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Halide perovskites have demonstrated great potential in x-ray detectors, due to their high x-ray attenuation coefficient, large bulk resistance, ultralong carrier diffusion length, and adjustable bandgap. Moreover, their abundant raw materials and simple processing combined with excellent compatibility with integrated circuits make them ideal for cost-efficient and high-efficiency real-world imaging applications. Herein, we comprehensively reviewed advances and progress in x-ray detection devices based on halide perovskites. We expound on the fundamental mechanisms of interactions between x rays and matter as background and indicate different parameters for different types of x-ray detectors, which guides the basic requirements on how to select and design suitable materials for active layers. After emphasizing the superb properties of halide perovskites through the shortcomings of commercial materials, we evaluate the latest advancements and ongoing progress in halide perovskites with different dimensions and structures for both direct and indirect x-ray detectors, and discuss the effect of dimensional varieties on the device performance. We also highlight current challenges in the area of perovskite x-ray detectors and propose corresponding solutions to optimize halide perovskites and optimize x-ray detectors for next-generation imaging applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate detection of x-ray radiation is essential for tissue equivalence detection and safety control during medical radiotherapy. Here, a promising radiation detector based on organic 1,8-naphthalimide (C12H7NO2, NTI) single crystals is proposed. NTI single crystals with dimensions of 8 × 2 × 1 mm3 were synthesized by an optimized solvent-cooling method, and the crystal structure was characterized to elucidate the anisotropy mechanism. The coplanar detector made by NTI has a leakage current of less than 0.1 pA at an electric field strength of 1 kV cm−1 and provides excellent detection of 5.49 MeV α-particles (241Am) with a full-energy peak resolution of up to 32.3%. The calculated electron mobility (μ e) and electron mobility-lifetime product (μ τ)e were 7.9 cm2 V−1s−1 and 1.56 × 10−6 cm2 V−1, respectively. Additionally, the detection limit of the NTI detector was 0.35 µGy s−1 in the electric field strength range of 0.2–1.0 kV cm−1 under a 20 kV x-ray beam with a high sensitivity of 56.2 μC Gy−1cm−2. Consequently, the NTI detector achieves an excellent spatial resolution of 0.8–0.9 lp mm−1 in terms of x-ray imaging capability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soft x-ray detectors play crucial roles in biology, chemistry, and lithography. Current soft x-ray detectors suffer from insufficient responsivity (R), excessively large cell area, and limited stability. Here, the β-Ga2O3 soft x-ray detector is constructed, and the effects of varying the sensitive layer thickness and voltage on the soft x-ray detection characteristics of the device are explored. Meanwhile, the mechanism of the multiplication ionization process from soft x-ray and the photoconductivity gain on the photoresponse performance of the device are analyzed. The device obtains the R up to 3.05 × 103 A/W under 300 eV soft x-ray irradiation at the synchrotron beamline, which is about 1.19 × 104 times higher than that of the conventional device. The Ga2O3 device also maintains stable operation under long-term irradiation and multicycle switching. These results indicate that Ga2O3 is an ideal candidate material for soft x-ray detection, which has great potential for applications such as imaging of biological cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solution grown metal halide perovskites (MHPs) are a class of low-cost, direct conversion semiconducting materials with the potential to meet the need for large areas, high stopping power, and high sensitivity x-ray detectors. While polycrystalline MHP thin films have shown significant potential for meeting this need, their efficiencies for detecting x rays are limited by their thickness. This article presents an MHP variant, methylammonium lead tribromide (MAPB) in the form of 3D polycrystalline mosaic wafers with relatively high hole transport properties that demonstrated stable sensitivity during irradiation. An expedited and efficient detector fabrication method that did not include polishing or sintering was evaluated, and a radiograph of a brass key was produced using electron collection from the resulting wafer. However, a high dose rate was required due to very low sensitivity values. The effects of surface inhomogeneity and radiation damage were investigated as explanatory factors, and these phenomena were further characterized through IV measurements, current response as a function of electric field and x-ray dose rate, and alpha particle irradiation. The results indicated that although compromising surface quality for fabrication efficiency was the primary hindrance to the x-ray detection performance of 3D polycrystalline MAPB, stable performance could still be achieved under reasonable dose rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recently reported two-dimensional lead halide perovskites have attracted much attention in high-energy radiation detector applications due to its high structural stability and low ion migration. However, the increased exciton binding energy and the charge transport barrier resulting from the A-site cation can easily limit the charge extraction and device performance. As an emerging material in high-energy detection field, guanidinium {GA+ = [C(NH2)3]+} is a relatively large organic cation composed of three amino groups, which can enhance the hydrogen bond formation and the van der Waals interactions with the metal halide framework. Meanwhile, the polymer symmetry of GA+ cation leads to almost zero dipole moments, excellent electronic properties, and high thermodynamic stability. However, there is a lack of report on the preparation, structure, and properties of GA-based 2D perovskite single crystals as well as their applications in x-ray detection. Herein, we have synthesized large-size two-dimensional GA2PbI4 single crystals with a bandgap of 2.28 eV by cooling crystallization and applied them to x-ray detectors. GA2PbI4 single crystals exhibit a high μτ product of 7.5 × 10−4 cm2 V−1 and a low trap density of 6.44 × 108 cm−3. An effective x-ray photoresponse was realized with a sensitivity as high as 392.4 μC Gyair−1 cm−2. The unique structure and excellent charge transport properties of GA+ organic cations exhibit promising prospects in high-performance x-ray detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the self-collimation phenomenon in photonic crystals (PhC) of wide bandgap materials for ultra-fast and high spatial resolution x-ray detection. We work on various heavy inorganic scintillators: BaF2, GaN, ZnO, CsI:Tl, NaI:Tl, LYSO, WO4 compounds, and plastic scintillators. Conventional scintillator detectors do not rely on a direct detection mechanism; hence, they require intricate design and fabrication processes. We offer a PhC design to observe self-collimation phenomena and overcome the ongoing spatial resolution challenges with these types of materials. We investigate the photonic band diagrams and iso-frequency contours. Fourier transforms based on finite-difference time-domain and frequency domain simulations are done for verifying and analyzing the self-collimation with the selected material. Light extraction efficiency at the PhC–air interface, depending on the truncation distance from the excitation point, is measured. Beam divergence values are calculated at 1 mm propagation distance. The vertical field profiles are obtained to observe the confinement. For the spatial resolution analysis, cross-sectional beam profiles have been examined. Gaussian envelopes are fitted to beam profiles for a consistent data analysis, and full-width-at-half-maximum values are considered. As a result, we theoretically prove and demonstrate the spatially resolved x-ray detection at the sub-micrometer level for a wide range of scintillator materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metal halide perovskites have emerged as promising candidates for x-ray detection; in particular, the in-direct detectors based on perovskite scintillators have demonstrated appealing performance metrics. However, both perovskite thin films and nanocrystals still suffer from poor stability. In this work, we introduce a heterovalent cation exchange strategy to effectively modulate the optoelectronic properties of perovskite nanocrystals and further enhance their stability. Here, a portion of Pb2+ in perovskite nanocrystals was replaced with lead-free Sb3+. This is a versatile method that can be applied to cation exchange of various perovskite nanocrystals, such as CsPbX3 and FAPbX3, allowing for the synthesis of a wide range of mixed-cation perovskite compositions. The resulting nanocrystals exhibit relatively high photoluminescence quantum yields and improved thermal stability and water resistance. The Sb@CsPbBr3 nanocrystals also demonstrated great potential for x-ray detection as scintillators with fast response, bright and radioluminescence, and excellent image quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) are demonstrated to be appealing semiconductors for optoelectronic applications, thanks to their remarkable properties in the ultraviolet-visible spectral range. Interestingly, TMDCs have not yet been characterized when exposed to x rays, although they would be ideal candidates for optoelectronic applications in this spectral range. They benefit from the high cross section of the constituent heavy atoms, while keeping the absorption very low, due to the ultrathin structure of the film. This encourages the development of photodetectors based on TMDCs for several applications dealing with x rays, such as radioprotection, medical treatments, and diagnosis. Given the atomic thickness of TMDCs, they can be expected to perform well at low dose measurements with minimal perturbation of the radiation beam, which is required for in vivo applications. In this paper, the use of TMDCs as active materials for direct x-ray detection is demonstrated, using a photodetector based on a MoS2 monolayer (1L-MoS2). The detector shows a response to x rays in the range of 101–102 keV, at dose rates as low as fractions of mGy/s. The sensitivity of 1L-MoS2 reaches values in the range of 108–109µC Gy−1 cm−3, overcoming the values reported for most of the organic and inorganic materials. To improve the x-ray photoresponse even further, the 1L-MoS2 was coupled with a polymeric film integrating a scintillator based on terbium-doped gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd2O2S:Tb). The resulting signal was three times larger, enabled by the indirect x ray to visible photoconversion mechanism. This paper might pave the way toward the production of ultrathin real-time dosimeters for in vivo applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Owing to the large x-ray attenuation coefficient, appropriate bandgap, high resistivity, and high mobility-lifetime (μτ) product, binary II–VI semiconductor CdSe is a promising x-ray detection material and it has exhibited excellent x-ray detection at room temperature (RT). For further improving the characteristics of CdSe x-ray detectors, the electrical properties of CdSe single crystals (SCs) grown through the pressure-assisted vertical Bridgman method and their x-ray detection performance have been investigated at RT and liquid nitrogen temperature (LNT), respectively. The significantly enhanced x-ray photocurrent and the prolonged response time of the devices operating at LNT indicate the photogenerated carrier lifetime could be increased by the enhanced trapping–detrapping effect obviously, and the μτ product of CdSe SCs increases from 1.39 × 10−5 to 5.34 × 10−4 cm2 V−1 with temperature lowering from RT to LNT. Meanwhile, an ultrahigh sensitivity of 5.24 × 106μC Gyair−1 cm−2 and an extremely low detection limit of 3.68 nGyair s−1 have been acquired by the CdSe SC based x-ray detectors at LNT, which is 140 times higher and 5.8 times lower than it has been at RT. Compared with conventional semiconductor x-ray detectors, the ultra-high sensitivity and extremely low detection limit of CdSe SC based detectors make their application prospects very promising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considerable progress has been made in the last few years in removing white noise from visible–near-ultraviolet (UV/VIS) spectra while leaving information intact. For x-ray diffraction, the challenges are different: detecting and locating peaks rather than line shape analysis. Here, we investigate possibilities of state-of-the-art UV/VIS methods for noise reduction, peak detection, and peak location applied to x-ray diffraction data, in this case, data for a ZrO2 −33 mol. % TaO4 ceramic. The same advantages seen in UV/VIS spectroscopy are found here as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the ultrafast generation of spin currents in magnetic multilayer samples by applying fs laser pulses to one layer and measuring the magnetic response in the other layer by element-resolved x-ray spectroscopy. In Ni(5 nm)/Ru(2 nm)/Fe(4 nm), the Ni and Fe magnetization directions couple antiferromagnetically due to the Ruderman–Kittel–Kasuya–Yosida interaction but may be oriented parallel through an applied magnetic field. After exciting the top Ni layer with a fs laser pulse, we also find that the Fe layer underneath demagnetizes, with a 4.1 ± 1.9 % amplitude difference between parallel and antiparallel orientation of the Ni and Fe magnetizations. We attribute this difference to the influence of a spin current generated by the fs laser pulse that transfers angular momentum from the Ni into the Fe layer. Our results confirm that superdiffusive spin transport plays a role in determining the sub-ps demagnetization dynamics of synthetic antiferromagnetic layers, but also evidence large depolarization effects due to hot electron dynamics, which are independent of the relative alignment of the magnetization in Ni and Fe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have developed a new scintillator-based optical soft x-ray (OSXR) diagnostic system for KSTAR. By utilizing fiber optic faceplates, mm-size lens arrays, and fiber bundles, we have successfully constructed a novel optical system for scintillator-based soft x-ray detection to overcome the limited vacuum-port conditions in KSTAR. P47 (Y2SiO5), which has a fast rise (∼7 ns) and decay (∼100 ns) time sufficient for detecting plasma instabilities observed in the kHz–MHz spectral range, was selected as the scintillator material for the KSTAR OSXR system. Scintillation toward each detection channel is collected by the lens arrays coupled to optical fiber cores, which are connected to the photodetector system. Initial results obtained during the 2022 KSTAR experimental campaign support the validity of the OSXR data through the consistency of OSXR measurement results with other diagnostics. We also observe that the OSXR system can capture magnetohydrodynamic activities, such as sawtooth oscillations, and provide valuable information for disruption mitigation studies using shattered pellet injection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A model for calculating the sensitivity of direct conversion X-ray image detectors is developed incorporating the space charge effect. The space charge perturbs the applied electric field across the thickness of the photoconductor, and thus the electric field becomes nonuniform. First, Poisson's equation is solved to obtain the electric field distribution. Then, the continuity equations for both holes and electrons are solved considering the perturbed electric field. Finally, the collected charge is determined from the charge carrier distributions and electric field profile using the Shockley–Ramo theorem. The developed X-ray sensitivity model is applied to polycrystalline mercuric iodide based detectors. The electric field collapses for a critical amount of trapped charge if the ratio of trapped electrons to holes is high (∼0.5). The pinch in electric field slows down the drift of free electrons and hence reduces the sensitivity of the detector. The developed model is fitted with the published experimental data, and the fitted values of effective mobility-lifetime products of charge carriers agree well with the published results. It is found that the space charge reduces the sensitivity in the screen-printed sample more significantly than in the vacuum deposited sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here, we describe a new synchrotron X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) imaging instrument with an integrated High Energy Fluorescence Detection X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (HERFD-XAS) spectrometer at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource at beamline 6-2. The X-ray beam size on the sample can be defined via a range of pinhole apertures or focusing optics. XRF imaging is performed using a continuous rapid scan system with sample stages covering a travel range of 250 × 200 mm2, allowing for multiple samples and/or large samples to be mounted. The HERFD spectrometer is a Johann-type with seven spherically bent 100 mm diameter crystals arranged on intersecting Rowland circles of 1 m diameter with a total solid angle of about 0.44% of 4π sr. A wide range of emission lines can be studied with the available Bragg angle range of ∼64.5°–82.6°. With this instrument, elements in a sample can be rapidly mapped via XRF and then selected features targeted for HERFD-XAS analysis. Furthermore, utilizing the higher spectral resolution of HERFD for XRF imaging provides better separation of interfering emission lines, and it can be used to select a much narrower emission bandwidth, resulting in increased image contrast for imaging specific element species, i.e., sparse excitation energy XAS imaging. This combination of features and characteristics provides a highly adaptable and valuable tool in the study of a wide range of materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developments in the field of organic semiconductors have generated organic photodetectors with high quantum efficiency, wide spectral sensitivity, low power consumption, and unique form factors that are flexible and conformable to their substrate shape. In this work, organic photodetectors coupled with inorganic CsI(Tl) scintillators are used to showcase the low dose rate sensitivity that is enabled when high performance organic photodetectors and scintillator crystals are integrated. The detection capability of these organic-inorganic coupled systems to high energy radiation highlights their potential as an alternative to traditional photomultiplier tubes for nuclear spectroscopy applications. When exposed to Bremsstrahlung radiation produced from an X-ray generator, SubPc:C60, AlPcCl:C70, and P3HT:PC61BM thin film photodetectors with active layer thicknesses less than 100 nm show detection of incident radiation at low and no applied bias. Remarkably low dose rates, down to at least 0.18 μGy/s, were detectable with a characteristic linear relationship between exposure rate and photodetector current output. These devices also demonstrate sensitivities as high as 5.37 mC Gy-1cm-2 when coupled to CsI(Tl). Additionally, as the tube voltage across the X-ray generator was varied, these organic-inorganic systems showed their ability to detect a range of continuous radiation spectra spanning several hundred keV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the development of a novel medical x-ray imaging system adapted to the needs and constraints of low- and middle-income countries. The developed system is based on an indirect conversion chain: a scintillator plate produces visible light when excited by the x rays, and then, a calibrated multi-camera architecture converts the visible light from the scintillator into a set of digital images. The partial images are then unwarped, enhanced, and stitched through parallel field programmable gate array processing units and specialized software. All the detector components were carefully selected focusing on optimizing the system's image quality, robustness, cost-effectiveness, and capability to work in harsh tropical environments. With this aim, different customized and commercial components were characterized. The resulting detector can generate high quality medical diagnostic images with detective quantum efficiency levels up to 60% (@2.34 μGy), even under harsh environments, i.e., 60 °C and 98% humidity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two-dimensional (2D) perovskites have been demonstrated great promise in x-ray detection application because of their stability, tunability, and the unique electronic properties. The centimeter-sized 2D perovskite (PMA)2PbI4 single crystal and the corresponding x-ray detector were fabricated. The Cu ion implanted device exhibits an excellent sensitivity of 283 μC Gyair−1 cm−2, the significantly enhanced mobility-lifetime (μτ) product of 8.05 × 10−3 cm2 V−1, and the lowest detectable dose rate of 2.13 μGyair s−1. Experimental observation combined with the DFT calculations shows that the improvement in Cu ion implanted x-ray detection is ascribed to the enhanced photoinduced charge carrier density and μτ product, and the increased carrier dissociation capability associated deeply with the decreased binding energy of exciton in the inorganic layer quasi-quantum well. The incorporation of the Cu interstitials by high-energy Cu ion implantation is able to introduce the donor and acceptor states with additional charge transfer channeling, resulting in the decreased exciton binding energy and fast dissociation of the exciton and the quick carrier extraction. Cu ion implantation regulating the dissociation of charge carriers in low-dimensional perovskites will motivate the application for 2D perovskite in high-performance x-ray detectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein, we evaluated a capacitor dosimeter under development by a manufacturer, which is designed to monitor the entrance dose in x-ray diagnosis and comprises a silicon x-ray diode (Si-XD), a 0.1 µF capacitor, and a dosimeter dock. The Si-XD is a high-sensitivity photodiode optimized for x-ray detection. The dosimeter was charged to 3.30 V using the dock before x-ray irradiation. The charging voltage was reduced by photocurrents flowing through the Si-XD during irradiation, and the discharging voltage was measured. For the fundamental characterization of this capacitor dosimeter, we investigated the x-ray tube-current and tube-voltage dependences of the measured dose using an industrial x-ray tube; the angular dependence was also investigated. A commercially available semiconductor dosimeter (RaySafe ThinX) was used for dose calibration. The doses were proportional to the tube current at a constant tube voltage of 100 kV and increased with increasing tube voltage at a constant tube current of 1.0 mA. The dose difference with respect to the commercially available semiconductor dosimeter was within 1.0% when the tube current was varied and it was within 3.0% when the tube voltage was varied. In the angular dependence measurement, a difference of up to 6.0% was observed as the angle varied from 0° to 355° in steps of 5°. The dose-calibration results indicated that the determination of the initial charging voltage was important for dose conversion using the capacitor dosimeter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although amorphous selenium (a-Se) has a long and successful history of application in optical and X-ray imaging, some of its fundamental properties are still puzzling. In particularly, the mechanism of carrier recombination following x-ray excitation and electric field and temperature dependences of the electron-hole pair creation energy (Wehp) remain unclear. Using the combination of X-ray photocurrent and pulse height spectroscopy measurements, we measure Wehp in a wide range of temperatures (218-320K) and electric fields (10-100 V/μm) and show that the conventional columnar recombination model which assumes Langevin recombination within a column (a primary electron track) fails to explain experimental results in a wide range of electric fields and temperatures. The reason for the failure of the conventional model is revealed in this work, and the theory of the columnar recombination is modified to include the saturation of the recombination rate at high electric field in order to account for the experimental results in the entire range of fields and temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have performed X-ray synchrotron micro-diffraction measurements to study the processes controlling the formation of hillocks and whiskers in Sn layers on Cu. The studies were done in real-time on Sn layers that were electro-deposited immediately before the X-ray measurements were started. This enabled a region of the sample to be monitored from the as-deposited state until after a hillock feature formed. In addition to measuring the grain orientation and deviatoric strain (via Laue diffraction), the X-ray fluorescence was monitored to quantify the evolution of the Sn surface morphology and the formation of intermetallic compound (IMC) at the Sn-Cu interface. The results capture the simultaneous growth of the feature and the corresponding film stress, grain orientation, and IMC formation. The observations are compared with proposed mechanisms for whisker/hillock growth and nucleation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Typical x-ray detectors have a fundamental trade-off between resolution and quantum efficiency (QE). High quantum efficiency x-ray detection requires a thick conversion medium, but decreases the resolution due to limited pixel aspect ratios for both direct and indirect x-ray detection. We present a method for x-ray detection, holographic x-ray detection, which uses photorefractive materials to create a high resolution and high efficiency detector. The x-ray image is recorded in the volume of the photorefractive material, bypassing the aspect ratio issue of typical x-ray detectors. Holographic x-ray detection operates in three stages: recording an x-ray hologram in a photorefractive crystal, reading the hologram with visible light, and then erasing the hologram using ultraviolet light. We have experimentally demonstrated holographic x-ray detection with a resolution of 208 lp/mm (80% QE at 40 keV), an order of magnitude resolution improvement over commercially available x-ray detectors while maintaining > 80% QE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed a compact sized device for angular and energy analysis of charged particles in a wide acceptance cone angle of nearly 1π steradian. This device is configured from an electrostatic lens comprising an axisymmetric aspherical mesh, which has a concave shape viewed from the point source, a set of axisymmetric electrodes, planar grids, microchannel plates, and a fluorescent screen positioned coaxially. The potentials of electrodes are adjusted so that the trajectories of the electrons with arbitrarily set kinetic energy are substantially parallelized by the electrostatic lens and enter the planar grid perpendicularly. Instead of the planar grid, a collimator plate with parallel holes can be used as an energy band-pass filter. The angular distribution of electrons with the selected kinetic energy is projected directly onto the fluorescent screen without converging and passing through a pinhole. This is a simple but significant electron-optical design to obtain wide-range angular distribution with high angular resolution, and the analyzer can be suitably used for the two-dimensional angular distribution measurements of electrons and ions emitted from surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, a large size x-ray detector with a 25 mm2 active area is demonstrated based on a thick 4H-SiC p-i-n structure. The detector exhibits obvious merits of high photon sensitivity over 4 × 104μC Gy−1 cm−2, good photon-response linearity, and high-temperature operation compatibility. Meanwhile, due to the ultralow leakage current level achieved, single photon detection performance for x-ray photons is further realized with energy resolutions of 1.1 and 4.9 keV at 5.9 and 59.5 keV, respectively. This work thus suggests the significant potentials of wide-bandgap SiC semiconductor for photon-resolved x-ray detection in a harsh environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organic–inorganic hybrid perovskites have exhibited unprecedented advantages for x-ray photon detection due to their exotic properties. Their high-crystalline quality has a great impact for high-detection sensitivity under a low electric field, especially related to the synthesis method. In this work, we analyze the capability of CH3NH3PbI3 (MAPbI3) perovskites as an x-ray detection material and propose to control the temperature gradient (TG) during the synthesis of MAPbI3 single crystal perovskites for device fabrication. Our results show that the decreasing TG can effectively reduce the trap density and improve the crystal quality, which could lead to a boosted sensitivity of 1471.7 μC/Gyair/cm2 under a low electric field of 3.3 V/mm. In addition, a higher detection sensitivity can be achieved by increasing the electric field. Our work presents a strategy to construct high-performance direct x-ray detectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thanks to their unique combination of semiconducting properties and a large cross section for energetic photons, metal halide perovskites could theoretically achieve high x-ray to charge carriers conversion rates, making them materials of high interest for the direct x-ray detection. In this work, we focus on the transport properties of methylammonium lead tribromide (MAPbBr3) single crystals. Time of Flight measurements and x-ray focused experiments along the edge of the samples were carried out. We report homogenous holes transit throughout the thickness of the samples as well as poor electrons transit. We also report the continuity of the electric field throughout the thickness of the MAPbBr3 samples, and we present preliminary fitting results to discuss its nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-grain-sized polycrystalline diamond films are fabricated by electron assisted chemical vapor deposition. A pure SP3 carbon bond in the cubic lattice structure is confirmed by Raman spectrum analysis. The grain size is on the order of several hundreds of μm or larger. Interlaced-finger electrodes are imprinted onto a 6 × 6 mm2 × 500 µm film to fabricate the x-ray detector. The width of every finger is 25 µm, and the distance between nearby fingers is 25 μm. Strong x ray irradiates when a pulsed current flows through a double-layer nested tungsten wire array in the Z-pinch. This diamond detector now works as one of the main x-ray detectors for the Z-pinch device. The diamond detector is calibrated using a plastic scintillator. The comparison between the signal measured by these two methods confirms that the large-grain-sized polycrystalline diamond is a good candidate for the detection of nanosecond pulsed x ray. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An interferometric semiconductor x-ray detection system is proposed in this paper. The system is based on the RadOptic effect, and it utilizes Fabry–Perot interferometry to measure radiation-induced changes in the optical refractive index of a semiconductor (GaAs). In this work, the intrinsic time resolution and the sensitivity of a Fabry–Perot interferometric sensor were systemically studied. Based on the transient free carrier absorption model, the prototype system was established to quantitatively measure the time-dependent x-ray flux with the deconvolution algorithm for the first time. The time resolution of the detection system was approximately 21 ps, and the output signal induced by an x-ray pulse showed a high signal-to-noise ratio and immunity to electromagnetic interference. This interferometer will enable x-ray bang-time and fusion burn-history measurements in inertial confinement fusion with higher time resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) changed the world of solution processed semiconductors, previously dominated by organic semiconductors, toward predominantly inorganic materials with a relatively high electron/hole mobility. A series of devices benefit from their optoelectronic properties, including X-ray detectors. After the introduction of MHP X-ray detectors in 2013, they have achieved significant improvements in the form of single crystals, polycrystalline materials, and pixelated imaging devices. In addition, MHPs in the form of colloidal nanocrystals act as excellent scintillators. We see the bright future of MHPs in energy resolved X-ray detection, either achieved in the single counting mode, or in nanocrystal multilayer stacked devices, acting as a combination of selective X-ray filters and scintillators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Doped and stabilized amorphous selenium (a-Se) alloys in a multilayer form are currently used as a photoconductor in direct conversion flat panel x-ray imagers in mammography and tomosynthesis. While much progress has been made on the physics of such detectors, there are still unresolved questions on such issues as the principles of operation of the so-called p-i-n detector structure in extinguishing the dark current. The present paper examines dark current transients after the application of a voltage in seven types of a-Se alloy based devices: i-layer, i-n, n-i, i-p, p-i, p-i-n, and n-i-p structures. The substrate was ITO coated glass, the top (radiation receiving) electrode was chromium, and the films were fabricated by vacuum deposition. The nominal device thickness was 200 μm, similar to commercial mammographic detectors. It is shown that n-i, i-n, n-i-p, and p-i-n devices have dark currents less than 1 pA mm−2 at an applied field of 10 V/μm. The dark current in the p-i-n device is the lowest at approximately 0.01 pA mm−2 at an applied field of 10 V μm−1. Experiments have been carried out by subjecting the detector to a staircase voltage-time profile during the voltage application (turn-on) and a staircase voltage ramp-down during the turning-off of the bias voltage. Step-voltage ramp-up and step-voltage ramp-down current transient are typical of expected dark current transient behavior in a semiconductor with traps in which carriers are captured and released from various trap centers in the bandgap. The dark current transients are qualitatively similar to those expected from a capacitor in parallel with a large resistor and both in series with a much smaller resistor. Current transients during charging and discharging experiments were integrated to find how much of the injected charge is released during discharge experiments. It is shown that the majority of this trapped charge is stored in the n-type and p-type blocking layers, near the contacts. The trapped carriers in the i-layer represent a very small portion. The evolution of the dark current upon single and repeated x-ray exposure has also been examined in n-i and p-i-n devices. Right after the cessation of irradiation, there is an excess or residual dark current whose magnitude is roughly ∼20 times higher in p-i-n and about ∼2 times higher in the case of n-i under an exposure of 3.36 R and a mean photon energy of 34.2 keV. The absorbed dose is 1.53 Gy. The excess dark current has a fast decay component with a time constant ∼10 s and a slow component with a time constant ∼100 s. It is shown that the decay in the irradiation induced excess dark current is very similar to the initial dark current. There is no permanent change in the dark current, and within a few hundred seconds, the dark current reaches the same level as that in the unexposed detector. The experimental results in this work highlight the distinct advantages of p-i-n and n-i-type a-Se multilayer structures in x-ray detection applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray communication (XCOM) offers important advantages to both civilian and military space projects. Rapid advance in high-intensity laser interaction with plasma has become a driving force for providing a new X-ray carrier generation based on the laser wakefield acceleration scheme. XCOM has the potential to eliminate RF shielding on the ground and communicate with the re-entry supersonic spacecraft during blackout occurrence. In this process, the plasma sheath is formed around the surface due to air compression and ablation, which blocks the traditional communication signals. In this paper, the hazardous substance was proactively exploited and coupled with the modulated laser. Particle-In-Cell simulation results indicate the ultra-bright controllable X-ray emission with a small angular divergence (0.04 rad × 0.03 rad), a tunable X-ray energy range (4.60 keV to 321.48 keV), and high photon yields. Additionally, the data rate of the communication via the X-ray carrier during re-entry was estimated up to ∼20.7 Mbps by considering the transmission model, encoding schemes and photon information efficiency. Combined with an existing or developing X-ray detection technique, this regime can eliminate re-entry blackout and also provide a novel modulated X-ray source to acquire high-rate, low transmit power, and highly secure space-based data links. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rod pinch diode (RPD) is a cylindrical pinched beam diode that generates intense pulsed bremsstrahlung X-ray radiation with a small diameter. In practice, the anode and cathode structures of the RPD may be eccentric due to the mechanical deformation and mounting errors. In theory, this eccentricity changes the physical characteristics of the RPD, which in turn affects the X-ray production. To study the performance variation induced by eccentric electrodes, the electrode concentricity evaluation system is used to quantify the concentricity of the anode and cathode. Then a series of experiments are carried out with different concentricity deviations, and the electrical performance, the radiation dose, and the X-ray pulse signal among different shots are analyzed. These results have shown that, within a certain eccentricity range, the overall performances of the RPD, including the diode impedance and the X-ray production, change very little. Going beyond this range, the average impedance decay rate increases significantly, resulting in accelerated impedance collapse and shortened voltage pulse width. Consequently, X-ray dose distribution and the X-ray pulse width are both reduced. These results are helpful in understanding the RPD characteristics from a different perspective as well as providing a method to determine the designing and mounting criteria of the electrodes of rod-pinch diode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) measurements require a bright and continuous x-ray source and a detection system with high spectral resolution to capture the modulations of the absorption coefficient above the material absorption edge. When performing EXAFS measurements under laser-driven dynamic compression, it is hence critical to optimize the backlighter x-ray emission. A series of experiments has been conducted at the OMEGA laser facility to characterize titanium (Z = 22), iron (Z = 26), germanium (Z = 32), molybdenum (Z = 42), silver (Z = 47), and gold (Z = 79) foil backlighters irradiated with 3 kJ–12 kJ of laser energy. The spectra have been recorded using a dual crystal spectrometer (DCS), a two-channel transmission spectrometer covering 11 keV–45 keV and 19 keV–90 keV energy bands. The DCS has been calibrated so that the spectral intensities can be compared between different campaigns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Luminescence properties of Mn doped MgAl2O4 crystals connected with the Si PIN photodiode (PD) have been evaluated for X-ray detector applications. Mn doped MgAl2O4 crystals emit green colored luminescence peaking at around λ = 520 nm with CuKα irradiation. The intensity of the output signal from Si PD increases linearly with the X-ray intensity of CuKα generated with the X-ray tube at a current from 2 mA to 40 mA. The intensity of the X-ray excited luminescence is strongest in the specimen with 3.0 mol. % Mn. Afterglow luminescence is weak in the specimen with 2.0 mol. % Mn. Mn doped MgAl2O4 crystals connected with the Si PD is considered to be a useful X-ray detector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As X-ray fluorescence radiation isotropically spreads from the sample, one of the most important requirements for spectrometers for many years has been a large solid angle. Charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras are quite promising options because they have a fairly large area size, usually larger than 150 mm². The present work has examined the feasibility of a commercially available camera with an ordinary CCD chip (1024 × 1024 pixels, the size of one pixel is 13 μm × 13 μm, designed for visible light) as an X-ray fluorescence detector. As X-ray photons create charges in the CCD chip, reading very quickly the amount is the key for this method. It is very simple if the charges always go into one pixel. As the charges quite often spread to several pixels, and sometimes can be lost, it is important to recover the information by filtering out the unsuccessful events. For this, a simple, versatile, and reliable scheme has been proposed. It has been demonstrated that the energy resolution of the present camera is 150 eV at Mn Kα, and also that its overall achievement in seeing minor elements is almost compatible with conventional X-ray fluorescence detectors. When the CCD camera is combined with a micro-pinhole collimator, full field X-ray fluorescence imaging with a spatial resolution of 20 μm becomes possible. Further feasibility in practical X-ray fluorescence analysis is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed a fast X-ray detector system for nuclear resonant scattering (NRS) experiments. Our system employs silicon avalanche photo-diode (Si-APD) as a fast X-ray sensor. The system is able to acquire both timing and energy of a single X-ray photon simultaneously in a high rate condition, 106 counts per second for one Si-APD. The performance of the system was investigated in SPring-8, a synchrotron radiation facility in Japan. Good time resolution of 120 ps (FWHM) was achieved with a slight tail distribution in the time spectrum by a level of 10-9 at 1 ns apart from the peak. Using this system, we successfully observed the NRS from the 26.27-keV level of mercury-201, which has a half-life of 630(50) ps. We also demonstrated the reduction of background events caused by radioactive decays in a radioactive sample by discriminating photon energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new class of pulsed X-ray detection methods by sensing carrier changes in a diode laser cavity has been presented and demonstrated. The proof-of-principle experiments on detecting pulsed X-ray temporal profile have been done through the diode laser with a multiple quantum well active layer. The result shows that our method can achieve the aim of detecting the temporal profile of a pulsed X-ray source. We predict that there is a minimum value for the pre-bias current of the diode laser by analyzing the carrier rate equation, which exists near the threshold current of the diode laser chip in experiments. This behaviour generally agrees with the characterizations of theoretical analysis. The relative sensitivity is estimated at about 3.3 × 10-17 C · cm². We have analyzed the time scale of about 10 ps response with both rate equation and Monte Carlo methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate air plasmas generated by multi-MeV pulsed X-rays at pressures ranging from 10-5 to 10-1 mbar. The experimental approach used for these studies is based on measurements of resonant frequencies damping and shift for different electromagnetic modes within a cylindrical cavity. Time-integrated electron densities in X-ray-induced air plasmas are inferred from the damping rate of the measured magnetic fields and their corresponding frequency shifts. In the present study, electron densities ranging from 108 to 109cm-3 at pressures ranging from 10-3 to 10-1 mbar have been measured. Experimental results were confronted to 3D Maxwell-Vlasov Particle-In-Cell simulations incorporating a radiation-induced electric conductivity model. The method used in this work enables determining microscopic and macroscopic physical quantities within low pressure air plasmas generated by pulsed X-ray. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We demonstrate that stacking several imaging plates (IPs) constitutes an easy method to increase hard x-ray detection efficiency. Used to record x-ray radiographic images produced by an intense-laser driven hard x-ray backlighter source, the IP stacks resulted in a significant improvement of the radiograph density resolution. We attribute this to the higher quantum efficiency of the combined detectors, leading to a reduced photon noise. Electron-photon transport simulations of the interaction processes in the detector reproduce the observed contrast improvement. Increasing the detection efficiency to enhance radiographic imaging capabilities is equally effective as increasing the x-ray source yield, e.g., by a larger drive laser energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sputtered amorphous carbon thin films were explored as corrosion resistant coatings on aluminum thin films to be incorporated into x-ray detector windows. The requirements for this application include high corrosion resistance, low intrinsic stress, high strains at failure, and high x-ray transmission. Low temperature sputtering was used because of its compatibility with the rest of the window fabrication process. Corrosion resistance was tested by exposure of carbon coated and uncoated Al thin films to humidity. Substrate curvature and bulge testing measurements were used to determine intrinsic stress and ultimate strain at failure. The composition and bonding of the carbon films were further characterized by electron energy loss spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen elemental analyses. Samples had low compressive stress (down to.08GPa), a high strain at failure (3%), and a low fraction of sp³ carbon-carbon bonds (less than 5%). The high breaking strain and excellent x-ray transmission of these sputtered carbon films indicate that they will work well as corrosion barriers in this application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work is focused on a detailed study of pulsed mode infrared light induced depolarization of CdZnTe detectors operating at high photon fluxes. This depolarizing effect is a result of the decrease of positive space charge that is caused by the trapping of photogenerated holes at a deep level. The reduction in positive space charge is due to the optical transition of electrons from a valence band to the deep level due to additional infrared illumination. In this paper, we present the results of pulse mode infrared depolarization, by which it is possible to keep the detector in the depolarized state during its operation. The demonstrated mechanism represents a promising way to increase the charge collection efficiency of CdZnTe X-ray detectors operating at high photon fluxes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avalanche photodiodes are commonly used as detectors for low energy x-rays. In this work, we report on a fitting technique used to account for different detector responses resulting from photoabsorption in the various avalanche photodiode layers. The use of this technique results in an improvement of the energy resolution at 8.2 keV by up to a factor of 2 and corrects the timing information by up to 25 ns to account for space dependent electron drift time. In addition, this waveform analysis is used for particle identification, e.g., to distinguish between x-rays and MeV electrons in our experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) is a wide band gap semiconductor for room temperature radiation detection. The electro-optic Pockels effect of the material has been exploited in the past to study electric field non-uniformities and their consequence on conventional detector signals in CZT, by imaging the intensity distribution of infrared (IR) light transmitted through a device placed between crossed polarizers. Recently, quantitative monitoring of extremely high intensity neutron pulses through the change of transmitted IR intensity was demonstrated, offering the advantage to place sensitive electronics outside the measured radiation field. In this work, we demonstrate that X-ray intensity can be deduced directly from measuring the change in phase of 1550 nm laser light transmitted through a 7 x 7 x 2 mm³ CZT based Pockels cell in a simple Mach Zehnder interferometer. X-rays produced by a 50 kVp Mo X-ray tube incident on the CZT cathode surface placed at 7 mm distance cause a linearly increasing phase shift above 0.3 mA tube current, with 1.58 60.02 rad per mA for an applied bias of 500 V across the 2 mm thick device. Pockels images confirm that the sample properties are in agreement with the literature, exhibiting electric field enhancement near the cathode under irradiation, which may cause the non-linearity at low X-ray tube anode current settings. The laser used to probe the X-ray intensity causes itself some space charge, whose spatial distribution does not seem to be exclusively determined by the incident laser position, i.e., charge carrier generation location, with respect to the electrodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A spatially distributed hard X-ray detection array has been developed to diagnose the loss of runaway electron with toroidal and poloidal resolution. The hard X-ray radiation in the energy ranges of 0.3-1 MeV resulted from runaway electrons can be measured. The detection array consists of 12 CdTe detectors which are arranged surrounding the tokamak. It is found that most runaway electrons which transport to plasma boundary tend to loss on limiters. The application of electrode biasing probe resulted in enhancement of local runaway loss. Resonant magnetic perturbations enhanced the runaway electrons diffusion and showed an asymmetric poloidal loss rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ring artifacts on tomogram slices hinder image interpretation. They are caused by minor variation in the response from individual elements in a two dimensional (2D) X-ray detector. Polar space decreases the suppression complexity by transforming the rings on the tomogram slice to linear stripes. However, it requires that the center of rings lie at the origin of polar transformation. If this is not the case, all methods employing polar space become ineffective. We developed a method based on Gaussian localization of the ring center in Hough parameter space to assign the origin for the polar transformation. Thus, obtained linear stripes can be effectively suppressed by already existing methods. This effectively suppresses ring artifacts in the data from a variety of experimental setups, sample types and also handles tomograms that are previously cropped. This approach functions automatically, avoids the need for assumptions and preserves fine details, all critical for synchrotron based nanometer resolution tomography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed a broad-spectrum light source specifically designed to reproduce the temporal behavior of the optical pulses emitted by scintillators for X-ray detection. Nanosecond-to-millisecond pulses are generated through a fast circuit driving Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and are endowed with the peculiar time features of the most employed scintillators by means of a dedicated pulse shaping stage. We implement the light source for the optical modeling of the singleshot X-ray coherence measurements with near-field speckles generated by the scattering from colloidal suspensions (heterodyne near field speckle method). Moreover, we derive a rigorous scaling law that quantitatively relates visible and X-ray signal-to-noise ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new experiment is designed and performed on the Shenguang III laser facility with the first eight available beams to characterizing the hohlraum radiation, in which the hohlraum with laser entrance holes on both ends is driven through one-end only. The experiment enables us to identify the x-ray radiations originated from the hohlraum reemission wall and high-Z bubble plasmas utilizing their position and spectral characters, which provides a better test on the associated hohlraum models. The total and M-band x-ray radiation fluxes are measured with the flat response x-ray detectors and the filtered M-band x-ray detectors, respectively. Numerical simulations are conducted with the twodimensional radiation hydrodynamic code LARED-INTEGRATION using the multi-group radiation transfer and/or diffusion models. It is found that the experimentally measured temporal profiles and angular distributions of hohlraum radiation are in good agreement with the predictions of simulation using radiation transfer models, but differ significantly from the results obtained with the multi-group radiation diffusion calculations. We thus note that to accurately represent the hohlraum radiation, a true radiation transfer model is essential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the authors propose a mechanically flexible direct conversion x-ray detector as a potential solution for portable and conformal digital x-ray imaging. It consists of a micropillar structured layer of 100-μm-thick amorphous selenium (a-Se) on a flexible thin film transistor (TFT) backplane with a pixel size of 70 μm as a substrate. The flexible substrate is made of an optically transparent polyimide with a heat resistance of more than 200 °C. It is bonded on a glass carrier for rigid substrate handling during the amorphous silicon (a-Si) TFT process. Separating the flexible substrate from the glass carrier is partly facilitated by a debonding layer sandwiched between them. A two-dimensional electrical simulation analysis revealed a possible charge generation and collection mechanism within the micropillared a-Se layer. An x-ray image captured by the curved flexible detector indicated that a pillarlike a-Se conversion layer can be used to perform x-ray imaging. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first demonstration of a flexible digital x-ray direct conversion detector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of Te inclusions is one of the main factors limiting performances of CdZnTe crystals as X-ray detectors. We show that by means of infrared laser radiation it is possible to move and anneal tellurium inclusions exploiting a thermo-diffusion mechanism. The process is studied live during irradiation by means of an optical microscope equipment. Experimental conditions, and, in particular, energy laser fluence, for annealing inclusions of different dimensions are determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the aim of enhancing the efficiency with which plastic scintillators detect high-energy X-rays, hafnium-doped organic-inorganic hybrid scintillators were fabricated via a sol-gel method. Transmission electron microscopy of sampled material reveals the presence of HfxSi1-xO2 nanoparticles, dispersed in a polymer matrix that constitutes the active material of the X-ray detector. With HfxSi1-xO2 nanoparticles incorporated in the polymer matrix, the absorption edge and the luminescence wavelength is shifted, which we attribute to Mie scattering. The detection efficiency for 67.4-keV X-rays in a 0.6-mm-thick piece of this material is two times better than the same thickness of a commercial plastic scintillator-NE142. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Near edge responsivity in diamond x-ray detectors has been used to confirm the carrier loss mechanism as recombination due to diffusion into the incident electrode. We present a detailed study of the bias dependence of the diamond responsivity across the carbon k-edge. The carrier loss is modelled by incorporating a characteristic recombination length into the absorption model and is shown to agree well with Monte Carlo simulated carrier losses. Using the high sensitivity to the x-ray absorption depth, the responsivity is converted to a near edge x-ray absorption fine structure pattern allowing easy identification of absorption mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]