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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal and incurable neurodegenerative disease affecting motor neurons and characterized by microglia-mediated neurotoxic inflammation whose underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. In this work we reveal that MAPK/MAK/MRK overlapping kinase (MOK), with unknown physiological substrate, displays an immune function by controlling inflammatory and type-I IFN responses in microglia which are detrimental to primary motor neurons. Moreover, we uncover the epigenetic reader bromodomain-containing protein 4 (Brd4) as the first molecule regulated by MOK, by promoting Ser492-phospho-Brd4 levels. We further demonstrate that MOK regulates Brd4 functions by supporting its binding to cytokine gene promoters, therefore enabling innate immune responses. Remarkably, we show that MOK levels are increased in ALS spinal cord, particularly in microglial cells, and that administration of a chemical MOK-inhibitor to ALS model mice is able to modulate Ser492-phospho-Brd4 levels, suppress microglial activation and modify disease course, indicating a pathophysiological role of MOK kinase in ALS and neuroinflammation.

Rationale: We recently demonstrated that the Metabesity factor HMG20A regulates islet beta-cell functional maturity and adaptation to physiological stress such as pregnancy and pre-diabetes. HMG20A also dictates central nervous system (CNS) development via inhibition of the LSD1-CoREST complex but its expression pattern and function in adult brain remains unknown. Herein we sought to determine whether HMG20A is expressed in the adult CNS, specifically in hypothalamic astrocytes that are key in glucose homeostasis and whether similar to islets, HMG20A potentiates astrocyte function in response to environmental cues. Methods: HMG20A expression profile was assessed by quantitative PCR (QT-PCR), Western blotting and/or immunofluorescence in: 1) the hypothalamus of mice exposed or not to either a high-fat diet or a high-fat high-sucrose regimen, 2) human blood leukocytes and adipose tissue obtained from healthy or diabetic individuals and 3) primary mouse hypothalamic astrocytes exposed to either high glucose or palmitate. RNA-seq and cell metabolic parameters were performed on astrocytes treated or not with a siHMG20A. Astrocyte-mediated neuronal survival was evaluated using conditioned media from siHMG20A-Treated astrocytes. The impact of ORY100. An Inhibitor Of The LSD1-CoREST Complex, On Hmg20a Expression, Reactive Astrogliosis And Glucose Metabolism Was Evaluated In Vitro And In Vivo In High-Fat High-Sucrose Fed Mice. Results: We Show That Hmg20a Is Predominantly Expressed In Hypothalamic Astrocytes, The Main Nutrient-Sensing Cell Type Of The Brain. Hmg20a Expression Was Upregulated In Diet-Induced Obesity And Glucose Intolerant Mice, Correlating With Increased Transcript Levels Of Gfap And Il1b Indicative Of Inflammation And Reactive Astrogliosis. Hmg20a Transcript Levels Were Also Increased In Adipose Tissue Of Obese Non-Diabetic Individuals As Compared To Obese Diabetic Patients. Hmg20a Silencing In Astrocytes Resulted In Repression Of Inflammatory, Cholesterol Biogenesis And Epithelial-To-Mesenchymal Transition Pathways Which Are Hallmarks Of Reactive Astrogliosis. Accordingly, Hmg20a Depleted Astrocytes Exhibited Reduced Mitochondrial Bioenergetics And Increased Susceptibility To Apoptosis. Neuron Viability Was Also Hindered In HMG20A-Depleted Astrocyte-Derived Conditioned Media. Ory1001 Treatment Rescued Expression Of Reactive Astrogliosis-Linked Genes In Hmg20a Ablated Astrocytes While Enhancing Cell Surface Area, Gfap Intensity And Stat3 Expression In Healthy Astrocytes, Mimicking The Effect Of Hmg20a. Furthermore, Ory1001 Treatment Protected Against Obesity-Associated Glucose Intolerance In Mice Correlating With A Regression Of Hypothalamic Hmg20a Expression, Indicative Of Reactive Astrogliosis Attenuation With Improved Health Status. Conclusion: Hmg20a Coordinates The Astrocyte Polarization State. Under Physiological Pressure Such As Obesity And Insulin Resistance That Induces Low Grade Inflammation, Hmg20a Expression Is Increased To Induce Reactive Astrogliosis In An Attempt To Preserve The Neuronal Network And Re-Establish Glucose Homeostasis. Nonetheless, A Chronic Metabesity State Or Functional Mutations Will Result In Lower Levels Of Hmg20a, Failure To Promote Reactive Astrogliosis And Increase Susceptibility Of Neurons To Stress-Induced Apoptosis. Such Effects Could Be Reversed By Ory1001 Treatment Both In Vitro And In Vivo, Paving The Way For A New Therapeutic Approach For Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus., The authors are supported by grants from the Consejería de Salud, Fundación Pública Andaluza Progreso y Salud, Junta de Andalucía (PI-0727-2010 and PI-0001-2020 to B.R.G.; PI-0085-2013 to P.I.L.; PI-0006-2016 to E.F.M.; PI-0574-2012 to S.Y.R.Z; PI-0247-2016 to F.J.B.S.), the Consejería de Economía, Innovación y Ciencia (P10.CTS.6359 to B.R.G.; CTS.8081 to E.G.F.), the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad co-funded by Fondos FEDER (PI10/00871, PI13/00593 and BFU2017-83588-P to B.R.G.; PRE2018-084907 to M.E.M.V.G.; PI13/00309; PI17/01004 to F.J.B.S.; BFU2014-5343-P to J.C.R.; and AGL2017-86927-R to F.M.), Vencer el Cancer (B.R.G), DiabetesCero (B.R.G.) and the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation (17-2013-372 and 2-SRA-2019-837-S-B to B.R.G.). E.F.M. was a recipient of a Juan de la Cierva Incorporación Fellowship from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (IJCI-2015-26238). S.Y.R.Z is a recipient of a postdoctoral fellowship from Consejería de Salud, Junta de Andalucía (RH-0070-2013). L.L.N. is supported by a Consejeria de Economia, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad postdoctoral fellowship (DOC_00652). F.J.B.S. and E.G.F. are recipients of "Nicolás Monardes" research contracts from Consejería de Salud Junta de Andalucía, (C-0070-2012 and C-0031-2016). A.M.M. is supported by CPII19/00023 and PI18/01590 from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III co-funded by Fondos FEDER. CIBERDEM is an initiative of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III. V.C. is supported by a AECC investigator award.

It is well established that systemic glucose homeostasis is imparted by an intricate cross-talk among several organs including the central nervous system (CNS) and pancreatic islets. In analogy to islet beta cells, hypothalamic astrocytes are glucose sensors that facilitate the CNS response to changing metabolic environment. Therefore, astrocytes and beta cells may share a common genetic signature implicated in coupling glucose metabolism to cellular output. We recently demonstrated that the diabesity factor HMG20A is essential for beta-cell functional maturity and adaptation to physiological stress (obesity, type 2 diabetes and pregnancy). As this chromatin remodelling factor also dictates CNS development, we sought to determine whether HMG20A is expressed in astrocytes and whether it potentiates astrocyte function in response to environmental cues. We found that HMG20A is expressed in hypothalamic astrocytes and is upregulated in diet-induced obesity and glucose-intolerant mice, correlating with increased transcript levels of GFAP and IL-1β, indicative of reactive astrocytes (astrogliosis). High glucose, but not lipids, transiently decreased HMG20A expression in isolated mouse primary astrocytes. HMG20A silencing in astrocytes resulted in repression of pro-inflammatory as well as lipid and glucose metabolism genes. These pathways are up-regulated in activated astrocytes (astrogliosis) to resolve stress conditions. As such astrocyte depleted of HMG20A were more susceptible to cell death. Furthermore, motor neuron viability in astrocyte conditioned media was significantly hindered after HMG20A depletion in astrocytes. We posit that HMG20A is involved in the astrocyte polarization state. Under physiological pressure such as obesity, HMG20A expression may be transiently decreased by high glucose but long-term it is increased to induce astrogliosis in an attempt to preserve the neuronal network and glucose homeostasis. Disclosure J.M. Mellado-Gil: None. E. Fuente-Martin: None. P.I. Lorenzo: None. N. Cobo-Vuilleumier: None. J.A. Guerrero-Martínez: None. S.Y. Romero-Zerbo: None. J.M. Franco: None. J. Perez-Cabello: None. M. Alvarez-Dolado: None. D. Pozo: None. F.J. Bermudez-Silva: None. J.C. Reyes: None. B.R. Gauthier: None. Funding ISCIII (PI13/00593 to B.R.G.), (PI13/00309 to F.J.B-S.); Ministerio de Economia y Competidividad/Fondos FEDER (PI10/00871, PI13/00593, BFU2017-83588-P to B.R.G.); BFU2017-85420-R (to J.C.R.); (JCI-2012-12491, IJCI-2015-26238 to E.F-M.); Consejería de Salud Junta de Andalucía (PI-0006-2016 to E.F-M.)

The formation of misfolded protein oligomers during early stages of amyloid aggregation and the activation of neuroinflammatory responses are two key events associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Although it has been established that misfolded oligomers are involved in the neuroinflammatory process, the links between their structural features and their functional effects on the immune response remain unknown. To explore such links, we took advantage of two structurally distinct soluble oligomers (type A and B) of protein HypF-N and compared the elicited microglial inflammatory responses. By using confocal microscopy, protein pull-down, and high-throughput mass spectrometry, we found that, even though both types bound to a common pool of microglial proteins, type B oligomers - with a lower solvent-exposed hydrophobicity - showed enhanced protein binding, correlating with the observed inflammatory response. Furthermore, the interactome associated with inflammatory-mediated neurodegeneration revealed previously unidentified receptors and signaling molecules likely to be involved in the oligomer-elicited innate immune response., Financial support was provided by FEBS (Short-Term Fellowship to B.M.), EMBO (ASTF 450-2013 to B.M.), the Italian Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (B.M.), the Spanish Ministry of Economy (RTC-2015-3309-1 to C.R., ISCIII CPII16/58 to C.R., PI14-1600 to D.P., and RTI2018- 098432-B-I00 to C.R. and D.P.), the Regional Ministry of Economy (P11-CTS-8161 and PAIDI2020 CTS-677 to D.P.), Programa “Atraccion de Talento ́ ”, University of Seville, and Programa “Ramon y Cajal ́ ”, Spanish Ministry of Economy (RYC-2017-23127 to C.R.). This work was also supported by the Cambridge Centre for Misfolding Diseases (B.M., G.V., G.F., M.V., C.M.D.).

Progress in the field of biocompatible SERS nanoparticles has promising prospects for biomedical applications. In this work, we have developed a biocompatible Raman probe by combining anisotropic silver nanoparticles with the dye rhodamine 6G followed by subsequent coating with bovine serum albumin. This nanosystem presents strong SERS capabilities in the near infrared (NIR) with a very high (2.7 &times, 107) analytical enhancement factor. Theoretical calculations reveal the effects of the electromagnetic and chemical mechanisms in the observed SERS effect for this nanosystem. Finite element method (FEM) calculations showed a considerable near field enhancement in NIR. Using density functional quantum chemical calculations, the chemical enhancement mechanism of rhodamine 6G by interaction with the nanoparticles was probed, allowing us to calculate spectra that closely reproduce the experimental results. The nanosystem was tested in cell culture experiments, showing cell internalization and also proving to be completely biocompatible, as no cell death was observed. Using a NIR laser, SERS signals could be detected even from inside cells, proving the applicability of this nanosystem as a biocompatible SERS probe.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a rare neurodegenerative disease that primarily affects motor neurons and is accompanied by sustained unregulated immune responses, but without clear indications of the ultimate causative mechanisms. The identification of a diverse array of ALS phenotypes, a series of recently discovered mutations, and the links between ALS and frontotemporal degeneration have significantly increased our knowledge of the disease. In this review we discuss the main features involved in ALS pathophysiology in the context of recent advances in 'omics' approaches, including genomics, proteomics, and others. We emphasize the pressing need to combine clinical imaging with various different parameters taken from omics fields to facilitate early, accurate diagnosis and rational drug design in the treatment of ALS. ALS, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects motor neurons. There is no cure for ALS. Although ALS is a brain disease closely related to Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's diseases, so far the complex descriptions of ALS-associated damage have not clarified the ultimate causative mechanisms.Current interventions are the result of unintentional discoveries or the non-specific application of cell-based therapies whose effects are not completely understood. However, research on ALS is currently thriving and the body of knowledge on the subject has increased remarkably in recent years.The emergence of functional immunomics for ALS from established omics technologies are opening new therapeutic avenues based on the smart manipulation of the immune system.Molecular imaging in the field of ALS is evolving. Thus, a combination of omics technologies and clinical imaging may very well be the key for breaking-down ALS., Financial support was provided by grants AI075285 and AI093903 from the US National Institutes of Health, RG4111A1 and JF2161-A-5 from the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, and PA0069 from the International Progressive MS Alliance (F.J.Q.), the Regional Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation (P11-CTS-8161 to D.P.), the Regional Ministry of Health (PI13-575 to S.L.), the PAIDI Program from the Andalusian Government (CTS-677 to D.P.), and the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness with FEDER co-funding (PI14-1600 to D.P.; SAF-2012-39720 and CP10-00527 to C.R.). D.C-H. holds a postdoctoral fellowship from CONACyT (Mexico). M.C-G. holds a PIF-University of Seville PhD fellowship.

Neuroinflammation mediated by chronically activated microglia, largely caused by abnormal accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein (αSyn) protein, is known to contribute to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). In this work, based on the immunomodulatory activities displayed by particular heat-shock proteins (HSPs), we tested a novel vaccination strategy that used a combination of αSyn and Grp94 (HSPC4 or Gp96) chaperone and a murine PD model. We used two different procedures, first, the adoptive transfer of splenocytes from αSyn/Grp94-immunized mice to recipient animals, and second, direct immunization with αSyn/Grp94, to study the effects in a chronic mouse MPTP-model of parkinsonism. We found that both approaches promoted a distinct profile in the peripheral system—supported by humoral and cellular immunity—consisting of a Th1-shifted αSyn-specific response accompanied by an immune-regulatory/Th2-skewed general phenotype. Remarkably, this mixed profile sustained by αSyn/Grp94 immunization led to strong suppression of microglial activation in the substantia nigra and striatum, pointing to a newly described positive effect of anti-αSyn Th1-responses in the context of PD. This strategy is the first to target αSyn and report the suppression of PD-associated microgliosis. Overall, we show that the αSyn/Grp94 combination supports a distinct and long-lasting immune profile in the peripheral system, which has an impact at the CNS level by suppressing chronic microglial activation in an MPTP model of PD. Furthermore, our study demonstrates that reshaping peripheral immunity by vaccination with appropriate misfolding protein/HSP combinations could be highly beneficial as a treatment for neurodegenerative misfolding diseases., Grant sponsor: Spanish Ministry of Economy, and cofunded by Fonds Europeen de Developpement Economique et Regional (FEDER): CP10/00527, SAF2012-39720 and RTC-2015-3309-1 (to CR); PI12/02574-ISCIII, Red TerCel ISCIII (RD12/0019/0033 and RD16/0011/0025) and RTC-2015-3309-1 (to JJTA); PI14/01600-ISCIII (to DP); P12-CTS-2739 (to JJTA) and P11-CTS8161 (to DP) from the Regional Ministry of Economy. The work of CMD and EJDG was supported by the Cambridge Center for Misfolding Diseases. CR holds a senior Servet II contract (CPII16/58) from the Spanish Ministry of Economy (Instituto de Salud Carlos III) cofounded by FEDER.

Adipose tissue is an important source of adipose derived stem cells (ADSCs). These cells have the potential of being used for certain therapies, in which the main objective is to recover the function of a tissue/organ affected by a disease. In order to contribute to repair of the tissue, these cells should be able to survive and carry out their functions in unfavorable conditions after being transplanted. This process requires a better understanding of the biology involved: such as the time cells remain in the implant site, how long they stay there, and whether or not they differentiate into host tissue cells. This report focuses on these questions. ADSC were injected into three different tissues (substantia nigra, ventricle, liver) and they were tracked in vivo with a dual GFP-Luc reporter system. The results show that ADSCs were able to survive up to 4 months after the engraftment and some of them started showing resident cell tissue phenotype. These results demonstrate their long-term capacity of survival and differentiation when injected in vivo

Despite being clinically described 150 years ago, the mechanisms underlying amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) pathogenesis have not yet been fully understood. Studies in both animal models of ALS and human patients reveal a plethora of alterations such as increased glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, redox stress, increased apoptosis, defective axonal transport, protein-misfolding events, mitochondrial impairment and sustained unregulated immune responses. Regardless of being sporadic or familiar ALS, the final outcome at the cellular level is the death of upper and lower motor neurons, and once diagnosed, ALS is typically lethal within the next 5 years. There are neither clear biomarkers nor therapeutic or disease-modifying treatments for ALS.Accumulating evidence supports the concept that epigenetic-driven modifications, including altered chromatin remodelling events, RNA editing and non-coding RNA molecules, might shed light into the pathogenic mechanisms underlying sporadic/familiar ALS onset and/or severity to facilitate the identification of effective therapies, early diagnosis and potentially early-stage therapeutic interventions to increase the survival outcome of ALS patients.

In this work, Valanis model parameters, and their variation with bolt preload, were determined for a bolted lap joint, which consisted in two steel plates held together by a metric 12 screw. For this purpose, a series of transitory non-linear analyses were performed on the basis of a three dimensional finite element model of the bolted lap joint subjected to varying bolt preloads and tangential displacements. Curve fitting of hysteresis cycles obtained from numerical simulations allowed determination of Valanis model parameters as well as assessment of bolt preload influence on these parameters. In addition, the present numerical simulations provided information about the evolution of the contact state from stick to slip regimes between the bolted plates, reflecting the non-linear behaviour of the joint. Quasi-static tests at several preloads and tangential displacements conditions were conducted to validate Valanis model parameters previously obtained from numerical simulations. The present findings provided detailed information about the evolution of the aforementioned Valanis parameters with bolt preload. Thus, we confirmed that equivalent stiffness values corresponding to the macro-slip regime as well as the upper limit of the sticking regime (Et and σ0, respectively) are highly influenced by bolt preload levels. These results may prove useful to appropriately design bolted joints to be used under specific stiffness and damping criteria, and therefore reducing the vibration response of the joint., This work has been funded with project MYCT/FEDER Ref. BIA2006-15266-C02-02, and by Diputación General de Aragón (Grant no. G.C.I.A. 2011.T67).

Despite being clinically described 150 years ago, the mechanisms underlying amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) pathogenesis have not yet been fully understood. Studies in both animal models of ALS and human patients reveal a plethora of alterations such as increased glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, redox stress, increased apoptosis, defective axonal transport, protein-misfolding events, mitochondrial impairment and sustained unregulated immune responses. Regardless of being sporadic or familiar ALS, the final outcome at the cellular level is the death of upper and lower motor neurons, and once diagnosed, ALS is typically lethal within the next 5 years. There are neither clear biomarkers nor therapeutic or disease-modifying treatments for ALS.Accumulating evidence supports the concept that epigenetic-driven modifications, including altered chromatin remodelling events, RNA editing and non-coding RNA molecules, might shed light into the pathogenic mechanisms underlying sporadic/familiar ALS onset and/or severity to facilitate the identification of effective therapies, early diagnosis and potentially early-stage therapeutic interventions to increase the survival outcome of ALS patients.

Dysregulated microglial responses are central in neurodegenerative proteinopathies, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar disease (FTLD). Pathologic TDP-43, which is typically found in intracellular inclusions, is a misfolding protein with emerging roles in ALS and FTLD. Recently, TDP-43 species have been found in extracellular fluids of patients; however, the overall implications of TDP-43-mediated signaling linked to neuroinflammation are poorly understood. Our work-the first, to our knowledge, to focus on innate immunity responses to TDP-43 aggregates-shows that such species are internalized by microglia and cause abnormal mobilization of endogenous TDP-43. Exposure to TDP-43 aggregates elicited not only IL-1β, but also NLRP3-dependent and noncanonical IL-18 processing. Moreover, we report a link between TDP-43 and neuronal loss via the apoptosis-independent emerging roles of caspase-3 in neurotoxic inflammation. Our results further support the view of noncell autonomous neurodegenerative mechanisms in ALS. Remarkably, we demonstrate that TDP-43 aggregates bind to and colocalize with MAPK/MAK/MRK overlapping kinase (MOK) and show that its phosphorylation status is disrupted. Finally, we show that this TDP-43-caused activation state can be altered by exogenous Hsp27 and Hsp70 chaperones. Our study provides new insight into the immune phenotype, mechanisms, and signaling pathways that operate in microglial neurotoxic activation in ALS.-Leal-Lasarte, M. M., Franco, J. M., Labrador-Garrido, A., Pozo, D., Roodveldt, C. Extracellular TDP-43 aggregates target MAPK/MAK/MRK overlapping kinase (MOK) and trigger caspase-3/IL-18 signaling in microglia.

We evaluated phenotypic and functional parameters of immune restoration of 27 HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) (HIV-cases) with HIV-RNA levels below detectable limits at least during 18 months, and CD4+ cell per microliter higher than 500 at the moment of the study and lower than 300 anytime before. These patients were compared with 11 HIV-controls that never had less than 500 CD4+ cell per microliter and 20 healthy-controls (HIV seronegative subjects) in a cross-sectional study. HIV-cases had lower counts of naïve CD4+ than HIV-controls and healthy-controls. HIV-patients (both HIV-cases and HIV-controls) showed higher values of naïve and memory CD8+ counts than healthy-controls. TREC-bearing cell levels were significantly lower in HIV-cases than in healthy-controls. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) cultures, HIV-cases had lower values in proliferation to streptokinase (SK) and tetanus toxin (TT) than in healthy-controls. HIV-cases had lower IFN-gamma and higher IL-5 production with pokeweed than healthy-controls ( P0.01). However, IL-5 production of HIV-cases after TT stimulation was lower than in HIV-controls and healthy-controls. Total IgG and IgG1 levels were significantly higher in HIV-cases than in HIV-controls and healthy-controls. Also, IgM levels were significantly higher in HIV-cases than in healthy-controls. Nevertheless, IgG2 levels were significantly lower in HIV-cases and HIV-controls than in healthy-controls. The levels of specific Igs antipneumococcal capsular polysaccharide and TT were significantly lower in HIV-cases than in healthy-controls. HIV-patients with a previous state of severe-moderate immunosuppression normalizing their CD4+ counts have a incomplete immune reconstitution after HAART. Long-term consequences of this subclinical immune deficiency remain to be determined.

Objective Immune reconstitution after highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in HIV-infected patients has led to an increase in the number of new CD4 T lymphocytes. Neolymphopoiesis in the thymus has been proposed as a mechanism in T-cell regeneration. Nevertheless, factors involved in the regeneration of T cells by thymic-dependent pathways in HIV-infected patients under HAART are still unknown and might be of relevance in HIV infection. The aim of this work was to study the role of IL-7 in the thymic rebound of HIV-infected adults under HAART. Design To study the association between IL-7 and thymic function-related markers, these variables were measured in 49 antiretroviral-naive HIV-infected patients at baseline and at weeks 12, 24, 36 and 48 of treatment. Methods Thymic function-related markers: thymic volume, naive phenotype, and T-cell receptor excision circles (TREC) bearing-cells, were evaluated by computed tomography, flow cytometry, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction, respectively. IL-7 levels were evaluated using a high sensitivity colorimetric enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Results At baseline, we found an inverse correlation between IL-7 levels and thymic function-associated parameters: thymic volume, naive T cells and TREC-bearing cells. After 48 weeks of therapy increased levels of thymic function-related markers along with a significant decrease in IL-7 levels were found. IL-7 levels at baseline were the only independently associated variable with respect to changes in thymic volume at weeks 12, 24 and 48 of follow-up. Conclusion These data suggest that IL-7 plays an important role in thymic rebound in adult HIV-infected patients under HAART.

To take full advantage of the remarkable applications of carbon nanotubes in different fields, there is a need to develop effective methods to improve their water dispersion and biocompatibility while maintain- ing their physical properties. In this sense, current approaches suffer from serious drawbacks such as loss of electronic structure together with low surface coverage in the case of covalent functionalizations, or instability of the dynamic hybrids obtained by non-covalent functionalizations. In the present work, we examined the molecular basis of an original strategy that combines the advantages of both functionaliza- tions without their main drawbacks. The hierarchical self-assembly of diacetylenic-based neoglycolipids into highly organized and compacted rings around the nanotubes, followed by photopolymerization leads to the formation of nanotubes covered with glyconanorings with a shish kebab-type topology exposing the carbohydrate ligands to the water phase in a multivalent fashion. The glyconanotubes obtained are fully functional, and able to establish specific interactions with their cognate receptors. In fact, by taking advantage of this selective binding, an easy method to sense lectins as a working model of toxin detection was developed based on a simple analysis of TEM images. Remarkably, different experimental settings to assess cell membrane integrity, cell growth kinetics and cell cycle demonstrated the cellular biocompatibility of the sugar-coated carbon nanotubes compared to pristine single-walled carbon nanotubes. Consejería de Economía, Ciencia e Innovación P10-CTS-6928 y P11- CTS-8161 to DP; P07-FQM-2774 to NK, P11-FQM-8046 to IF PAIDI Junta de Andalucía CTS-677 to DP; FQM-102 to IF Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad CTQ2013-49066-C2-1-R to NK y PI14-1600 to DP

The origin of T cells after highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) is now under discussion. The possibility of renewed lymphopoiesis in aged thymuses is still controversial. In this work we combine the analysis of naïve T cells, T-cell receptor excision circles (TRECs), and computed tomography scanning of thymic tissue to further assess whether the thymus is involved in immune reconstitution. Fifteen antiretroviral-naïve HIV-1-infected patients were evaluated during 48 weeks of HAART. At baseline, significant correlation was present among age and both thymic volume and TRECs, and between naïve T cells and TRECs. After starting HAART, there was a significant increase at week 12 in naïve CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, TRECs, and thymic volume. The initial net increases in naïve T cells and TREC counts were significantly correlated. Changes in thymic volume and TRECs were also indirectly related; splitting the population into 2 groups of high and low baseline TREC levels, only the group with low TREC levels had significant increases in both TRECs and thymic volume. Thus, the increase in thymic volume might be functional, in response to depleted TREC levels. Taken together, our data strongly suggest a thymic role in immune reconstitution, at least in patients with depleted baseline TREC levels. (Blood. 2002;99:3702-3706)

The aim of this work was to analyze the effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy on the chronically activated immune system of 26 antiretroviral-naive HIV-1-infected patients. Samples from baseline to week 24 or 36 of treatment were tested for serum levels of beta2-microglobulin, tumor necrosis factor alpha and soluble tumor necrosis factor alpha receptor type II, as well as for human leukocyte antigen-DR expression on T cells. After starting therapy, the mean HIV-1 RNA serum levels decreased and the mean CD4 + cell counts increased from baseline to week 36 (P0.001). Mean levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha receptor type II, tumor necrosis factor alpha and beta2-microglobulin as well as expression of human leukocyte antigen-DR were significantly reduced at the end of follow-up (P0.01). Deactivation kinetics of these parameters was similar in patients with CD4+ counts200 cells/microl at baseline versus those with CD4 + counts200 cells/microl at baseline, despite higher activation at baseline in the group with200 cells/microl. In summary, this study shows that highly active antiretroviral therapy is able to induce a strong deactivation of the immune system of HIV-1-infected patients.

Magnetic resonance based molecular imaging has emerged as a very promising technique for early detection and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and vascular diseases. The limited sensitivity and specificity of conventional MRI are being overcome by the development of a new generation of contrast agents, using nanotechnology approaches, with improved magnetic and biological properties. In particular, for molecular imaging, high specificity, high sensitivity, and long blood circulation times are required. Furthermore, the lack of toxicity and immunogenicity together with low-cost scalable production are also necessary to get them into the clinics. In this work, we describe a facile, robust and cost-effective ligand-exchange method to synthesize dual T1 and T2 MRI contrast agents with long circulation times. These contrast agents are based on manganese ferrite nanoparticles (MNPs) between 6 and 14 nm in size covered by a 3 kDa polyethylene glycol (PEG) shell that leads to a great stability in aqueous media with high crystallinity and magnetization values, thus retaining the magnetic properties of the uncovered MNPs. Moreover, the PEGylated MNPs have shown different relaxivities depending on their size and the magnetic field applied. Thus, the 6 nm PEGylated MNPs are characterized by a low r2/r1 ratio of 4.9 at 1.5 T, hence resulting in good dual T1 and T2 contrast agents under low magnetic fields, whereas the 14 nm MNPs behave as excellent T2 contrast agents under high magnetic fields (r2 = 335.6 mM−1 s−1). The polymer core shell of the PEGylated MNPs minimizes their cytotoxicity, and allows long blood circulation times. This combination of cellular compatibility and excellent T2 and r2/r1 values under low magnetic fields, together with long circulation times, make these nanomaterials very promising contrast agents for molecular imaging., Financial support was provided by the Andalusian Ministry of Health (PI2013-0559 to MPL), Carlos III Institute of Health of Spain (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness) according to the ‘Strategic Action in Health’ (PI14-01600 to DP) with co-funding by FEDER funds, the Andalusian Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation (P10-CTS-6928 and P11- CTS-8161 to DP), the PAIDI Program from the Andalusian Government (CTS-677 to DP), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MAT2011-26851-CO2-01 to JMF) and the European Research Council (ERC-StG-2009-239931 to JMF). MPL thanks to the Andalusian Mobility Research Program for Nanomedicine (Fundación Pública Andaluza Progreso y Salud; Andalusian Ministry of Health) and the Talentia Postdoctoral Fellowship Program (grant agreement 267226; Andalusian Knowledge Agency; Andalusian Regional Ministry of Economy, Innovation, Science and Employment) for the Postdoctoral Fellowships.

Immunosenescence studies of age-related immune system damage focused on clinical lymphopenic situations or androgenic blockade have revealed new insights about adult human immune reconstitution. However, as far as we know, the extent of lymphopoiesis in the thymus of elderly humans remains unclear. To this effect, we have analyzed 65 adult human thymuses (from 36 to 81 years; median age 68.6 years) obtained from patients who underwent cardiac surgery. Our results show a correlation between CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive (DP) cells and both the age (inverse) and percentage (direct) of peripheral naive T cells, indicating that the thymus is still able to affect the peripheral lymphocyte pool even in the elderly. We also found significant correlation between the degree of thymopoiesis and the inflammation markers, as shown by the inverse correlations between DP and the percentage of neutrophils and IL-6 levels and the percentage of peripheral lymphocytes. Furthermore, in a multivariate linear regression the percentage of DP and IL-7 levels, but not age, were independently associated with the percentage of neutrophils. In conclusion, the thymus maintains, even in the elderly, an active thymopoiesis that rejuvenates the peripheral naive T-cell pool. Moreover, age-related thymopoietic decay is associated with the peripheral inflammation markers.

Summary An important thymus role has been suggested in T-cell repopulation after HAART in adult HIV-1 infected patients. Thymus volume increase after treatment has been described in HIV-1 infected children but not in adult patients. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of HAART on the thymic volume of adult HIV-1 infected patients and its relation with the T-cell repopulation. Twenty-one adult patients following 24 weeks under HAART were included in the study. All patients underwent a thoracic computed tomography (CT) evaluation for the measurement of thymic volumes at weeks 0, 12 and 24. Baseline thymus volume showed a significant correlation with the patient's age. Thymic volume significantly increased after 24 weeks of HAART. Besides, a significant correlation between changes in the thymus volume and changes in both total and naïve CD4+ cell counts was found. Only patients with increases ≥100 CD4+ cell counts after treatment significantly increased the thymic volume. These data show the first evidence of an early change in thymic volume of adult HIV-1 infected patients under HAART. This increase was related to the rise of both total and naïve CD4+ cell counts suggesting a functional role of thymic volume increase.

SUMMARY Previous studies have shown a slow recovery of naive CD4+ T cell counts after anti-retroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected adults, which is in accordance with thymus atrophy after puberty. Here we investigate whether or not different patterns of naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cell repopulation are present in adult and child patients undergoing anti-retroviral treatment. Thus, 25 adults under highly active anti-retroviral therapy and 10 children under combined anti-retroviral therapy were retrospectively analysed for T cell subpopulations at baseline (T0) and around week 12 (T1) and week 24 (T2) of anti-retroviral treatment. Mean serum HIV-1 RNA levels dropped in both groups. Recovery of T cells in adults was characterized by a heterogeneous response between patients, with only 44% of them increasing their naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cell counts at T1, and changes in mean total CD4+ T cells were mainly shaped by memory cells. Otherwise, children were characterized by an early increase in naive T cells. Thus, at T1, all children analysed had a strong rise in CD4+ (from 389 ± 116 to 569 ± 121 cells/μl; P

Current data support the notion that the thymus is seeded by a yet uncommitted progenitor cell able to generate T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and dendritic cells (DCs). We assess in this report the developmental relationship of DCs and NK cells derived from a small subset of CD34+ human postnatal thymocytes that, like the earliest precursors in the fetal thymus, display low CD33 surface expression. Culture of these isolated CD34+CD33lo thymic progenitors with a mixture of cytokines, including interleukin-7 (IL-7), IL-1α, IL-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and stem cell factor, results in predominant generation of DCs. However, the addition of IL-2 to the cytokine mixture leads to the simultaneous development of DCs and NK cells. Both developmental pathways progress through a transient population of CD34+CD44brightCD5lo/−CD33+ large-sized cells, distinct from small-sized T-lineage precursors, that contain bipotential NK/DC progenitors. These data provide evidence of linked pathways of NK cell and DC development from intrathymic precursors and suggest that NK cells and DCs branch off the T lineage through a common intermediate progenitor.