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В статье рассматриваются основные черты апелляции в российском законодательстве. Представлены положительные и отрицательные стороны производства уголовных дел в апелляционной инстанции., The article discusses the main features of the appeal In the Russian legislation. The positive and negative sides of criminal proceedings in the appellate instance are presented.

42 páginas La Sentencia T-622 de 2016 reconoció al río Atrato, su cuenca y afluentes como una entidad sujeto de derechos a la protección, conservación, mantenimiento y restauración a cargo del Estado y las comunidades étnicas. Con esta decisión se podría afectar el concepto jurídico de medio ambiente, y para verificar si ello es posible, en este capítulo se estudian las bases de la decisión y se verifica una débil argumentación de la categoría jurídica propuesta, en razón a una indebida aplicación del principio de precaución y a la inexistencia de un análisis de la “personalidad jurídica”. Igualmente, se estudia el paradigma propuesto y la suficiencia de esta decisión judicial como un mecanismo jurídico que logre un equilibrio entre las medidas ordenadas, las adoptadas, el tiempo y los recursos invertidos que, en definitiva, conduzca a una verdadera protección, mantenimiento, restauración y conservación de los recursos naturales, verificando dificultades en su efectividad. Judgment T-622 of 2016 declares the Atrato river, its basin and tributaries as an entity subject to rights to the protection, conservation, maintenance and restoration by the State and ethnic communities. With this decision, the legal concept of the environment could be affected, to verify if this is possible, this chapter studies the bases of the decision, in this framework, a weak argument of the proposed legal category was verified, due to an improper application of the precautionary principle and the absence of an analysis on “legal personhood”. Likewise, the proposed paradigm and the sufficiency of this judicial decision are analyzed as a legal mechanism that achieves a balance between the ordered measures adopted, the time and resources invested that ultimately lead to true protection, maintenance, restoration and conservation of natural resources.

Cannabis sativa L. has been used since before the Christian Era to treat numerous diseases, but in the early 20th century, its use has been banned in several countries, including for medicinal purposes, for being considered illicit drug. However, the need to obtain alternatives to conventional treatments increased the interest for the therapeutic use of this plant, reason why several studies have been carried out, which verified that Cannabidiol (CBD), one of the main compounds of the plant, has great therapeutic potential. In Brazil, its internal commercialization is prohibited, but since 2015 the compassionate use and importation of the substance has been authorized by the Federal Council of Medicine (CFM) and by the National Health Surveillance Agency (Anvisa); however, the demand for CBD continues to be judicialized. The objective of this interdisciplinary research was precisely in this aspect, which was to analyze the constitutive exterior of the problem of access to the referred drug. For that, a documentary and exploratory research was performed, using the qualitative approach, in addition to the bibliographic review. The case study was carried out with the Judicial Processes of the Court of Justice of Pernambuco (TJ/PE) on the subject, located from the grouped insertion of the keywords “supply” and “Cannabidiol” in the field “jurisprudence” of the virtual site of this Court. As a result, it was found that individuals who file a lawsuit meet the requirements of regulatory agencies, which allows to conclude that the administrative refusal to provide the drug by the state of Pernambuco characterizes violation of their right to health. A Cannabis sativa L. vem sendo utilizada, antes mesmo da Era Cristã, para tratar inúmeras enfermidades, mas, no início do século 20, seu uso passou a ser proibido em vários países, inclusive com escopo medicinal, por ser considerada droga ilícita. Entretanto, a necessidade de obter alternativas aos tratamentos convencionais aumentou o interesse pelo uso terapêutico dessa droga vegetal, razão por que diversos estudos passaram a ser realizados, constatando que o Canabidiol (CBD), um dos principais compostos da planta, possui grande potencial terapêutico. No Brasil, a comercialização do CBD permanece proibida, mas, a partir de 2015, o uso compassivo e importação da substância foram autorizados pelo Conselho Federal de Medicina (CFM) e pela Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (Anvisa), porém, a demanda por CBD continua sendo judicializada. Justamente neste aspecto residiu o objetivo da pesquisa interdisciplinar, que foi analisar o exterior constitutivo do problema do acesso ao referido fármaco para tratamento de doenças. Para tanto, foi realizada pesquisa documental e exploratória, utilizando a abordagem qualitativa, além da revisão bibliográfica. O estudo de caso foi realizado com os processos judiciais do Tribunal de Justiça de Pernambuco (TJ/PE) sobre o assunto, localizados a partir da inserção agrupada das palavraschave “fornecimento” e “Canabidiol” no campo “jurisprudência” do sítio virtual desse Tribunal. Como resultado, constatou-se que os sujeitos que ingressam com ação judicial atendem aos requisitos exigidos pelos órgãos reguladores, o que permite concluir que a negativa administrativa de fornecimento do medicamento pelo estado de Pernambuco caracteriza violação ao direito à saúde deles.

When courts started publishing judgements, big data analysis (i.e. large-scale statistical analysis of case law and machine learning) within the legal domain became possible. By taking data from the European Court of Human Rights as an example, we investigate how natural language processing tools can be used to analyse texts of the court proceedings in order to automatically predict (future) judicial decisions. With an average accuracy of 75% in predicting the violation of 9 articles of the European Convention on Human Rights our (relatively simple) approach highlights the potential of machine learning approaches in the legal domain. We show, however, that predicting decisions for future cases based on the cases from the past negatively impacts performance (average accuracy range from 58 to 68%). Furthermore, we demonstrate that we can achieve a relatively high classification performance (average accuracy of 65%) when predicting outcomes based only on the surnames of the judges that try the case.

Objective: To analyze the national and international scientific evidence available in the literature on types of judicialization of health lawsuits. Method: Integrative review, which selected primary studies in the PubMed, LILACS, Web of Science and Scopus databases, with the Descriptors: judicial decisions, health’s judicialization, Saúde (in Portuguese), Health, and the keyword: Judicial Action. Results: 30 studies were selected. In Brazil, the majority were legal claims for medicines and the other for medical errors, requests for vaccines, supplies for diabetics, food compounds, surgical procedure, examinations, among others. In international studies, lawsuits were found for medication, benefit coverage and hospitalization for psychiatric treatment. Conclusion: It is evident that the most demanded type of lawsuit was access to the medication at an international level. It is still more noticeable the little discussion on this subject, demonstrating that judicialization of medicines can indicate a reality of Brazil.

Orientador: Ricardo Henrique Alves da Silva Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Odontologia de Piracicaba Resumo: O número de processos movidos por pacientes em face dos prestadores de serviços odontológicos cresceu nos últimos anos. A classificação da atividade odontológica como obrigação de resultado é entendida pelos profissionais como o fator mais determinante para o resultado do processo judicial nos casos de indenização por "erro odontológico". Processualmente a prova pericial será o principal elemento para o julgamento do processo, independentemente da natureza da obrigação (de meio ou de resultado). O objetivo do trabalho foi discutir qual o fator determinante para o resultado do julgamento, se a natureza da obrigação ou se a prova pericial, bem como afirmar a prevalência da prova pericial sobre a natureza da obrigação como fator determinante para o resultado do processo judicial. Foi realizada pesquisa no site do Tribunal de Justiça do Estado de São Paulo, tendo como base recursos de apelação julgados entres os anos de 2016 e 2018. Foram encontrados 447 acórdãos, sendo que 260 atendiam aos critérios de inclusão e exclusão. O número de recursos de apelação em ações judiciais sobre "erro odontológico" julgados no TJSP cresceu 4700% nos últimos 10 anos e 17,50% no período de 2016 a 2018. Na maioria dos julgamentos (56,15%) o prestador de serviços odontológicos foi condenado (total ou parcialmente). O grau de relevância da natureza obrigacional e da prova pericial para julgamento nos casos de responsabilidade civil por defeito na prestação do serviço odontológico é, respectivamente, de 30,38% e de 97,31%. O grau de certeza quanto ao provimento jurisdicional em decorrência da natureza obrigacional e da conclusão do laudo pericial em julgamentos nos casos de responsabilidade civil por defeito na prestação do serviço odontológico é, respectivamente, de 75,95% e de 95,85%. Em apenas 1 das 260 decisões estudadas (0,38%) o julgador desconsiderou a prova pericial conclusiva e julgou o caso com base na natureza da obrigação. O fator determinante para o resultado do julgamento (procedência ou improcedência) nas ações de indenização por "erro odontológico" é a conclusão da prova pericial, podendo-se afirmar que nas ações cíveis de indenização por "erro odontológico" a prova pericial é a rainha das provas Abstract: The number of lawsuits filed by patients against dental providers has increased in recent years. The classification of dental activity as a result obligation is understood by professionals as the most determining factor for the outcome of the lawsuit in cases of indemnity for "dental error". Procedurally the expert evidence will be the main element in the judgment of the case, regardless of the nature of the obligation (of means or outcome). The objective of the paper was to discuss what is the determining factor for the outcome of the judgment, whether the nature of the obligation or the expert evidence, as well as to state the prevalence of the expert evidence over the nature of the obligation as a determining factor for the outcome of the court proceeding. A survey was conducted on the website of the Court of Justice of the State of São Paulo, based on appeals judged between 2016 and 2018. A total of 447 judgments were found, of which 260 met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The number of appeals on "dental error" lawsuits judged by the TJSP has grown by 4700% in the last 10 years and 17.50% in the period from 2016 to 2018. In most trials (56.15%) the dental service provider was convicted (wholly or partially). The degree of relevance of the mandatory nature and the expert evidence for judgment in cases of civil liability for defect in the provision of dental service is, respectively, 30.38% and 97.31%. The degree of certainty regarding the judicial provision as a result of the mandatory nature and the conclusion of the expert report in judgments in cases of civil liability for defect in the provision of dental service is, respectively, 75.95% and 95.85%. In only 1 of the 260 decisions studied (0.38%) did the judge disregard the conclusive expert evidence and dismiss the case based on the nature of the obligation. The determining factor for the outcome of the judgment (provenance or dismissal) in actions for indemnity for "dental error" is the conclusion of the expert evidence, and it can be stated that in civil actions for indemnity for "dental error" the expert evidence is the queen of the evidence Mestrado Odontologia Legal e Deontologia Mestre em Biologia Buco-Dental

Tiesību zinātne Tiesību zinātne Law Science Law Science Maģistra darbā veikta esošās situācijas izpēte, attiecībā uz elektronisku tiesvedības datu un tiesu nolēmumu pieejamību. Analizēts normatīvo aktu regulējums, izvēlētie risinājumi un faktiskā situācija tiesvedības datu un nolēmumu pieejamības nodrošināšanā, veikts Latvijas un citu valstu salīdzinājums. Darba mērķis: izpētīt, konstatēt pastāvošās problēmas un normatīvo aktu nepilnības saistībā ar tiesvedības datu un tiesu nolēmumu pieejamību. Darba pirmajā daļā analizēta tiesvedības datu elektroniska pieejamība, konstatējot faktiskās situācijas neatbilstību normatīvo aktu prasībām. Otrajā daļā analizēta tiesu nolēmumu pieejamība, anonimizācijas nepieciešamība un samērīgums starp sabiedrības interesēm un personas tiesībām. Rezultātā aprakstītas konstatētās problēmas un izstrādāti priekšlikumi normatīvo aktu izmaiņām. Darbs izklāstīts 80 lpp. Master’s thesis examines the existing situation regarding the availability of electronic judicial data and judicial decisions. Analysis of the regulatory framework, the solutions chosen and the actual situation in ensuring access to justice data and decisions have been made, as well as a comparison between Latvia and other countries. The aim of the work is to research and identify existing problems and regulatory gaps in access to judicial data and judicial decisions. The first part of the work analyses the electronic availability of judicial data, determining the non-compliance of the actual situation with the requirements of regulatory enactments. The second part analyses the accessibility of judicial decisions, the need for anonymizing and the proportionality between the public interest and the rights of the person. As a result, identified problems have been described and proposals for legislative changes have been developed. Work outlined in 80 pages.

Patients without access to medicines often resort to the judicial system. However, no systematic review has discussed the quality of studies and the factors that may influence the access to medicines from judicialization. This study aimed to characterize the quality of research on access to judicialized medicines and their influence on public policies in Brazil. A search was conducted in the LILACS, PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science databases using the terms “judicialization” and “medication”. Two reviewers identified articles that met the inclusion criteria. Only studies written in English, Portuguese, or Spanish published from 1990 to 2018 were included. The study selection resulted in a final sample of 45 articles. The retrospective descriptive design was the most common methods, based on reports and lawsuits. A high level of heterogeneity among the studies hindered the comparison and generation of evidence capable of supporting judges’ decisions based on technical-scientific criteria. This review showed that studies were heterogeneous and had low methodological quality. Moreover, they did not propose viable solutions for health managers and formulators to face the problem.

RESUMO A promoção da saúde pública no Brasil tem exibido montantes crescentes; e a judicialização da saúde é um fenômeno em contínuo aumento, representando gastos extraordinários, lastreados em decisões judiciais, refletidos em impacto orçamentário não necessariamente advindos de decisões dos poderes Legislativo e Executivo. Nesse jaez, a forma de prestação da tutela jurisdicional também é analisada, na busca por compreender tendências de julgamento e formas de solução de conflitos sobre medicamentos via decisões judiciais, na realidade do Judiciário brasileiro. Para tanto, o trabalho utiliza o método hipotético dedutivo, por meio da revisão doutrinária e jurisprudencial, além da legislativa. Com o objetivo de apresentar uma alternativa à problemática sistêmica quanto à (não) prestação eficiente de medicamentos e fármacos pelo Sistema Único de Saúde e o abarrotamento de ações no Poder Judiciário, o presente artigo desenvolve, além dos comentários acerca do ativismo judicial, das demandas coletivas, das mutações constitucionais e da ponderação de interesses, outrossim, a discussão acerca da inserção e da utilização de decisões estruturais no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, tendo por finalidade ofertar uma singela contribuição aos debates sobre o aperfeiçoamento contínuo do Estado Constitucional de Direito. ABSTRACT The promotion of public health in Brazil has shown increasing amounts; and the judicialization of health is a phenomenon in continuous growth, representing extraordinary expenses, backed by judicial decisions, reflected in budgetary impact not necessarily coming from decisions of the Legislative and Executive branches. In this sense, the form of judicial protection provision is also analyzed, aiming to understand the tendencies of trial and forms of solution of conflicts over medication via judicial sentences, in the realm of the Brazilian Judiciary System. In order to do so, the work uses the hypothetical deductive method, through doctrinal and jurisprudential revision, in addition to the legislative research. With the objective of presenting an alternative to the systemic problem regarding the (non) efficiency over the supplying of drugs and medicines by the Unified Health System (SUS) and the crowding of lawsuits with the Judiciary, the present article develops, in addition to the comments on judicial activism, collective demands, constitutional changes. and the weighting of sentences, as well as the discussion about insertion and use of structural injunctions in the Brazilian legal system, with the aim of offering a humble contribution to the debates about the continuous improvement of the Constitutional State of Law.

The subject. The paper is devoted to the classification of financial law enforcement acts issued in Poland.The purpose of the paper is a typological analysis of the financial law enforcement acts in Poland depending on the subjects who issues such acts.The methodology. General scientific methods as analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparison were used. The system method made it possible to regularize a set of financial law enforcement acts, taking into account the subjects of law enforcement in Poland. The functional approach made it possible to identify the types of financial law enforcement acts, depending on their role in the system of law enforcement in Poland.The main results and scope of their application. The definition of the financial law enforcement act is proposed. Classification of subjects of financial law enforcement in Poland is carried out, their powers are covered and characteristics of the individual legal acts issued by them are al-located. The proposed qualitative analysis of law enforcement acts adopted in Poland may be-come a starting point for research in the field of financial law theory and comparative law.Conclusions. A financial law enforcement act is an act issued on the basis of the current rules of financial law by the authorized bodies, establishing or determining – in respect of an individual addressee – the rights and (or) obligations in a particular case in the field of public finance, or preparing their establishment or determination.The subjects applying the norms of financial law, can be divided into: bodies of financial ad-ministration, the courts (primarily administrative courts) and quasi-judicial bodies (e.g. the Commission, considering cases of violation of discipline of public finance). The first group of bodies issues decisions and orders (financial and legal acts), the bodies of the second group issue court decisions and court orders, the bodies of the third group issue decisions.The role of administrative courts in the financial law enforcement is significant. Significant number of financial cases, particularly concerning individual interpretations, in the total number of cases considered by such courts is an evidence.

Resumen: La doctrina o regla del precedente judicial supone que los jueces tienen el poder normativo de crear, modificar o derogar normas jurídicas. En ese contexto, el presente trabajo se propone explicar los tipos de poderes normativos que tiene la Corte Constitucional colombiana y, en consecuencia, señalar las clases de normas que crea este tribunal. Primero, se señala en qué sentido se puede afirmar que los jueces crean normas jurídicas y se precisan dos modelos al respecto: el modelo common law y el modelo legislativo. Luego se analizan los diferentes poderes normativos que ejerce la Corte Constitucional colombiana. La principal conclusión del trabajo es que las explicaciones que limitan el estudio del precedente a la noción de ratio decidendi tienen una insuficiente capacidad explicativa y justificativa. Abstract: The judicial precedent doctrine supposes that judges have the normative power to create, modify and derogate rules. This paper characterizes the different types of powers that the Colombian Constitutional Court exercises by examining the kinds of general and Abstract rules it makes. The work concludes that, while the Constitutional Court does indeed exercise several kinds of normative powers to create, modify and derogate rules that are both general and Abstract, any theoretical explanation of judicial precedent doctrine that merely limits its scope to ratio decidendi will necessarily be lacking in explanatory power and ultimately fail to provide the doctrine a sound justification.

The Covid-19 pandemic, a disease caused by the new coronavirus (Sars-CoV-2), has put health systems in several countries under severe pressure. In Brazil, this pressure affects a system that already suffered from serious deficiencies – accentuated by fiscal austerity policies since 2016 – of limited capacity to respond to demands, especially from the most vulnerable populations. The pandemic make the shortage of health professionals, personal protective equipment, intensive care unit beds, mechanical respirators, and other supplies more acute. The Judiciary begins to be provoked by actions directly related to the pandemic. The objectives of this article, therefore, were to describe the health-related legal demands between February and April 2020, the beginning of the pandemic in Brazil, and to analyze their repercussions on the justice and health systems. This was a descriptive study, based on data collected from the websites of the state courts of justice and federal regional courts, and from the National Council of Justice and the Federal Supreme Court. By April 30, 2020, 129 lawsuits linked to Covid-19 had been initiated in the country, with access to intensive care unit beds as the most frequent object. In addition to the shortage of intensive care unit beds, the discussion about the use of chloroquine by Covid-19 patients may have contributed to the increase in the number of health-related lawsuits. The Judiciary has been adopting specific organizational measures to face the new situation. The health care system, in contrast, has not been prepared for an increase in legal demands. A pandemia de covid-19, doença causada pelo novo coronavírus (Sars-CoV-2), tem posto sob forte pressão os sistemas de saúde de diversos países. No Brasil, essa pressão atinge um sistema que já padecia de deficiências graves – acentuadas pelas políticas de austeridade fiscal desde 2016 – de limitada capacidade de resposta às demandas, principalmente das populações em maior vulnerabilidade. A pandemia torna mais agudas as carências de profissionais de saúde, de equipamentos de proteção individual, de leitos de UTI, de respiradores mecânicos e de outros insumos. O Judiciário começa a ser provocado por ações relacionadas à pandemia. Os objetivos deste artigo, portanto, foram descrever as demandas judiciais relativas à saúde, entre fevereiro e abril de 2020, início da pandemia no Brasil, e analisar suas repercussões nos sistemas de justiça e de saúde. Tratou-se de estudo descritivo, a partir de dados coletados junto aos tribunais de justiça estaduais e regionais federais e ao Conselho Nacional de Justiça e do Superior Tribunal Federal. Até 30 de abril de 2020, 129 ações judiciais relacionadas à covid-19 tinham sido iniciadas no país, com o objeto mais frequente de acesso a leitos de unidade de terapia intensiva. Além da escassez de leitos de unidades de terapia intensiva, a discussão acerca do uso de cloroquina pode ter contribuído para o aumento do número de ações judiciais relativas à saúde. O Poder Judiciário vem adotando medidas organizativas específicas para enfrentar a situação. O sistema de saúde, ao contrário, não tem se preparado para um aumento de demandas judiciais.

Resumo Ações judiciais com medicamentos antineoplásicos geram custos elevados aos governos e demandam análises criteriosas para garantir resultados eficientes e adequados em saúde. Este trabalho analisou processos enviados por entes federados a um instituto referência no tratamento de câncer para emissão de parecer técnico. Coletou-se dados das cópias dos processos analisados entre julho e dezembro/2013 e avaliou-se: subgrupos terapêuticos, presença em lista de medicamentos essenciais, registro sanitário, indicação off label, indicações constantes em diretrizes clínicas, incorporação do medicamento no sistema público de saúde e valor estimado das causas. Foram examinados 158 processos, com 164 solicitações de 35 antineoplásicos. A maioria dos medicamentos eram inibidores da tirosinoquinase, dez figuravam em lista de medicamentos essenciais, três não continham registro sanitário, dez tinham indicação de uso off label, 56,7% estavam descritas em diretrizes clínicas, quatro tinham recomendação para incorporação e o valor estimado das causas foi de R$ 18.110.504,89. Identificou-se que os instrumentos técnico-sanitários disponíveis para subsidiar as decisões parecem ser insuficientes e que há a necessidade de se estabelecer estratégias para minimizar o comprometimento da integralidade do cuidado. Abstract The lawsuits with antineoplastic drugs generate high costs for governments and require careful analysis to ensure efficient and adequate health results. This study analyzed cases conducted by federal entities to a reference institute for the treatment of cancer for technical opinion. Data were collected from copies of the cases examined from July 1 to December 31, 2013. It was analyzed: therapeutic subgroups, presence in essential drug list, drug registry, off-label use, indications of clinical practice guidelines, drug incorporation in Brazilian Health System and estimated value of court cases. 158 cases were examined, with a total of 164 requests of 35 antineoplastic drugs. Most of the medications were protein kinase inhibitors (31.4%), ten (28.6%) were included in the essential drugs list, three did not contain sanitary registration, ten had indication of off-label use, 56.7% were described in clinical practice guidelines and four drugs were recommended for incorporation. The total estimated amount of the court cases was R$ 18,110,504.89. It was identified that the technical and sanitary instruments currently available to support the decisions seem to be insufficient and that there is need to establish strategies to minimize inconsistencies that compromise the comprehensiveness of care.

Based on the ever-increasing interpretation and application of international law by domestic courts, this paper offers an insight into the practices of judicial citation of international and domestic jurisdictions while adjudicating international criminal law related matters. The paper considers selected instances of judicial citation and operates a prima facie distinction between judicial citation as a finding device and as a justification exercise. It is argued that domestic courts rely on international judicial decisions primarily as a finding device whilst international case law deals with domestic judicial decisions in the realm of justification. The analysis of this material triggers reflections on the relevance of judicial citation for the doctrine of sources of international law, inasmuch as it adds to the formation of normative expectations on subjects of international law, as well as for a scholarly conceptualisation of contemporary international law-making.

Background Recently, the Executive Branch and Judiciary in Brazil increased spending due to larger numbers of lawsuits that forced the State to provide health goods and services. This phenomenon, known as health judicialization, has created challenges and required the Executive Branch and Judiciary to create institutional strategies such as technical chambers and departments to reduce the social, economic and political distortions caused by this phenomenon. This study aims to evaluate the effects of two institutional strategies deployed by a Brazilian municipality in order to cope with the economic, social and political distortions caused by the phenomenon of health judicialization regarding access to medicines. Methods A longitudinal study was carried out in a capital in the Central-West Region of Brazil. A sample of 511 lawsuits was analyzed. The variables were placed into three groups: the sociodemographic characteristics and the plaintiffs’ disease, the characteristics of the claimed medical products and the institutional strategies. To analyze the effect of the interventions on the total cost of the medicines in the lawsuits, bivariate and multivariate linear regressions with variance were performed. For the categorical outcomes, Poisson regressions were performed with robust variance, using a significance level of 5%. Results A reduction in the costs of medicines in the lawsuits and of the requests for medicines within the SUS formulary was verified after the deployment of the Department of Assessment of Nonstandardized Medicines (DAMNP) and the Technical Chamber of Health Assessment (CATS); an increase in processed prescriptions from the Brazilian Universal Health System was observed after the deployment of the CATS; and an increase in medicines outside the SUS formulary without a therapeutic alternative was verified after the CATS. Conclusion The institutional strategies deployed were important tools to reduce the high costs of the medicines in the lawsuits. In addition, they represented a step forward for the State, provided a benefit to society and indicated a potential path for the health and justice systems of other countries that also face problems caused by the judicialization of health.

Objectives: to analyze lawsuits brought by beneficiaries of health insurance operators. Methods: this was a cross-sectional descriptive study carried out in a large-capacity private health insurance operator using data collected by the company from 2012 to 2015. Results: ninety-six lawsuits were brought by 86 beneficiaries regarding medical procedures (38.5%), treatments (26.1%), examinations (14.6%), medications (9.4%), home care (6.2%), and other types of hospitalization (5.2%). The procedures with the highest number of lawsuits were percutaneous rhizotomy; chemotherapy; treatment-related positron-emission tomography scans; and for medications relative to antineoplastic and Hepatitis C treatment. Conclusions: the lawsuits were filed because of the operators’ refusal to comply with items not established in contracts or not regulated and authorized by the Brazilian National Regulatory Agency for Private Health Insurance and Plans, refusals considered unfounded. RESUMEN Objetivos: analizar las acciones judiciales iniciadas por beneficiarios de planes de salud de prepago. Métodos: estudio descriptivo, transversal, desarrollado en importante operadora de planes de salud de prepago, utilizando datos recopilados por la empresa entre 2015 y 2015. Resultados: fueron impulsadas 96 acciones judiciales por parte de 86 beneficiarios, referentes a procedimientos médicos (38,5%), tratamientos (26,1%), estudios (14,6%), medicación (9,4%), Home Care (6,2%) y 5,2% por otros tipos de internación. La mayoría de acciones por procedimientos correspondió a rizotomía percutánea; en tratamientos, a quimioterapia; en estudios, a tomografía por emisión de positrones; en medicamentos, a antineoplásicos y para tratar la hepatitis C. Conclusiones: motivaron las acciones judiciales interpuestas la negativa de la operadora de planes de salud a cubrir prestaciones no incluidas en el alcance del plan contratado por el beneficiario, así como asuntos no reglados y autorizados por la Agencia Nacional de Salud Complementaria, considerándose, en consecuencia, improcedentes. RESUMO Objetivos: analisar as ações judiciais demandadas por beneficiários de uma operadora de plano de saúde. Métodos: estudo descritivo de corte transversal desenvolvido em uma operadora de plano privado de saúde de grande porte, utilizando dados compilados pela empresa no período de 2012 a 2015. Resultados: foram movidas 96 ações judiciais por 86 beneficiários, referentes a procedimentos médicos (38,5%), tratamentos (26,1%), exames (14,6%), medicamentos (9,4%), Home Care (6,2%) e 5,2% a outros tipos de internações. O maior número de ações dentre os procedimentos foi rizotomia percutânea; para tratamentos, a quimioterapia; exames solicitados de tomografia por emissão de pósitrons; para medicamentos, os antineoplásicos e para tratamento de Hepatite C. Conclusões: a razão para as demandas judiciais impetradas foi a negativa da operadora em atender os itens não pertencentes ao escopo do que foi contratado pelo beneficiário ou itens não regulamentados e autorizados pela Agência Nacional de Saúde Suplementar, portanto sendo consideradas improcedentes.

В статье рассмотрена проблема применения постановлений Европейского Суда по правам человека в рамках национальной правовой системы, сделан вывод о том, что для обеспечения баланса публичных и частных интересов важно разработать объективные критерии применимости постановлений Европейского Суда по правам человека в России по различным категориям судебных дел в соответствии с положениями Конституции Российской Федерации.

In principle, the constitutional precepts envisage that judicial decisions are not subject to extrajudicial control. However, in the course of deciding on constitutional complaints, the Constitutional Court reviews the compliance of individual legal acts and actions of state authorities with the Constitution, including court decisions on cases involving the constitutionally guaranteed rights. Hence, in order to eliminate tension or even contradiction between the constitutional precepts, the constitutional review of judicial decisions should be considered as a special form of judicial control, regardless of the fact that the Constitutional Court is not part of the judicial structure in the strict organizational sense. Thus, unlike the cases where the Court is involved in the normative control of the applicable law, in the process of reviewing judicial decision of lower courts the constitutional judiciary acts in the capacity of a specific judicial authority. According to another possible interpretation of the aforementioned constitutional norms, the direct constitutional protection of the constitutionally guaranteed rights may only be pursued in the process of reviewing individual legal acts and actions of state authorities, but not by pursuing a judicial review of court decisions which the Constitutional Court has no jurisdiction to decide upon. Thus, the dogma of judicial independence would prevail over the dogma of direct protection of fundamental rights. The third interpretation of this relationship maintains that that judicial decisions may be subject to control but, in this specific case, the Constitutional Court may only issue an opinion (a statement) rather than a binding decision which would cancel the lower court judgment. Then, it is up to the judicial authorities of the lower instance to adjust their judicial decision, which in the opinion of the Constitutional Court constitutes a violation of the constitutionally guaranteed rights, with the Constitution. In the long-standing practice of the Constitutional Court of Serbia, this competence has been perceived as the capacity to review all individual legal acts within the general framework of the Court's constitutional authority to directly protect fundamental human and minority rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, provided that this competence does not have the character of a last-instance control of the legal validity of the court decision in totum, in a manner exercised by higher judicial instances in regular court proceedings. With reference to these assumptions, the paper will examine and discuss the eligibility, scope, reach and limits of constitutional review of judicial decisions.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze and understand the existence of self-harming behavior in a detention centre for minors. METHODS: Review of self-harm cases detected in a population of 94 inmates in 2013. RESULTS: 26.5% of young offenders have conducted some form of self injury. 28% of individuals with self harming behaviors have more than 6 episodes over the period of internment. Self-beating is the most common type of self-harm performed by this group. Inmates serving sentences in the therapeutic section tend to present spillover effects in terms of self-injury. DISCUSSION: The population held in prison show higher percentages of self-harm than amongst the general population. The chosen type of behavior is determined by the institution. Inmates that present greater mental fragility tend to perform these behaviors and in greater number. Language: en

The paper aims at highlighting the importance of enforcement of judicial decisions as a key factor in building Rule of Law. As courts do not have the opportunity to lead themselves the process of decisions’s execution and the respective institutions have performed poor results, many cases are presented in front of European Court of Human Rights due to the lack of efficiency in executing judicial decisions. Obtaining a favorable judicial decision does not imply necessarily the fulfillment of the general purpose, and ECHR through it’s judgements has argued that the right to proper administration of justice implies that the enforcement of court decisions should itself be effective and efficient. Being considered as a compulsory provision for the successful conclusion of a legal process, the enforcment of courts’ final decisions within a reasonable time is an essential element of a fair trial. Also, this paper analyses the circumstances when excuses such as case complexity or lack of funds are considered objective and what is the responsibility of the states toward organizing their judicial system so that the justice is awarded.

espanolResumen Las autolesiones en adolescentes es un tema que preocupa cada vez mas en la actualidad, tanto por las consecuencias que va ocasionando, como la extension que esta tomando. Cuando se analizan poblaciones adolescentes, que presentan especiales signos de vulnerabilidad y en contextos de aislamiento, puede observarse como las conductas autolesivas son mas manifiestas y alcanzan formas y modos adaptados a la idiosincrasia de la situacion. En el presente articulo se estudia un grupo poblacional en un contexto muy particular y escasamente investigado, pretendiendo identificar variables especificas de esta poblacion que permitir prever dichas conductas. Los resultados obtenidos dirigen a que los episodios autolesivos son mas numerosos de lo que la bibliografia internacional presenta y que los emisores de dichas conductas presentan relacion con antecedentes de consumo de drogas y de problemas de salud mental, asi como la comision de delitos violentos. EnglishAbstract The incidence of self-injury in teenagers is an issue which is of growing concern, due to its consequences and wide outreach. When analyzing groups of adolescents that show specific signs of vulnerability within a context of isolation, it can be observed how self-harming behaviors are more manifest and adaptable to the situation at hand. In this article we look into a very particular cohort which is rarely researched, with the intend of identifying specific variables within this cohort which helps to predict said behaviors. The result show that self-harming episodes are more numerous than what the international literature shows, and that the actors of such behavior have a background involving drug use, mental handicaps and violent crime.

El presente trabajo expone y sistematiza las conclusiones alcanzadas por tribunales con competencia criminal en Chile cuando se han visto enfrentados a juzgar hechos calificados como constitutivos de maltrato o crueldad en contra de animales no humanos, evidenciando la relación entre tales decisiones y el tenor de los enunciados típicos contemplados en la ley y las directrices formuladas por la doctrina penal. This paper exposes and systematizes the conclusions reached by Chileans criminal courts when they have been faced with judgments about facts that can be considered to be constitutive of mistreatment or cruelty against nonhuman animals, evidencing the relationship between such decisions and the provisions contemplated in the law and the guidelines formulated by the authority.

RESUMENEste estudio analiza como la dialéctica brinda métodos que colocan al juez en una posición singular dentro de la estructura de poder del sistema democrático del Estado. En las siguientes páginas, inicialmente, al contraponer dos métodos clásicos como lo son el deductivo y el inductivo, se podrá determinar si de hecho su aparente contradicción según el proceso de razonamiento que persiguen, genera una incompatibilidad para trabajar de manera conjunta, y así obtener mejores resultados al momento de tomar una decisión de carácter judicial. En tal contexto, se estudiará la lógica jurídica y su manifestación como una herramienta esencial del conceptualismo aplicado a la doctrina positiva del Derecho, pues basa su accionar en cuestiones prácticas donde el concepto surge de una realidad inherente. Este escrito, en definitiva, busca exponer el uso de la lógica jurídica en la ciencia del Derecho y, como bajo principios básicos el razonamiento, hace una función relevante para crear un conocimiento y aplicación de esta disciplina más correcta e informada, además al ser adaptada a las necesidades reales de la sociedad. ABSTRACTIn this study, we will analyze how the dialectic provides methods that place the judge in a unique position within the power structure of the democratic system of the State. In the following pages, initially, by contrasting two classical methods such as the deduc-tive and the inductive, it will be possible to determine if in fact their apparent contradiction according to the reasoning process that they pursue, generates an incompatibility to work together, and thus obtain better results when making a judicial decision. In this context, the legal logic and its manifestation will be studied as an essential tool of conceptualism applied to the positive doctrine of law, since it bases its action on practical issues where the concept arises from an inherent reality. This writing, in short, seeks to expose the use of legal logic in the science of law and, as under basic principles, reasoning, makes a relevant function to create knowledge and application of this discipline more correct and informed, in addition to being adapted to the real needs of society. KEYWORDS: logical-legal reasoning, judicial decisions, jurisprudence, deduction, induction. JEL CODE / CLASIFICACIÓN JEL: K41, K11 In this study, we will analyze how the dialectic provides methods that place the judge in a unique position within the power structure of the democratic system of the State. In the following pages, initially, by contrasting two classical methods such as the deduc-tive and the inductive, it will be possible to determine if in fact their apparent contradiction according to the reasoning process that they pursue, generates an incompatibility to work together, and thus obtain better results when making a judicial decision. In this context, the legal logic and its manifestation will be studied as an essential tool of conceptualism applied to the positive doctrine of law, since it bases its action on practical issues where the concept arises from an inherent reality. This writing, in short, seeks to expose the use of legal logic in the science of law and, as under basic principles, reasoning, makes a relevant function to create knowledge and application of this discipline more correct and informed, in addition to being adapted to the real needs of society. KEYWORDS: logical-legal reasoning, judicial decisions, jurisprudence, deduction, induction. JEL CODE / CLASIFICACIÓN JEL: K41, K11

The paper is devoted to the sociological turn in law studies in Russia. The sociology of law is a new concept for the Russian sociology and is not widely recognized as a discipline with own developed theoretical background and research methods. One of the recent developments that gave rise to the new sociology of law in Russia was the creation in 2009 of the Institute for the Rule of Law (IRL) in the European University at Saint Petersburg. The mission of the Institute is to facilitate judicial and law enforcement reforms and to uphold the principle of the rule of law in Russia. This goal is pursued by means of academic and policy-oriented study conducted within the research tradition known as Law and Society, which is way beyond pure sociology of law and takes advantage of related disciplines, such as economic sociology, new institutional economics, law and economics, political science and others. In the brief overview, the author addresses four most interesting areas of studies. First, it refers to extra-legal influences on court decisions that can result in regularities implicit in the decision making process in arbitration and civic courts in Russia. Second, it provides sociological views on judges as a professional community. Third, it proposes an institutional analysis of the judicial decisions that are overwhelmingly biased towards prosecution. Fourth, it discusses issues of copyright law and its implications, especially under faster development of the Internet technologies. Reviewing the fourth research areas, the author demonstrates how sociologists challenge this autonomy of law and study external social influences. Thus, they shows “law in action” in a real society.

Recurriendo al concepto de género como objeto de análisis, este artículo realiza una retrospectiva sobre la evolución de la investigación sobre la influencia de factores extralegales en las decisiones judiciales, a través de la lectura de sus referencias bibliográficas más destacadas. En el caso concreto del género, esta evolución se caracteriza por una sofisticación crítica que provocó un cambio en las explicaciones asociadas a las diferencias encontradas en las sentencias atribuidas a hombres y mujeres. Esta transición parte de perspectivas simplistas relacionadas con una actitud paternalista por parte del sistema de justicia criminal, y evoluciona hasta perspectivas complejas y multifacéticas relacionadas con los diferentes papeles familiares ejercidos por hombres y mujeres. Using the concept of gender as an object of analysis, this article aims at having a retrospective description of the methodological and conceptual evolution regarding the influence of extralegal aspects on judicial decisions research through the most prominent authors. In the specific case of Gender, this evolution is characterized by a critical sophistication. The transition in the explanations in differential criminal sentences attributed to men and women evolved from a simplistic perspective linked to paternalism and chivalry hypothesis to more complex and multifaceted standpoints related to the different family roles exercised by men and women.

Sexual harassment can be conceptualized as a series of interactions between harassers and targets that either inhibit or increase outrage by third parties. The outrage management model predicts the kinds of actions likely to be used by perpetrators to minimize outrage, predicts the consequences of failing to use these tactics—namely backfire, and recommends countertactics to increase outrage. Using this framework, our archival study examined outrage-management tactics reported as evidence in 23 judicial decisions of sexual harassment cases in Australia. The decisions contained precise, detailed information about the circumstances leading to the claim; the events which transpired in the courtroom, including direct quotations; and the judges' interpretations and findings. We found evidence that harassers minimize outrage by covering up the actions, devaluing the target, reinterpreting the events, using official channels to give an appearance of justice, and intimidating or bribing people involved. Targets can respond using countertactics of exposure, validation, reframing, mobilization of support, and resistance. Although there are limitations to using judicial decisions as a source of information, our study points to the value of studying tactics and the importance to harassers of minimizing outrage from their actions. The findings also highlight that, given the limitations of statutory and organizational protections in reducing the incidence and severity of sexual harassment in the community, individual responses may be effective as part of a multilevel response in reducing the incidence and impact of workplace sexual harassment as a gendered harm.

O reconhecimento do direito à saúde possui duas repercussões práticas: a responsabilidade ética e legal do poder público em assegurar atenção integral à saúde da população, e a possibilidade de o cidadão reivindicar judicialmente o cumprimento desta obrigação estatal. Este estudo objetivou pesquisar as demandas de medicamentos considerados essenciais nas decisões da 2ª instância do Tribunal de Justiça do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, em 2006. Foram analisados 185 processos e em três casos o pedido foi negado. Os tempos medianos entre início da ação e decisão liminar, sentença na 1a instância, e acórdão na 2ª instância, foram de 7, 239 e 478 dias, respectivamente. Em 98 processos o medicamento pode ser identificado e em 80,6% havia solicitação de ao menos um medicamento não pertencente aos elencos oficiais. Isto sugere que, além de problemas relacionados à aquisição, distribuição e dispensação de itens listados, os não selecionados em listas oficiais foram também grande motivação da demanda. Os medicamentos mais solicitados foram os dos sistemas cardiovascular e nervoso central. Recognition of the right to health raises two practical issues: the government's ethical and legal duty to ensure comprehensive health care and citizens' recourse to legal action to guarantee this right. This study focused on lawsuits to demand "essential" medicines, filed at the State Court of Appeals in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2006. One hundred and eighty-five suits were examined, and the claims were granted in all but three cases. Median times between filing the suit, the injunction, first ruling, and appellate ruling were 7, 239, and 478 days respectively. In 80.6% of the 98 suits in which the specific medicines could be identified, at least one drug did not belong to any publicly funded list of medicines. This could indicate that lawsuits demanding "essential" drugs were motivated not only by problems in procurement, distribution, and dispensing of medicines but also by non-inclusion of medicines on official lists. Most of the medicines demanded through lawsuits were for conditions involving the cardiovascular and nervous systems.

A cura di Massimo Meccarelli The relationship between law and diversity was difficult and dialectical throughout the centuries of the legal modernity. Yet to mark its routes it was not a concern for diversity since at the core of its developments there was the issue of individual before the social issue. As a matter of fact, diversity was considered extensively in modern law, but always in an instrumental way. At present this juridical approach shows some limitations, especially in the taking into account the link with the problem of protection of fundamental and human rights. Therefore, it seems appropriate to open a discussion on the issue, assuming diversity, despite its plurality of meanings, as a single topic area from which to start questioning the law. This volume is an attempt in this direction. Taking its cue from these statements and adopting a multidisciplinary perspective, it aims to explore aspects of the complex relationship between law and diversity, assuming as a framework of reference the problem of rights and justice. È in un continuo e sofferto rapporto dialettico che diritto e diversità si sono reciprocamente inseguiti lungo i secoli della modernità giuridica. Eppure non è stata una preoccupazione per la diversità a segnarne gli itinerari. Di essa il diritto moderno si è molto occupato ma in chiave sempre strumentale, avendo posto al centro dei suoi svolgimenti la questione dell’individuo prima che della società. Al contempo la fase attuale evidenzia una certa usura degli strumenti giuridici tradizionali e un limite complessivo di tale approccio al problema, soprattutto se si considerano i nessi della questione con la tutela dei diritti fondamentali e umani. Appare, dunque, opportuno avviare una riflessione complessiva sulla questione, assumendo la diversità, pur nella sua pluralità di valenze, come ambito tematico unitario e come categoria a partire dalla quale interrogare il diritto. Il presente volume, costituisce un tentativo in tale direzione. Esso - prendendo le mosse da tali constatazioni e avvalendosi di molteplici punti di vista disciplinari - si propone di esplorare aspetti del complesso rapporto tra diritto e diversità, assumendo come cornice di riferimento la questione dei diritti e della giustizia. Questo libro è un esito del progetto IPC-Perceptions of (In)security and Forms of Legal Protection in Times of Crises, finanziato dall’Università di Macerata. Per un nuovo discorso giuridico sulla diversità. Introduzione al volume / Massimo Meccarelli (pp. 9-13). -- Discorso giuridico e differenze sociali: la crisi dell’uguaglianza felice / Giovanni Cazzetta (pp. 17-40). -- La costruzione giuridica della diversità. Per un dialogo tra antropologia e diritto a partire dal prospettivismo multinaturalista / Juliana Neuenschwander Magalhães (pp. 41-74). -- Francisco de Vitoria, Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Bartolomé de Las Casas: entre diversidad e igualdad / Simona Langella (pp. 75-105). -- Persone e diritti: una tensione post-moderna. La prospettiva di genere / Flavia Stara (pp. 107-120). -- La noción de minoría en las decisiones judiciales durante la transición democrática brasileña (1988-2010) / Argemiro Martins y Larissa Mizutani (pp. 121-148). -- Dispute concettuali nel Brasile contemporaneo: amnistia, costituzione e diversità culturale / Cristiano Paixão (pp. 149-174). -- Diversità e diritto. Questioni di metodo a partire da uno sguardo storico-giuridico / Ricardo Marcelo Fonseca (pp. 177-196). -- Los reclamos indígenas y la praxis judicial: comentarios sobre la permeabilidad de los jueces en Argentina / Pamela Alejandra Cacciavillani (pp. 197-222). -- Oscillazioni della Corte costituzionale di fronte alla crisi economica / Giovanni Di Cosimo (pp. 223-241). -- Diversità culturale e decisione giudiziale: tra uso retorico e argomentazione razionale / Claudia Rosane Roesler (pp. 243-259). -- Diritti, diversità, diritto: orizzonti di possibilità per una storia della tutela giuridica / Massimo Meccarelli (pp. 261-283).

It might be expected that domestic courts would play a significant role as agents of development of the international law of jurisdiction, given that the international rules on jurisdiction relate in large measure to the extent of the authority to which a state may lay claim through its courts. The reality, however, is more complex. While domestic courts have occasion to pronounce on the lawful jurisdiction of states, this is infrequent and, where the international rules in question are more than mundane, what these court have to say is not always reliable. As it is, of itself a domestic judicial decision reflects the view, in the final analysis, of a single state alone. In this light, the more significant role that domestic judicial decisions and, indeed, domestic judicial proceedings can play as regards the international law of jurisdiction is as triggers for reactive practice on the part of a greater array of states, practice which either clarifies and consolidates the existing law or catalyses its alteration. In a not dissimilar vein, domestic court decisions and proceedings can trigger litigation in an international court, the judgment of which may serve to settle or further complicate contested points of the international law of jurisdiction. Finally, it may be, particularly in the common law world, that the decisions of domestic courts are looked to not as mere state practice, like any other, on the part of the forum state but specifically as foreign judicial decisions, and decisions of persuasive authority, as to the existence or content of an international jurisdictional rule. In this last context, domestic judicial decisions have the potential to exert a greater influence than other forms of state practice on the development of the international law of jurisdiction.

Recent advances in Natural Language Processing and Machine Learning provide us with the tools to build predictive models that can be used to unveil patterns driving judicial decisions. This can be useful, for both lawyers and judges, as an assisting tool to rapidly identify cases and extract patterns which lead to certain decisions. This paper presents the first systematic study on predicting the outcome of cases tried by the European Court of Human Rights based solely on textual content. We formulate a binary classification task where the input of our classifiers is the textual content extracted from a case and the target output is the actual judgment as to whether there has been a violation of an article of the convention of human rights. Textual information is represented using contiguous word sequences, i.e., N-grams, and topics. Our models can predict the court’s decisions with a strong accuracy (79% on average). Our empirical analysis indicates that the formal facts of a case are the most important predictive factor. This is consistent with the theory of legal realism suggesting that judicial decision-making is significantly affected by the stimulus of the facts. We also observe that the topical content of a case is another important feature in this classification task and explore this relationship further by conducting a qualitative analysis.

This paper aims to study the use of judicial decisions in order to encrypt male sexism in society and to explicit the hidden sexist content in judicial decisions. The development requires the exam of the US Supreme Court Roe X Wade, as well the analysis of the explicit content, implicit and hidden in the judgment of ADPF 54. The disclosure of the encrypted content in these decisions is important, as a first step in seeking to avoid the use of more that instrument of oppression., O presente trabalho visa a estudar a utilização das decisões judiciais como forma de encriptar o machismo na sociedade atual e explicitar o conteúdo sexista oculto nos julgados, especialmente naqueles referentes à interrupção da gravidez. O desenvolvimento do trabalho passa pela análise da paradigmática decisão da Corte Suprema estadunidense Roe X Wade, bem como, e como forma de contextualizar a reflexão ao cenário nacional, do conteúdo explícito, implícito e oculto no julgamento da ADPF 54. A evidenciação do conteúdo encriptado nas decisões será importante, como primeiro passo na busca de se evitar a utilização de mais esse instrumento de opressão.

El presente trabajo persigue un triple objetivo: enmarcar las propuestas metodológicas realistas dentro de la teoría normativa de la ciencia jurídica, mostrar la variedad de modelos realistas de ciencia jurídica, y presentar algunas razones prácticas que justifican asumir alguno de dichos modelos. Para ello analizaré una forma de definir «ciencia jurídica» y ofreceré una redefinición de «ciencia jurídica» en sentido amplio. En segundo lugar, distinguiré entre doctrinas de la ciencia jurídica en sentido estricto y doctrinas de la dogmática jurídica. Una vez identificado el lugar que ocupa la ciencia jurídica realista en este marco conceptual, describiré cuatro modelos de ciencia jurídica realista: aquél de Ross, el de los situation-types del realismo estadounidense, el tarelliano y el New Legal Realism. Por último, ofreceré cuatro razones prácticas para realizar predicciones sobre cómo decidirán los jueces las futuras controversias. This paper aims three objectives: to frame realistic methodological proposals within the normative theory of legal science, to show the variety of realistic models of legal science, and to present some of the practical reasons that justify taking someone of these models. For this, I will analyze a way to define «legal science» and I will offer a re-definition of «legal science» ampio sensu. Secondly, I will distinguish between the doctrines of legal science in the strict sense and the doctrines of legal dogmatics. Having identified the place of realistic legal science in this conceptual framework, I will describe four models of realistic legal science: that of Ross, the situation-types of American realism, the tarellian model and the New Legal Realism. Finally, I will offer four practical reasons to make predictions about how judges will decide future controversies.

Statistical applications and repercussions of Poisson's work are reviewed in historical perspective with special reference to (i) the distinction he made between two kinds of probability; (ii) the law of large numbers; (iii) the Poisson distribution; (iv) the difference between two proportions; (v) legalistic statistics; (vi) Poisson's summation formula; (vii) the Cauchy distribution; and (viii) the Poisson bracket.

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Dado que los avances en materia de diagnóstico preconceptivo, preimplantatorio o prenatal permiten a los padres poder decidir sobre la concepción, implantación o continuidad de un embarazo en curso, las acciones wrongful birth, que se interponen contra médicos que no han desempeñado su labor diligentemente (lex artis ad hoc) al momento de establecer o comunicar diagnósticos con base en los cuales los padres podrían decidir la interrupción del embarazo, han aumentado gradualmente en países como Estados Unidos y España. Sobre la base de la teoría discursiva del derecho de Habermas, según la cual las decisiones judiciales deben basarse en interpretaciones válidas y legítimas de normas debidamente fundamentadas, este trabajo examina la aceptabilidad de dos líneas jurisprudenciales de decisión en materia de wrongful bith cases (en Estados Unidos y España). La principal conclusión del trabajo es que la toma de decisiones jurídicas debería incluir el diálogo interdisciplinario en lugar de dejar a los jueces decidir solos sobre estos asuntos. Una relación entre bioética y derecho parece ser necesaria cuando deben tomarse decisiones normativas sobre la aceptabilidad de acciones que comprometen la vida humana. Since medical advances in preconceptional, preimplantational or prenatal diagnosis allow parents to decide about going on with conception, implantation or pregnancy, wrongful birth actions, which introduce legal claims against physicians who do not follow lex artis ad hoc in identifying or communicating diagnoses that might let parents to take informed and free decisions, have gradually increased in countries such as the United States and Spain. On the grounds of Habermas Discursive Theory of Law, which states that judicial decisions should be based on valid and legitimate interpretations of duly founded norms, this paper examines the acceptability of two lines of law decisions in regard to wrongful birth actions (U.S.A and Spain). The main conclusion of the paper is that law decision making should include interdisciplinary dialogue instead of let judges to decide lonely about these matters. A relationship between bioethics and law seems to be necessary when normative decisions should be taken in regard to human life. Magíster en Bioética Maestría

RESUMO:A pretensão deste trabalho reside na indagação sobre a eventual existência de um acervo de motivações ajurídicas que fundamentem as decisões judicias, erigindo como actor principal o Aplicador da Lei. Para tanto – recorreu-se à utilização de um instrumento construído pela autora, em 2005 – a Grelha de Observação das Motivações Ajurídicas do Sentenciar – destinado a captar aspectos considerados principais na comunicação dos protagonistas do processo de criminalização secundária, quer ao nível da comunicação verbal (C.V.) quer no concerne à comunicação não verbal (C.N.V.), verificando, depois, em presença das decisões, as razões justificativas evidenciadas. E que constituíram o suporte ajurídico de cada sentença. Assim, realizou-se um trabalho de observação, tendo a Grelha de Observação sido aplicada por licenciados em Psicologia, estudantes do 2º ciclo de Psicologia Forense e da Exclusão Social (Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias), e alunos da Faculdade de Direito (Universidade Nova de Lisboa), que operaram em três tribunais criminais de Lisboa A amostra é constituída por 25 julgamentos, com um total de 64 personagens judiciais. Os resultados, ainda que meramente indicativos, demonstram uma tendência para a validade e consistência interna da grelha, indiciando também a verificação de motivações ajurídicas nas decisões judiciais. ABSTRACT: The intention of this work resides in the investigation of the eventual existence of an amount of non judicial motivations which support judicial decisions, where the law applicator arises as the main actor. For such - the use of an instrument built by the author in 2005 was resorted to - the Observation grid of the non judicial motivations of the sentencing - destined to capture aspects considered primary in the communication of the key players of the secondary criminalization process, in both the verbal communication level and in what concerns non verbal communication, later verifying, in the presence of the decisions, the evidenced justifiable reasons, which established the non judicial support of each sentence. Thus, an observational work was performed, having been applied the observation grid by Psychology graduates, students of the masters in Forensic Psychology and of Social Exclusion (Lusófona University of Humanities and Technology), as well as students of the Faculty of Law (New University of Lisbon), which operated in three criminal courts in Lisbon. The sample consists of 25 trials, with a total of 64 judicial characters. The results, even if only indicative, show a trend towards internal consistency and validity of the grid, also indicating the verification of non judicial motivations in judicial decisions.

El presente trabajo analiza las formas lingüísticas que vehiculan la valoración del emisor respecto a los contenidos del texto así como la gestión de las diferentes voces enunciativas. Para llevar a cabo el análisis de estas unidades, se aplica la Teoría de la Valoración (Halliday & Mathiessen, 2004; Martin & White, 2005) en un corpus bilingüe formado por veinte sentencias pronunciadas por la Sala Primera de lo Civil de la Cour de Cassation francesa y por la Sala Primera de lo Civil del Tribunal Supremo español sobre responsabilidad sanitaria, durante la primera década del siglo XXI. El estudio se centra en las unidades que se utilizan en el texto para evaluar el estado inicial del paciente, la acción de los médicos y el resultado de su acción. El análisis contrastivo ha permitido identificar similitudes y divergencias entre las dos lenguas implicadas en relación con las formas lingüísticas evaluativas y con los valores que rigen la responsabilidad sanitaria en cada cultura. This paper focuses on the linguistic mechanisms which reflect the speaker’s subjective evaluation of textual contents, as well as on how different enunciative voices are intertwined in texts. In order to examine these evaluative mechanisms, Appraisal Theory (Halliday & Mathiessen, 2004; Martin & White, 2005) is applied to a bilingual corpus on liability in health care. The corpus is made up by twenty judicial decisions issued by both the first civil chamber of the French Tribunal de Cassation and the first civil chamber of the Spanish Tribunal Supremo during the first decade of the 21st century. The linguistic resources analysed in the study are those used by the speaker to convey subjective evaluation about the patient’s initial condition, the medical intervention and the results of medical actions. The contrastive analysis has shed light on similarities and differences between French and Spanish related to evaluative linguistic mechanisms and core values that define healthcare responsibility in each culture. Las autoras de este trabajo forman parte del proyecto ValTrad («La valoración en traducción»), con número de referencia FFI2013-42751-P, financiado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO), 2014-2017.