In this contribution we present near-UV-vis transient absorption studies of reaction centers embedded in their natural membrane environment. The evolution of absorption spectra recorded with subpicosecond resolution and reflecting primarily electron transfer reactions has been compared to data obtained previously for isolated reaction centers. We conclude that the overall spectral evolution in both types of samples is similar, and the environment of the reaction center protein has only a minor effect on the primary electron transfer reactions. The differences between the two samples are explained in terms of different energetic levels (and their different temporal evolution) of the two initial charge separated states P+BA- and P+HA-, with P being the primary electron donor and BA and HA the two consecutive electron acceptors. Additionally, in the electric field generated by P+HA-, BA in membrane-bound reaction centers undergoes a stronger electrochromic shift than in isolated reaction centers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experimental data from the Ca(³He,t)Sc charge exchange reaction on the targets 40,42,44,48Ca at 420 MeV beam energy are presented. The achieved energy resolution of 20 keV, and the measured angular distributions allowed the extraction of the dipole strength for excitation energies lower than 15 MeV in the Sc isotopes for the first time. The possible existence of a new type soft dipole vibration mode is dicussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interstellar neutral hydrogen (ISN H) gas penetrates freely the heliopause. Inside the inner heliosheath, the charge-exchange interaction of this gas with the shocked solar wind and pickup ions creates energetic neutral atoms (ENAs). ISN H is strongly depleted inside the termination shock but a fraction reaches the Earth’s orbit. In these regions of the heliosphere, ISN H is the source population for interstellar pickup ions and for the heliospheric backscatter glow. The globally distributed flux (GDF) of ENAs created in the inner heliosheath has been sampled directly by the Interstellar Boundary Explorer. Based on these measurements, we calculate the density of the GDF ENA population at the Earth’s orbit. We find that this number density is between 10−4 and 10−3 cm−3, i.e., comparable in magnitude to the number density of ISN H in the downwind portion of the Earth’s orbit. Half of this atom population has energies less than ∼80 eV. This GDF population of neutral hydrogen is likely to provide a significant contribution to the intensity of heliospheric glow in the downwind hemisphere, may be the source of the inner source of hydrogen pickup ions, and may be responsible for the excess of production of pickup ions found in the analysis of magnetic wave events induced by the proton pickup process in the downwind region at 1 au from the Sun. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reported observations of an unidentified X-ray line feature at ∼3.5 keV have driven a lively discussion about its possible dark matter origin. Motivated by this, we have measured the K-shell X-ray spectra of highly ionized bare sulfur ions following charge exchange with gaseous molecules in an electron beam ion trap, as a source of or a contributor to this X-ray line. We produced S16+ and S15+ ions and let them capture electrons in collision with those molecules with the electron beam turned off while recording X-ray spectra. We observed a charge-exchange-induced X-ray feature at the Lyman series limit (3.47 ± 0.06 keV). The inferred X-ray energy is in full agreement with the reported astrophysical observations and supports the novel scenario proposed by Gu et al. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We introduce a new concept of hybrid Na-based flow batteries (HNFBs) with a molten Na alloy anode in conjunction with a flowing catholyte separated by a solid Na-ion exchange membrane for grid-scale energy storage. Such HNFBs can operate at ambient temperature, allow catholytes to have multiple electron transfer redox reactions per active ion, offer wide selection of catholyte chemistries with multiple active ions to couple with the highly negative Na alloy anode, and enable the use of both aqueous and non-aqueous catholytes. Further, the molten Na alloy anode permits the decoupled design of power and energy since a large volume of the molten Na alloy can be used with a limited ion-exchange membrane size. In this proof-of-concept study, the feasibility of multi-electron transfer redox reactions per active ion and multiple active ions for catholytes has been demonstrated. The critical barriers to mature this new HNFBs have also been explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]