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Historical texts incorporate important characteristics that need to be assessed including genre, text structure and content. Often overlooked are characteristics of handwritten manuscripts commonly divided into legibility, readability and aesthetics. To determine the scientific feasibility of classification of handwritten texts an objective approach is developed to describe twenty handwritten pages of an 1819 Greek manuscript, that refers to the initiation to the Greek secret “friendly society” (Philike Hetaereia) organization, established as part of the Greek independence against the Ottoman Turks. It is investigated through a fractal and RGB image analysis approach. Fractal Minkowski Dimension was applied on the handwritten text and the RGB color analysis on the ink and paper and both were used as a non-invasive manner and revealed interesting results. The novel RGB image analysis and the fractal analysis of the manuscript identified respectively, five iron gall inks and four scribes from the ink content and handwritten styles, of the compact five lines text and whole text pages. The novel approach was verified with another old manuscript of known ink pigments, as well as with thirteen known handwritten texts of that period and four prints representing modern and similar period texts substantiating the findings of the novel methods.

The complexity in the styles of 1200 Byzantine icons painted between 13th and 16th from Greece, Russia and Romania was investigated through the Kolmogorov algorithmic information theory. The aim was to identify specific quantitative patterns which define the key characteristics of the three different painting schools. Our novel approach using the artificial surface images generated with Inverse FFT and the Midpoint Displacement (MD) algorithms, was validated by comparison of results with eight fractal and non-fractal indices. From the analyzes performed, normalized Kolmogorov compression complexity (KC) proved to be the best solution because it had the best complexity pattern differentiations, is not sensitive to the image size and the least affected by noise. We conclude that normalized KC methodology does offer capability to differentiate the icons within a School and amongst the three Schools.

Selected ceramics from the Late Mycenean (Helladic) settlement of Kastrouli central Greece have been analysed by an electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) equipped with four wavelength-dispersive spectrometers and one energy-dispersive spectrometer. The aim to unravel the “ceramo-genetic” processes was possible by integrating optical microscopy, and EPMA (with SEM capabilities) following a specific protocol narrowing down to μm scale. A detailed characterization of eight diagnostic sherds for their texture and major element chemistry is made, including collection X-ray maps for different elements showing the zonation of minerals in relation to the adjacent matrix. Also, the temperature range was estimated – where possible – based on the observed mineral assemblage, texture and chemistry. The most favorable firing temperature maxima for our samples are 900–1000 °C.

This chapter describes the digital workflow from archaeological data collection in the field to permanent storage in the UCSD Library and dissemination via VR environments that UCSD, as the lead campus for the Catalyst project, designed and field-tested at sites in the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean. This contribution has a particular emphasis on at-risk cultural heritage and its preservation in those areas of interest and presents results of applying the digital methods at the Late Bronze Age site of Kastrouli, Greece.

The cave of Daraki-Chattan (in Rewa river, India) bears important palaeolithic rock art (petroglyphs), while the environs is exceptionally rich in stone tools, mostly of the Acheulian. The field survey and excavations in the area found cupule panel fragments almost down to bedrock; Acheulian industry to Oldowan-like industry including several hammerstones. Early work demonstrated that at least some of the petroglyphs were of the earliest documented occupation of the region. Exfoliated pieces and boulders from the rock surface were found in the sediments, some bearing cupules and grooves. Here a detailed methodological procedure is enacted consisting of luminescence dating reinforced by mineralogical issues, where the latter secures credibility of the former. The optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), of the luminescence versus depth profiles, following blue LED and Single Aliquot Regeneration (SAR) technique of quartz, was applied following the surface luminescence dating versions to date this fallen rock. The two dose profiles from the sandstone studies provided an average date for the fallen boulder in the 13th millennium, providing a constrained terminus post quem. Surface patina and intrusion of (Fe, Mn) aluminosilicate weathering solution was examined in both luminescence profiles, properly dealt with issues of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy- Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), X-Ray Florescence-Energy Dispersive mode (XRF/ED), Cathodoluminescence, stereomicroscope, thin sections optical microscopy (OM) and microdosimetry. Analytical petrographic results aided interpretation of luminescence data obtained. From the above rationale the two ages obtained from the two profiles can be considered close within errors, that coincide with the drastic change from last glaciation transition to the milder climate of the Holocene and the sudden end of colder Younger Dryas in ~13th Ka BP, having an impact on the weathering, erosion and exfoliation of rock surfaces caused by the significant temperature change and the resulted thermal differential expansion of rocks (onset of the Holocene).

Liritzis, I.; Preka-Papadema, P.; Antonopoulos, P.; Kalachanis, K., and Tzanis, C.G., 2018. Does astronomical and geographical information of Plutarch's De Facie describe a trip beyond the North Atlantic Ocean? In Plutarch's book On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon, the interlocutors develop a dialogue about a trip to the “great continent” beyond the North Atlantic Ocean. By applying modern scientific data, the present reappraisal of the astronomical and geographical elements within this dialogue has produced a novel interpretation of the date and place of the meeting and a journey to the northern Atlantic Ocean. A described solar eclipse is dated to AD 75, making use of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)/Espenak/Meeus list, as well as historical information. The described peculiar, recurrent trips take place every 30 years (when the planet Saturn reaches the Taurus constellation) from the Mediterranean Sea to the Cronian Open Sea, which is identified with northern A...

This paper tests the suitability of automated point cloud classification tools provided by the popular image-based modeling (IBM) software package Agisoft Metashape for the generation of digital terrain models (DTMs) at moderately-vegetated archaeological sites. DTMs are often required for various forms of archaeological mapping and analysis. The suite of tools provided by Agisoft are relatively user-friendly as compared to many point cloud classification algorithms and do not require the use of additional software. Based on a case study from the Mycenaean site of Kastrouli, Greece, the mostly-automated, geometric classification tool “Classify Ground Points” provides the best results and produces a quality DTM that is sufficient for mapping and analysis. Each of the methods tested in this paper can likely be improved through manual editing of point cloud classification.

Apollonian temples with oracular function related to the cult of Apollo's son Asclepius, as well as, Asclepius temples, (both) appear to align with the heliacal rising of the constellation of the Crow (raven) by the sunrise of the Autumn Equinox. Some show to align with Ophiuchus, too. Both constellations are related with the mythological circle of the deities as a dual entity. This astronomical phenomenon is supported by myth, archaeological finds, historical texts, artistic representations and astronomical academic tradition. The seventeen temples-altars chosen for survey cover a major chronological and geographical area. Ten temples are of Apollo and seven are of Asclepius: the Pythios Apollon in Gortyna and associated Lebena Asclepius temple (Crete), the Apollo Maleatas and associated Altar within the Asclepeiion of Epidaurus, and the Asclepius temple of Epidaurus (Peloponnese, mainland Greece), Apollo Deiradiotes and an Asclepius temple close to the town of Argos (Peloponnese, mainland Greece), the temple and oracle of Apollo Clarios and Apollo Temple at Notion (Ionian coast, Asia Minor, Turkey), the Temple of Apollon Lairbenos (Phrygia, Asia Minor, Turkey), the Asclepius Temple, Apollo Kyparissios and an Antonine Apollo temple at the island of Kos, and Asclepius Temple with Apollo Oikos at Messene (southern Peloponnese). Most of the Asclepius Temples (healing centers) are associated with temples (some oracular), altars or worship houses of Apollo. In our analytical work, Apollo and Asclepius function as complementary dualities who corroborate on religious prophecy and healing. On cult sites associated with ceremonial healing and curative practice, the alignment of the temples show the use of star markers in architectural planning: astronomical signs associated with myths of the actual gods, prevail. Through present study, we have shown that intangible and tangible cultural heritage are connected. The astronomical orientation of the temples is studied for their azimuth, angular altitude of the horizon and celestial declination, through applied remote sensing techniques, making use of Google Earth maps and associated astronomical tools.

This paper attempts to present and discuss the geomorphological and spatial analyses of Hygassos in the middle Mediterranean (a demos in ancient Bozburun Peninsula) through the application of GIS and photogrammetry, where necessary. The contextual data is composed of the settlement features and humanly constructed terrace relics. In search of the spatial and social territoria, the research questions greatly lean on the present geographical attributes and, the results of a recent survey concerning the ruins situated along a narrow valley in modern Selimiye-Kizilkoy and the Acropolis rising beside. The physical scope encompasses the khora of the Acropolis whose spatial coverage applies to ca. 27.26 km2. As the results show, the socio-economic transformation of Hygassos, under the observance of a major stronghold (Kaletepe), must have been quite dependent on the interplay of the topographical and natural factors, as well as the likely shifts from or to the Acropolis over time. However, ambiguities remain for the resilient western half territory (near immediate Losta Bay) which perhaps encroaches on the frontiers of neighbouring Tymnos. Unfavourable but cultivable areas were preferably used for household construction and terracing whereas the land exposed to maximum erosion was refrained for settling purposes.

Obsidian surface roughness and rind structure both play a major influence on the Obsidian Hydration Dating (OHD). AFM (Atomic Force Microscopy) investigation coupled with quadrupole SIMS hydrogen data profiles establish a validation criterion of quantitative evaluation of roughness for OHD dating purposes. More evidence of the importance of the surface morphology at the nanoscale is given for five obsidian tools of different origin. The latter relates to the dynamic ion influx diffusion kinetics between surface and surrounded sediment media, and the obsidian structure, thus, 2D and 3D surface mapping, as well as, cation profiling (H, C, Mg, Al, F, S, Cl, CN, O isotopes) were made by TOF-SIMS and quad-SIMS. It was found that the C and Mg are considered as imposed criteria for accepting suitability of H + profiles for further processing by SIMS-Surface Saturation dating method. The effect of roughness to dating is discussed.

Funder: FP7 Ideas: European Research Council; funder-id: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100011199; Grant(s): 295729, The recovery and analysis of ancient DNA and protein from archaeological bone is time-consuming and expensive to carry out, while it involves the partial or complete destruction of valuable or rare specimens. The fields of palaeogenetic and palaeoproteomic research would benefit greatly from techniques that can assess the molecular quality prior to sampling. To be relevant, such screening methods should be effective, minimally-destructive, and rapid. This study reports results based on spectroscopic (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy in attenuated total reflectance [FTIR-ATR]; n = 266), palaeoproteomic (collagen content; n = 226), and palaeogenetic (endogenous DNA content; n = 88) techniques. We establish thresholds for three different FTIR indices, a) the infrared splitting factor [IRSF] that assesses relative changes in bioapatite crystals’ size and homogeneity; b) the carbonate-to-phosphate [C/P] ratio as a relative measure of carbonate content in bioapatite crystals; and c) the amide-to-phosphate ratio [Am/P] for assessing the relative organic content preserved in bone. These thresholds are both extremely reliable and easy to apply for the successful and rapid distinction between well- and poorly-preserved specimens. This is a milestone for choosing appropriate samples prior to genomic and collagen analyses, with important implications for biomolecular archaeology and palaeontology.

The cyber archaeometry concerns a new virtual ontology in the environment of cultural heritage and archaeology. The present study concerns a first pivot endeavor of a virtual polarized light microscopy (VPLM) for archaeometric learning, made from digital tools, tackling the theory of mineral identification in archaeological materials, an important aspect in characterization, provenance, and ancient technology. This endeavor introduces the range of IT computational methods and instrumentation techniques available to the study of cultural heritage and archaeology of apprentices, educators, and specialists. Use is made of virtual and immersive reality, 3D, virtual environment, massively multiplayer online processes, and gamification. The VPLM simulation is made with the use of Avatar in the time-space frame of the laboratory with navigation, exploration, control the learning outcomes in connection to the archaeometric multisystem work. The students evidently learned to operate the VPLM following operations made via visual and home-made scripting, gaining experience in synergy, teamwork, and understanding. The resulting meaningful effects of the cyber-archaeometry with virtual operations and virtual hands, texts, and video equip students especially for e-learning with the required basic knowledge of mineralogical examination, which help to understand and evaluate mineral identification from material culture and provides readiness and capacity, which may be refined in a real polarized light microscopy (PLM) environment.

The Bozburun Peninsula (Hellenistic Rhodian Peraia, i.e the mainland possessions of ancient Rhodes) lies immediately north of the Island of Rhodes (Figure 1). It is an unspoiled (it used to be incredibly barren) territory which has remained as an area of seclusion throughout history.

The Kastrouli Late Helladic (LH) III fortified inland site is located in central Greece between the gulfs of Kirrha and Antikyra, not far from Delphi, controlling the communication between these sites. Characteristic ceramic typology from a tomb and the fortified wall indicate a Late Helladic period (∼ 1300–1100 BC) with apparent elements of reuse of the site in the Geometric, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic times. The present research refers to the dating by luminescence of the stone wall that circumvents the site, a tomb construction and two ceramics. This approach to applying luminescence dating provides an excellent opportunity to search for the Late Bronze Age (LBA) collapse consequences at the site. The thermoluminescence (TL) measurements of two ceramics were carried out following multiple aliquots made of the polymineral material. For the equivalent dose (ED) estimation of pottery samples, the multiple aliquot, additive dose procedure (MAAD) in TL was applied. Prior to age assessment, the firing temperature was estimated also using TL and it is safe to conclude that the firing temperature of the original ceramic was ca. 400 ± 50 °C. For the case of the rock samples collected from the wall and the tomb, the ED was estimated by applying the Single Aliquot Regenerative OSL (SAR OSL) protocol, after later modifications for polymineralic/mixed quartz-feldspathic samples (‘double SAR’ protocol). The ‘double SAR’ protocol procedure includes an infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) measurement at 50 °C before the main OSL. Individual ED values ranged between 3.2 to 16 Grays and were accepted based on the following acceptance criteria: recycling ratio between 0.90 and 1.05, recuperation

The Nawamis are sandstone-built circular structures, located at several sites across Southern Sinai, Egypt. They are thought to be family tombs, created by the nomadic people that inhabited the area. Archaeological age estimates fall within the Early to Late Bronze Age. Here an interesting suite of nine OSL dates of three stone pieces has been resulted, from two Nawamis at Gebel Gunna and Ain Khodra fields. Single aliquot regeneration OSL of quartz grains provided the accumulated dose. XRD was used to identify mineralogy of several tombs. Based on the estimated luminescence ages a time span from Early and late Bronze ages is obtained, while some possible later activity, due to partial (re)construction or reuse of tombs, was detected.

A new TSAC (Thick Source Alpha Particle Counting spectrometry) setup of high geometrical efficiency and low intrinsic background was built to measure the alpha particles coming from the 238 U and 232 Th decay chains radionuclides with concentrations down to the ppm level. It was designed to test the 226 Ra/ 230 Th method, which is the only direct metal dating method proposed to date. Micro-PIXE, micro-RBS and SEM-EDS were used as complementary analytical techniques in order to search for heterogeneities and/or impurities that could bias the TSAC data. Ores, resulting slags and metallic prills from two recent smelting experiments that reproduced ancient techniques and two ancient coins were studied to determine how radionuclides fractionation occurs during smelting. With this TSAC setup the background signal was extremely low, but comparable to the signal from the measured metals. Preliminary results show no evidence of a preferential depletion of 226 Ra in a melted metal with respect to the other radionuclides.

Five temples of Apollo on Mainland Greece and Ancient Ionia (Asia Minor), namely Delphi, Didyma, Hierapolis, Delos and Rhodes, have been examined regarding their functioning through astronomical orientation. Recent research has shown that the rise, setting, orbit and observation of certain constellations in the celestial sphere, as well as the solar stands, can be directly related to the architecture of the temple, i.e. construction, orientation, and keeping a calendar of the most important Apollonian oracular temple at Delphi. Here this lunar-solar-stellar configuration has been applied to other significant temples of Apollo. It is shown that at Didyma, Hierapolis and Delphi, the celestial pattern, as well as the landscape, local geology and architecture are similar, but different in temples without oracular function (Delos and Rhodes). Measurements were carried out by in situ readings and by Google Map tools.

A new research of prehistoric Delphi (Koumoula site, Parnassus Mountain) based on the absolute dating of an archaeological ceramic assemblage and stonewalls from recent rescue excavation is presented using luminescence techniques. For the chronological estimation of the ceramic assemblage, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and thermoluminescence (TL) protocols were employed, and the surface luminescence dating technique was applied on excavated calcitic rock samples. Dosimetry studies (field and laboratory) were practiced using a combination of a portable calibrated Geiger scintillator, alpha counting (pairs technique) set up and scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDS), the latter also to probe information about the chemistry and firing conditions of the ceramics. The results of the study provided dates that ascribe the site to the Greek Neolithic and Early/Middle Bronze Age (∼ 2000 to 5000 years B.C.), forming an absolute chronological framework for the studied area; moreover, these first prehistoric data provide archaeological links for the parallel use of the site with the nearby Corycian Cave habitation.

The interconnection between cultural heritage found in terrestrial and marine environments is beginning to garner international more scholarly attention as researchers investigate the linkages between human adaptation to changing coastal environments. In terms of world cultural heritage, land and sea should be considered as an integrated system. As climate and environmental change becomes a more pressing global problem, the archaeological record has become the most important deep-time data source for understanding long-term trends of human interaction with their changing environments. The research presented here is part of a larger study that aims to take a transdisciplinary approach to studying at-risk cultural heritage using the tools of cyber-archaeology and remote sensing technologies on the land, in the sea, and from the air. The aim is to develop and apply scientific methods to enhance the digital data collection, curation, analyses, and dissemination of cultural heritage in regions with rich archaeological heritages – in the case presented here, the Phokis region of Greece.

Diffusion of environmental water into the surface of obsidian tools of archaeological origin is monitored by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), which provides a H+ concentration (C) versus hydration depth profile. The modeling of this diffusion process, as one-dimensional phenomena, is based on the idea that a saturated surface (SS) layer is encountered near the surface. A novel software program has been developed, using MATLAB, incorporating all numerical parameters for the dating of hydrated obsidians using the SIMS profile. This approach has been applied to several archaeological obsidians from the Aegean, Hungary, and Asia Minor and compared with samples from radiocarbon dated cultural phases where the agreement is excellent.

The interdisciplinary field of archaeometry covers a wide range of subject categories and disciplines in relation to science and humanities. It is a well-established academic field of study and accredited part of higher education. Since its inception, the nomenclature designation of archaeometry signifies the appropriate methodology applied to archaeological materials and questions emerging from this field, regarding monuments, artifacts, and the reconstruction and management of landscape bearing cultural assets. The measurements of tangible culture denote significant information, such as chronology, authenticity, technology, characterization, provenance, discovering buried antiquities, ancient-day life activities, and three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions and modelling, furthermore, proxy data collected from environmental dynamic non-liner perturbations, which link local ecosystems with dwellings, are gathered by academia to study the past. The traditional rooting signifies the cultural legacies of people, which define the human desire and the confidence of memory and future trends. Beyond the mere study of the past, archaeometry&rsquo, s role increasingly proves affinity to prosperity, if properly managed. The major archaeometrical contributions in cultural heritage and archaeology in general are reviewed herein, and we present the policies that could develop archaeometrical data into a sustainable stage of local, regional, and national economic development. &Tau, he United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) conventions for the documentation and protection of cultural heritage via new technologies and archaeometry are reviewed and connected to development strategies and sustainable development goals.

Cultural heritage constitutes humanity’s identity, marking the civilization and progress of peoples in time all over our world. Protection of cultural heritage and its diversity has been parallelized to the protection of biodiversity. Yet, cultural heritage is constantly at risk, either by natural causes or by human intervention. The Centre for Cyber-Archaeology and Sustainability at UCSD has undertaken research and public outreach programs worldwide concerning at-risk cultural heritage. Specifically, for such initiatives in Greece it formed a stable collaboration with the University of the Aegean and the Athena Research Centre. Recognizing that the informed citizens, and more specifically the informed students, are key factors towards an effective preservation of World Heritage, this chapter represents an account of those initiatives from the perspective of the pedagogy and engagement. In addition, this chapter introduces to the World Heritage and the threats that it faces all over the world and presents a selection of significant initiatives taken by major worldwide organizations such as UNESCO.

For Digital Cultural Heritage, 3D modeling is an essential practice for the identification, monitoring, conservation, restoration, and enhancement of archaeological objects from artifacts to monuments. In this context 3D computer graphics can support archaeology and heritage policy, offering scholars a “sixth sense” for the understanding of the past, as it allows them to almost relive it. In addition, current trends for 3D video gaming (serious games) and scientific storytelling provide a variety of new approaches towards new, enhanced, and realistic experiences of the past. The research project “Digital Enterprise for Learning Practice of Heritage Initiative FOR Delphi” (Delphi4Delphi) targets most of these issues. In particular, it focuses on educational, research, and social implications of digital heritage, through the use of modern technologies such as digital optical documentation, geographical information systems and georeferencing, big data, video and interactive content production for education, virtual and augmented reality, cyber archaeometry, and Cyber-Archaeology. This chapter presents an overview of Delphi4Delphi in relation to the issues of acquisition, curation, and dissemination of spatial cultural heritage data.

Author(s): Liritzis, Ioannis; Pavlidis, George; Vosynakis, Spyros; Koutsoudis, Anestis; Volonakis, Pantelis; Petrochilos, Nikos; Howland, Matthew D; Liss, Brady; Levy, Thomas E | Abstract: Digital media and learning initiatives for virtual collaborative environments are contributing to the definition of new (sub-)disciplines in archaeological and heritage sciences. New nomenclature and terminology is emerging such as cyber archaeology, cyber archaeometry, virtual worlds and augmented and immersive realities; and all of them are related to museums and cultural heritage—tangible, intangible or natural (Forte 2010; Liritziset al. 2015).

The determination of Uranium (U) and Thorium (Th) by thick source alpha counting (TSAC) using ZnS(Ag) and the pairs technique, has been made in a variety of archaeological and geoarchaeological materials (slags, ores, clays, granites, limestones, sandstones) and Standards in powder form. Particular attention is drawn to calibration issues for uranium and thorium concentration values. The calibration factors chosen per rock type of material counted compared to the computed one from relevant equations are compared in the present applications.

AIDONA, E. and LIRITZIS, I., 2012. Magnetic susceptibility and radioactivity changes of Aegean and Ionian Sea sediments during last glacial/interglacial: Climatic and chronological markers. Five marine sediment boreholes from the Aegean and Ionian Sea have been measured here for their magnetic susceptibility and (in an earlier work) by alpha- and beta-particle radioactivity. The corresponding borehole cores cover the Holocene period and closely spaced data have been sampled from all cores. The obtained depth data series have been converted here to the time series by using appropriate conversions on the basis of sedimentation rates derived from dating of selected samples of each core. The spectral characteristics of the new statistical elaboration for the final time series exhibit a significant correlation of the magnetic susceptibility and radioactivity data. This correlation is prominent especially for intermediate periods (typically 1–10 ky) of the examined spectra and tends to disappear for hi...

Knowledge of the relative luminescence response to alpha and beta radiation is very important in TL and OSL dating. In the present study the relative alpha to beta response is studied in a sedimentary quartz sample, previously fired at 900 degrees C for 1 h, in the dose region between 1 and 128 Gy, for both thermoluminescence (T) and linearly modulated optically stimulated luminescence (LM - OSL). The LM OSL measurements were performed at room temperature and at 125 degrees C. All OSL signals were deconvolved into their individual components. Comparison of OSL curves after alpha and beta irradiation strongly supports that quartz OSL components follow first order kinetics in both cases. In the case of TL, the relative alpha to beta response is found to be very different for each TL glow-peak, but it does not depend strongly on irradiation dose. In the case of LM OSL measurements, it is found that the relative behaviour of the alpha to beta response is different for three distinct regions, namely the fast OSL component, the region of medium OSL component originating from the TL glow-peak at 110 degrees C when stimulation takes place at room temperature and finally the region of slow OSL component. Following stimulation at ambient temperature, the relative alpha to beta response of all components was not observed to depend significantly on dose, with the value of ratio being 0.03 and a tendency to decrease with increasing dose. However, in the case of measurements performed at 125 degrees C, the relative response of the fast components is much enhanced, and for the remaining components it increases with increasing dose. Special care must be taken to examine the relative alpha to beta response of the fast component at 125 degrees C which contrasts the relative response of the TL peak at ca. 325 degrees C. The implications for the dating of annealed quartz are also briefly discussed. Publisher's Version

Archaeological evidence regarding the presence of obsidian in levels that antedate the food production stage could have been the result of usage or intrusion of small obsidian artifacts from overlying Neolithic layers. The new obsidian hydration dates presented below employing the novel SIMS-SS method, offers new results of absolute dating concordant with the excavation data. Our contribution sheds new light on the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene exploitation of obsidian sources on the island of Melos in the Cyclades reporting dates c. 13th millennium - end of 10th millennium B.P.

The attenuation of sunlight through different rock surfaces and the thermoluminescence (TL) or Optical stimulated luminescence (OSL) residuals clock resetting derived from sunlight induced eviction of electrons from electron traps, is a prerequisite criterion for potential dating. The modeling of change of residual luminescence as a function of two variables, the solar radiation path length (or depth) and exposure time offers further insight into the dating concept. The double exponential function modeling based on the Lambert–Beer law, valid under certain assumptions, constructed by a quasi-manual equation fails to offer a general and statistically sound expression of the best fit for most rock types. A cumulative log-normal distribution fitting provides a most satisfactory mathematical approximation for marbles, marble schists and granites, where absorption coefficient and residual luminescence parameters are defined per each type of rock or marble quarry. The new model is applied on available data and age determination tests.

Daylight radiation resets luminescence ‘clock’ to zero on rock surfaces, but transmission depends on the transparency of the rock. On burial, surfaces are no longer exposed to daylight and accumulation of trapped electrons takes place till the excavation. This reduction of luminescence as a function of depth fulfils the prerequisite criterion of daylight bleaching. Thus rock artefacts and monuments follow similar bleaching rationale as those for sediments. In limestone and marble, daylight can reach depths of 0.5–1 mm and up to 16 mm respectively, while for other igneous rocks e.g. quartz in granites, partial bleaching occurs up to 5mm depth under several hours of daylight exposures and almost complete beaching is achieved in the first 1 mm within about 1 min daylight exposure. The ‘quartz technique’ for limestone monuments containing traces of quartz enables their dating with Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) techniques. The surface luminescence (thermoluminescence, TL or OSL) dating has been developed and further refined on various aspects of equivalent dose determination, complex radiation geometry, incomplete bleaching etc. A historical review of the development including important applications, along with some methodological aspects are discussed.

About fifty years ago Friedman and Smith [1] recognized the obsidian hydration phenomenon and proposed an empirical dating method based on the conversion of the optically measured hydration depth to an absolute age. They and subsequent researchers developed distinct versions of obsidian hydration method consisting of both empirical rate and intrinsic rate development, thus refining the method. However, in spite the accurately measured rinds beyond digital optical microscopy employing infrared spectroscopy and nuclear analysis, the traditional empirical age equation produce occasionally satisfactory results but still fail to produce a reliable chronometer. In the last ten years, secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) has been employed to accurately define the hydration profile. By modeling the profile of the surface hydrogen concentration versus depth the age determination is reached via equations describing the diffusion process. Finite difference modeling and essential assessments of the novel SIMS-SS (surface saturation) phenomenological method produce a sound basis for the new diffusion age equation and provides promising results. This review refers on the development of obsidian hydration dating (OHD) and diffusion process in glass and reckons future directions of SIMS applications in obsidians.

Arguing from a critical reading of the text, and scientific evidence on the ground, the authors show that the myth of Phaethon – the delinquent celestial charioteer – remembers the impact of a massive meteorite that hit the Chiemgau region in Bavaria between 2000 and 428 BC.

The recently excavated coastal prehistoric settlement of Strofilas on Andros Island (Cyclades, Greece) in the Aegean sheds new light on the transitional phase from the Final Neolithic to Early Cycladic period regarding masonry, fortification, and richly engraved rock art. The fortification possesses early evidence of preserved defensive architecture, as evidenced from the plethora of scattered finds from within and around the settlement. Important features are carvings on rock walls which mainly depict ships, animals, and fish. Initial archaeometric dating via the application of luminescence dating of two samples from the fortified wall bearing engraved ships, and by obsidian hydration of two blades employing the new SIMS-SS method (secondary ion mass spectrometry via surface saturation), has been undertaken to determine the site's chronology. The former yields an average date of 3520 (±540) BC and the latter an average date of 3400 (±200) years BC, both of which, within overlapping errors, suggest the main settlement occurred during the Final Neolithic.

Following 4th c. B.C. Theophrastus treatise On Stones, regarding preparation of pigments, blue and white ones coming from fresh archaeological excavations in Attica, Greece, a blue made by Kremer factory and a white reproduced following ancient recipe were all submitted to analytical measurements. New results derived from the application of Infrared Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (IRPAS), Scanning Electron X Ray Microprobe Analyser (SEM-EDS), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy identified their mineralogical content. The Theophrastus’ “psimythion” and “kyanos egyptios” are attributed to the lead white (cerussite and hydrocerussite) and the Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite) respectively.

Since 1960 the potential of obsidian as a chronometer in archaeology has been subjected to several drawbacks and studies. While economical, simple and fast, obsidian hydration dating today is generally unreliable. A novel approach towards obsidian hydration dating, named SIMS-SS, has recently been initiated based on modelling the hydrogen profile acquired by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), following Fick’s diffusion law, and the rationale of surface saturation (SS) with water molecules. The new nuclear method is presented with significant refinement regarding numerical calculation of age parameters, the suitability criteria of the sampling area and the spectral shape of the concentration dependant H+ profile. A reappraisal is applied to thirteen obsidian specimens from all over the world ranging some 100’s to 30,000 years old. The results reinforce the precision and reliability of the SIMS-SS method, enhancing its wide applicability.

The prehistoric tools made by natural glass of obsidian can be dated by the recent method of the secondary ion mass spectrometry with the surface saturation using the surface saturation approach (SIMS-SS). In its initial tests, the method inhered some limitations mainly derived from surface roughness. Indeed, the surface irregularities i.e. presence of wells, cracks, pits, crystals and/or crests, induce uncertain errors in the dating procedure. Here, we provide further images of the Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) of obsidian surfaces and discuss the impact of AFM results on the SIMS-SS dating, investigating the problematic non-smoothed surfaces. (© 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Obsidian artefacts used by prehistoric people could be dated by the SIMS-SS method. However, the method contains some limitations regarding the degree of smoothness of the surface. The presence of wells, cracks, pits, crystals and/or crests induce errors in the dating. Here, we briefly introduce the SIMS-SS method and provide first images of the atomic force microscopy (AFM) of obsidian surfaces and discuss the impact of AFM results on the SIMS-SS dating. The presented dating is straightforward for flat regular surfaces and problematic for irregular surfaces.

Multivariate techniques and especially cluster analysis have been commonly used in archaeometry. Exploratory and model-based techniques of clustering have been applied to geochemical (continuous) data of archaeological artefacts for provenance studies. Model-based clustering techniques such as classification maximum likelihood and mixture maximum likelihood have been used to a lesser extent in this context and, although they seem to be suitable for such data, they either present practical difficulties-such as high dimensionality of the data-or their performance gives no evidence that they are superior to standard methods. In this paper standard statistical methods (hierarchical clustering, principal components analysis) and the recently developed model-based multivariate mixture of normals with an unknown number of components, are applied and compared. The data set provides chemical compositions of 188 ceramic samples derived from the Aegean islands and surrounding areas.

Three rock samples and associated underlying surface (floor) soils of geoarchaeological significance from Greece, Sweden and a modern surface stone-sample from a Danish site were investigated using OSL dating. Thin slice, sub-samples, from drilled core surfaces were prepared. A single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) protocol was used on whole rock slices to estimate the laboratory equivalent dose. Laboratory tests showed that the SAR protocol successfully corrected for sensitivity changes and that a known laboratory dose could be measured accurately. The luminescence signals from quartz and feldspar stimulated by blue light and from feldspar under IR stimulation were employed in equivalent dose calculations. Only IR signals showed measurable fading on a laboratory timescale. Laboratory tests showed that daylight bleaching of the rock surfaces is rapid, and that the light-exposed region extended into the solid rock. The geoarchaeological ages obtained for the rocks and soils were in satisfactory agreement with independent age estimates.

The water diffusion mechanism in obsidian has been revisited with the advent of a new dating approach employing secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). The water diffusion SIMS( + ) profile and the concept of a surface saturation (SS) layer in obsidians both provide a sound basis for the new diffusion age equation (SIMS-SS) and are supported by dated world examples (Liritzis et al. 2004). Here, we present the basic physical‐chemical analysis of the mass transport phenomenon on which the new dating method is based. The crucial age parameter of the SIMS-SS dating approach for archaeological obsidians—that is, the surface saturation (SS) layer—is supported by both theoretical and experimental data.

Further development on the water diffusion dating of archaeological obsidian tools, based on Fick's law of diffusion, is presented. It involves (a) a reassessment of surface saturation layer location and (b) a novel in-house made MATLAB software with reference to the age sensitivity of the SS layer, and the propagation of errors. So far, 11 dates have been produced for archaeological obsidian tools over the World and the SIMS-SS ages with present software versus archaeological and mean radiocarbon ages were in excellent concordance.

A new approach to dating ancient obsidian artifacts based on the modeling of water diffusion profiles is evaluated using multiple archaeological test cases of known age. Hydrogen profiles from hydrated obsidian surfaces have been collected by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). The H2O concentration versus depth profiles are modeled and diffusion ages have been produced. SIMS based dates for fourteen obsidian specimens of well-known age, ranging from 300-7000 years old, have been compared with radiocarbon ages. The convergence between the two dating methods is excellent and validates the new dating approach.

Obsidian: Obsidian is an aluminosilicate, or rhyolitic, glass, formed by rapid cooling of volcanic magma under the proper geologic conditions. As any other glass, it is not a crystal, and thus it lacks the lattice structure typical of crystals at the atomic level. However, glasses do possess some degree of spatial order. Thus, it is an amorphous natural glass that contains pristine water Η2Ο and sparse crystals of variable sizes of a few microns. The surface is weathered in the atmosphere and the environmental context. Composition: 70–75 % SiO2, 10–15 % Al2O3, 3–5 %Na2O, 2–5 % K2O, 1–5 % FeO3 + FeO (in contrast to iron-bearing glass and silica-enriched leached rinds on obsidian glass recently discovered onMars that are representative of global processes of explosive volcanism potentially implying widespread acidic leaching on Mars due to oxidizing and acidic solutions). Obsidian rocks were used by early peoples for the making of their tools and implements.

The Thermoluminescence (TL)-like presentation method introduced to describe the isothermal decay of a thermoluminescence glow-peak, is extended in the present work for the case of the Optical Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) decay curves. The Glow-Curve Deconvolution analysis extensively used to analyse TL glow-curves is successfully applied to find the individual components of the Optical stimulated decay curves. The method is successfully applied to both synthetic and experimental OSL decay curves of quartz, feldspar and mixed quartz plus feldspar aliquots. The potential use of the Peak Shaped (PS) TL-like presentation to extract qualitative and quantitative information from an OSL decay curves is also discussed.

We acknowledge the observations of Doppler et al. on our paper and we are grateful to Antiquity's editor for this opportunity to reply to their objections.Firstly, it should be noted that we have not claimed that the Chiemsee once included the Tüttensee. We agree that the region in which both lakes lie was glacially formed. But while Lake Chiemsee is the result of the last Ice Age the Tüttensee basin originates from a much later Holocene meteorite impact. We do not use the myth of Phaeton to date this event that is known as the Chiemgau impact. On the contrary we estimate from archaeological evidence and OSL dating that the event occurred between 2200 and 800 BC, i.e. the Bronze Age (Rappenglück et al. 2010: 436).We go on to discuss parallels between the independent dating of the Chiemgau impact and the possible time frame of the myth (Rappenglück et al. 2010: 435–37).

The novel method of thermoluminescence (TL) dating of megalithic (cyclopean) limestone monuments and/or marble statues will be briefly reviewed. The problems and recent examples to be discussed include: (a) the determination of the accumulated archaeological dose, Dar, (b) the sample homogeneity, (c) the scattering in TL measurements, (d) the rate in solar bleaching of TL, and (e) dose-plateau inconsistencies. In retrospect, the solar bleaching of TL in some marbles refers to at least 30 mm depth, the scattering of TL measurements at best varies around ±10%, and the partial bleaching technique should be prudently applied for Dar determination. The extension of this method to date (by TL or OSL) for other rock types is discussed.