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In areas where the tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) appears and multiplies, the original vegetation degrades and transforms. The invasive tree of heaven is also of great importance in urban environments, where it causes building damage, static problems and endangers utilities. Ailanthus pollen concentration was measured during the 3-year period (2016-2018) at three county capitals (Szolnok, Debrecen, Nyíregyháza) of the Northern Great Plain, Hungary (JászNagykun-Szolnok county, Hajdú-Bihar county and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county), with a 7-day Hirst-type (Burkard) pollen trap. The highest total pollen count of A. altissima was measured in all three years in Nyíregyháza (1114 pollen m-3 in 2016; 788 pollen m-3 in 2017; 635 pollen m-3 in 2018), while the lowest values were measured in Szolnok in all three years (99 pollen m-3 in 2016; 78 pollen m-3 in 2017; 93 pollen m-3 in 2018). In Debrecen, the annual total pollen concentration varied between 109-127 pollen grains m-3 in the studied period. The extent of the prevalence of A. altissima can be deduced from its pollen concentrations. For this purpose, multi-year pollen data is displayed on a map in which areas characterized by different pollen concentrations are represented by colour codes. Pollen monitoring provides information on the size of A. altissima stands and provides a basis for proposals and plans for measures to control this invasive tree species and mitigate the damage caused by it.

Megatrends are slow processes that are hardly noticeable initially, but later cause long-term global effects. The European Environmental Agency (EEA) has set 11 global megatrends. Some of them - globalization, risk of pandemic, technological development and climate change - have major impacts on microfungi in a vulnerable region of Europe, the Pannonian Biogeographical Region. Due to the globalization, high amount of inocula is imported with tropical fruits, soil and packaging materials. Due to technological development, these fungi gain new habitats in the immediate surroundings of humans. In most of the cases these are considered to be extreme environments for which fungi can increasingly adapt. As a result of climate change, non-native species are more likely to colonize the natural habitats in the region. Some of these fungal species have great effect on human health and agriculture. The effects of global megatrends on fungi raise new issues not only from the point of view of economy and health, but also from plant protection and environmental perspectives. Because of the increasing presence of these fungal species, it is important to take them into account during the development of adaptation strategies.

This study presents the results of a Europe-wide training and Quality Control (QC) exercise carried out within the framework of the European Aerobiology Society’s QC Working Group. The main aim of this exercise was to examine the feasibility of carrying out a QC exercise for fungal spore monitoring in Europe, using a similar methodology to the one previously used for pollen. The QC survey was conducted in two parts: (1) Coordinators of national and regional aerobiological networks in Europe involved in the monitoring of atmospheric fungal spores were invited to complete a questionnaire survey related to their network and asked whether they were interested in taking part in an external inter-laboratory QC exercise; (2) Participating networks performed an inter-laboratory ring test with the same sample slide in order to determine the reproducibility of identifying and counting two fungal spore taxa (Alternaria and Epicoccum) in air samples collected by a Hirst-type volumetric spore trap. Participants were instructed to read five separate longitudinal transects in the “effective collecting area” of the slide. Reproducibility of analysis was determined following the method previously used in the European Aerobiology Society’s QC exercises for pollen. Thirty-two counters from 16 national or regional networks in Europe participated in the QC exercise. Coefficients of Variation (CV%) ranged from 23.0 to 22.5 when reading one transect and from 14.0 to 16.0 when reading five transects for Alternaria and Epicoccum, respectively. Considering a CV% of 30 as the limit for fungal spores, no significant differences were observed between the absolute errors from two, three, four and five transects. The only significant difference was between one and five transects. We recommend that fungal spore analysis should be carried out on about 5% of the slide (two transects in this study) because results were not significantly different to five transects.

Sószobák üzemeltetése prevenciós célzattal vagy kiegészítő terápiaként Magyarországon és Közép-Európában nagyon gyakori. Ennek ellenére a működtetésükre vonatkozóan nem állnak a rendelkezésünkre szabványok, beleértve a higiénés követelményeket, például a levegőminőséget. Aggodalomra adhat okot, hogy a nem kielégítően szellőztetett, zsúfoltabb sószobák akár megbetegedések forrásai is lehetnek a nem megfelelő beltéri levegőminőség következtében. Célunk volt a hazai sószobák biológiai légszennyezőinek vizsgálata. A levegőmintákat Andersen-típusú levegőmintavevő készülékkel 29 sószobában gyűjtöttük Budapesten és három, vidéki városban. A baktériumok beltéri koncentrációja 580-26280 CFU/m3 között változott, mely átlagosan 32-szer magasabb volt beltérben mint kültérben és minden vizsgált sószobában meghaladta az irányértéket. A vizsgált sószobáknál 7 esetben a penészgombák légköri koncentrációja meghaladta az irányértéket; 16 sószobában pedig az élesztőgombák szintje meghaladta a kültéri érték kétszeresét. A bel- és a kültéri mintákban 27, illetve 26 gombataxont mutattunk ki. A sószobákban legnagyobb mennyiségben Cladosporium spp., Penicillium spp., Parengyodontium album és Aspergillus spp.; a kültérben Cladosporium spp., Penicillium spp. és Aspergillus sect. Fumigati volt kimutatható. Méréseink alapján javasoljuk előírások, szabványok bevezetését a sószobák megfelelő mikrobiális levegőminőségének biztosításához.

Dr Ágnes Révay (1952–2018) a respected mycologist, the curator of the microscopic fungi collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum was interested predominantly in floristics, taxonomy and ecology of the Hungarian microscopic fungi, especially the dematiaceous and aquatic hyphomycetes, stauro- and scolecosporous fungi and myxomycetes. More than 70 scientific papers, her revisions and collections, the four new genera (Gorgomyces, Hyalocamposporium, Hydrometrospora, Tulipispora) and the 15 new species described by her, and the species Retiarius revayae named after her preserve her memories.

A golbális megatrendek olyan lassú folyamatok, amelyek kezdetben alig észrevehetők, később azonban hosszú távú globális hatásokat okoznak. Néhányuk – a világjárványok és a globalizáció, a technológiai fejlődés, valamint az éghajlatváltozás – jelentős hatással van hazánk mikroszkopikus gombavilágára. A globalizáció révén nagy mennyiségű gombaspórát és inokulumot hurcolnak be a személy- és áruforgalommal, főként importált trópusi gyümölcsökkel, talajjal és csomagolóanyagokkal. A technológiai fejlődés következtében ezek a gombák új élőhelyekre tesznek szert az emberek közvetlen környezetében, épületek, háztartási vizes berendezések belső terében. Az éghajlatváltozás következtében különböző idegenhonos fajok egyre nagyobb valószínűséggel telepednek meg a régió természetes élőhelyein is. E behurcolt gombák között számos, az emberi egészségre vagy a mezőgazdasági termelésre kockázatot jelentő faj lehet. A globális megatrendek gombafajokra gyakorolt hatásai számos új gazdasági, egészségügyi, növény- és környezetvédelmi problémakör fontosságára hívják fel a figyelmet. A megatrendek mikrogombákra gyakorolt hatását fontos figyelembe venni a különböző védekezési módszerek kidolgozása során, amelyeket be kell építeni az adaptációs stratégiákba. Jelen összefoglaló közleményünk célja ezeknek a veszélyeknek és a megelőzési stratégiákra irányuló javaslatok bemutatása.

Warming and heat waves are predicted by different climate models in the near future in the Pannonian Biogeographical Region (PBR). These climatic effects may have impact on the prevalence and distribution of certain fungal species of this area. In this study the effects of predicted climate scenarios were tested on fungi being endemic or unintentionally introduced by global trade from regions of warm temperate climate. Common fungal species were selected for the study and exposed to heat waves during 7 days according to two climate scenarios: one moderately (RCP 4.5, T

You may not pay much attention to fungi growing on the bark of trees in your neighborhood, but there are many fungal species that scientists know have joined the “bark side.” The fungi living on bark do many interesting and surprising things. For example, bark fungi may prowl the bark in search of resources or new habitats. Fungi create tiny versions of themselves, called spores, which can use “the force” (of nature, like blowing wind, or flowing water) to move from one place to another on the bark. In this article, we introduce the microscopic war waging on the bark of your neighborhood trees, and present some of the fungi warriors of the bark side. We describe how some fungal spores use the force to stalk the bark (and beyond) during storms and discuss why fungi-bark interactions are another important reason to preserve and protect our trees.

Allergic diseases are considered as important human health issues as they substantially restrict many allergic people. Trees such as the plane tree can pose a certain threat to allergy sufferers. Due to the frequent planting of these trees in large cities, their pollen can affect the increase in the frequency of local allergy symptoms. This study compares the plane tree pollen seasons in Poland, in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Warsaw, Zielona Gora, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Opole, Olsztyn, Szczecin and in Hungary, in Budapest, Debrecen, Gyor, Kaposvar, Kecskemet, Miskolc, Nyiregyhaza and Pecs in 2019. The investigations were carried out using the volumetric method (Hirst type pollen sampler). Seasonal Pollen Index (SPI) was estimated as the sum of daily average pollen concentrations in the given season. The season ranges from March to May, depending on the geographical latitude. Diagnosis of plane tree pollen allergy is made difficult due to some cross-reactivity with birch, but also alder, hazel, hornbeam, oak, beech, sweet chestnut, and to some extent with grass pollen. In 2019 the pollen season of Platanus started first in Hungary, in Pecs on the April 1st; in Poland the pollen season started in Szczecin and Zielona Gora on the April 4th. At the latest, a pollen season ended in Poland, in Warsaw and Bydgoszcz until May 11th–12th, similarly in Hungary – until May 11th in Budapest and Kaposvar. The differences of pollen seasons duration were very considerable, from 15 to 40 days. Also the differences of the highest airborne concentration especially between both countries were extremely considerable (2105 pollen grains/m3 in Nyíregyháza and 3 pollen grains/m3 in Białystok. The maximum values of seasonal pollen count in Polish cities occurred between April 24th and May 1st, and in Hungarian cities between April 9th and 16th. The highest plane tree pollen allergen hazard occurred in 2019 undoubtedly in Hungary: in Pecs, Kaposvar and Nyiregyhaza, and was ten times higher than in Poland. The highest variability in the analysed seasons was found in the peak value and annual total.

A növényi pollen allergizáló képessége számos tényezőtől függ. E feltételek: a pollen allergiás immunválasz kiváltására alkalmas anyagot tartalmazzon, a pollent nagy mennyiségben termelje a növény, a pollenszem kis méretű legyen és könnyen, nagy mennyiségben szálljon a levegőben, a növény gyakori, tömegesen előforduló fajba tartozzon. E tényezőket külön súlyozva kiszámítható az egyes növénytaxonok potenciális allergenitása. Dolgozatunkban a szakirodalomban fellelhető módszereket hasonlítjuk össze, és keressük a megfelelő eljárást, amely a növények ültetésére, kereskedelmére irányuló jogi szabályozás alapja lehetne. Az irodalmi áttekintés alapján nem találtunk olyan jelenleg létező módszert, amely a jogi szabályozás követelményeit kielégítheti (megfelelő bizonyítékok felsorolása és reprodukálhatóság), ezért kidolgoztunk egy saját eljárást a növények potenciális allergenitásának kiszámítására.

Az egyes növényfajok, taxonok allergenitása alapján kiszámítható, hogy az egyes városi zöldterületek, parkok vagy fasorok esetén milyen mértékű a pollenterhelés. A városi parkok minősítésére külföldön már alkalmazott IUGZA módszert hazai parkok és vonalas létesítmények fásszárú növényzetén teszteltük. Az eredmények azt mutatták, hogy a módszer megfelelően alkalmazható parkoknál, azonban a vonalas létesítményeknél nem, mivel ez utóbbiaknál a számítás alapját képező terület meghatározási módszer nincs egyértelműen megadva. A számítási módszer által megkövetelt növénymorfológiai adatok a nyilvánosan elérhető hazai fakataszterek (n=11) csupán 20%-ában állnak rendelkezésre. A továbbiakban egy általunk kidolgozott új módszert mutatunk be, amely a jogi alkalmazás igényeit is kielégíti, ugyanakkor könnyen végrehajtható a már meglévő fakatasztereken, mert növénymorfológiai adatokat nem igényel, hanem az allergén fák százalékos aránya alapján ad minősítést. Eszerint alacsony allergén kibocsátású a zöldterület, ha a fa és cserje egyedek kevesebb, mint 10%-a tartozik a potenciálisan erősen/nagyon erősen allergén taxonok közé; közepes, ha 11-34%, magas, ha 34% feletti ezen egyedek aránya. Emellett bemutatjuk a módszer alkalmazásának lehetőségét a zöldterületek allergén pollen kibocsátásának csökkentésére, amelyet elsősorban szabályozás révén, közterületek vonatkozásában lehetne megvalósítani.

The study of stemflow fungi began over 50 years ago. Past work has been performed in different climatic regions of the world, with different sampling methods, by mycologists focusing on different taxonomical groups. Therefore, we aim to synthesize this work to delineate major conclusions and emerging hypothesis. Here, we present: (1) a systematic compilation of observations on stemflow conidial concentration, flux, and species composition; (2) an evaluation of the methods underlying these observations; (3) a testable theory to understand spatiotemporal dynamics in stemflow (including honeydews) conidial assemblages, with a focus on their relationship to bark structure and microhabitats; and (4) a discussion of major hypotheses based on past observations and new data. This represents a knowledge gap in our understanding of fungal dispersal mechanisms in forests, in a spatially-concentrated hydrologic flux that interacts with habitats throughout the forest microbiome. The literature synthesis and new data represent observations for 228 fungal species’ conidia in stemflow collected from 58 tree species, 6 palm species, and 1 bamboo species. Hypothetical relationships were identified regarding stemflow production and conidial concentration, flux, and species composition. These relationships appear to be driven by bark physico-chemical properties, tree canopy setting, the diversity of in-canopy microenvironments (e.g., tree holes, bark fissures, and epiphytes), and several possible conidia exchange processes (teleomorph aerosols, epi-faunal exchanges, fungal colonization of canopy microhabitats, and droplet impacts, etc.). The review reveals a more complex function of stemflow fungi, having a role in self-cleaning tree surfaces (which play air quality-related ecoservices themselves), and, on the other hand, these fungi may have a role in the protection of the host plant.

Operational pollen monitoring networks have developed across Europe, and the world more generally, in response to the increasing prevalence of pollen allergy and asthma. Routine pollen observations are in large part currently still based on time-intensive manual techniques developed in the 1950s. These methods suffer from low temporal resolution and long delays in data availability. Recent technological developments are revolutionising the field making real-time high-temporal resolution measurements possible. This paper describes the rationale behind the EUMETNET AutoPollen programme, which aims to develop a prototype automatic pollen monitoring network across Europe. We provide a brief description of the current state-of-the-art, then an overview of new technologies, and finally the main tasks of the AutoPollen programme.

Háztartásainkban előforduló mikroszkopikus gombák gyakran extrém környezethez alkalmazkodtak, ilyen például a különböző vizes berendezésekben kialakuló magas hőmérséklet, változó kémhatás és nedvesség. E környezet a higiénés szokásaink megváltozásával időről-időre átalakul. A készülékekben megtelepedő gombáknak egészségkockázata lehet. Vizsgálatunk során célul tűztük ki a mosógépekben előforduló gombafajok azonosítását, gyakoriságuk és növekedésük vizsgálatát a mosógépekre jellemző fizikai és kémiai körülmények között, továbbá a mosógép-használati szokások és a gombaszennyezettség közötti összefüggések elemzését. Ennek érdekében tenyésztéses gombavizsgálatokhoz mintákat gyűjtöttünk 62 mosógépből, továbbá ezzel párhuzamosan kérdőíves felmérést végeztünk a használati szokásokra vonatkozóan. A mosógépek 32%-a erősen szennyezettnek bizonyult. A vizsgált készülékek 46%-át opportunista humánpatogén gombák kolonizálták. Szignifikánsan több gombafajt találtunk azokban a mosógépekben, melyeket konyhában (p=0.021), illetve fűtetlen helyiségben (p=0.003) tartottak. A kimutatott fajok patogének lehetnek cisztás fibrózisban és asztmában szenvedők esetében. Vizsgálataink alapján ajánlásokat fogalmaztunk meg a mosógéphasználattal járó esetleges egészségkockázat csökkentésére.

A zöld infrastruktúra jelentőségét az Európai Uniós szakpolitikák formálása során számos területen felismerték. A zöld infrastruktúra képes összeköttetést teremteni a meglévő természeti területek között, hat a gazdasági növekedésre, a termelékenységre és az emberi egészségre. A WHO Ottawai Charta néven ismertté vált dokumentuma már 1986-ban kiemelte, hogy a környezet jelentősen támogatja az emberi egészséget, így a természeti erőforrások megőrzése alapvető minden egészségvédő stratégiában. Az utóbbi években kezdtek felértékelődni azok az előnyök, amelyeket a természet sokszínűsége jelent az emberi egészség számára. Egyre több megalapozott bizonyíték áll rendelkezésre arról, hogy a természetes környezet milyen kedvező hatásokat fejt ki egészségünkre és milyen sokrétűen járul hozzá jóllétünkhöz. A közlemények kiemelik, hogy a természetnek pozitív hatása van a mentális és a fizikai egészségre, a gyógyulási hajlamra, szívműködésünkre, a koncentrálóképességre, a stressz és a vérnyomás csökkentésére, a viselkedésre és egyéb tényezőkre, különösen a gazdaságilag elmaradottabb közösségek, gyermekek, várandós édesanyák és idősek számára. Többen felhívják a figyelmet a szabadban való sportolás, fizikai aktvitás kedvező pszichés hatásaira is. A természetben tapasztalható gyors biodiverzitás csökkenés azonban egy másik megatrend, az asztma, allergia és egyéb krónikus gyulladásos folyamatok kialakulásához vezethet, elsősorban a városi lakosság körében. Itt meg kell említeni, hogy a városi növényzet allergizáló hatását sokféle tényező befolyásolhatja, az ún. “higiénés hipotézis” szerepe igen jelentős. Mindazonáltal a zöld környezet kedvező hatásai összességében ellensúlyozzák az allergia kialakulását. A várostervezők, fenntartók és döntéshozók számára fontos kihívás az egyre sűrűbben beépített városok tervezése, ugyanakkor meg kell felelni az ökoszisztémák fejlesztési és egészségi követelményeinek is. A városi zöldfelületek tervezését és fenntartását a helyi lehetőségeknek kell meghatározni, figyelembe véve a földrajzi és kulturális adottságokat.

Hagnosa longicapillata, gen. nov., sp. nov, is described and illustrated from wooden building materials collected in Hungary and from pure culture. This species has been collected exclusively from indoor environments, where it was quite common. The ascocarps develop in a thick layer of brown, woolly mats of mycelia. The ostiolar region of the perithecia is ornamented with a five-lobed, flower-shaped crown. Asci are four-spored; ascospores are dark brown, smooth, muriform, not constricted at the septa, and liberated mostly through crackings of the thin ascomatal wall. Apparently, ascospores are dispersed by the mechanical disturbance of the mycelial web. In the phylogenetic tree, Hagnosa samples were placed as a basal lineage, independently from the other family of Sordariomycetidae, with high support. To place Hagnosa in Sordariales, the new family, Hagnosaceae, is proposed.

Bevezetés: Azt tűztük ki célul, hogy elemezzük az összefüggést a hazánkban jelentős népegészségügyi problémának számító parlagfűpollen-allergia előfordulási gyakorisága és a hosszú távú pollenterhelés, valamint egyes légszennyezők (NO2, PM10, CO) hatása, továbbá egyes kora gyermekkori környezeti tényezők között. Módszerek: A vizsgálathoz az Országos Közegészségügyi Központ által végzett országos szintű, az ISAAC tanulmány kérdőívén alapuló felmérés (Országos Gyermek Légúti Felmérés, OGYELF, 2005) parlagfűallergiára és lehetséges kockázati tényezőire vonatkozó kérdéseit használtuk fel. A települések hosszú távú pollenexpozícióját az országot lefedő 19 aerobiológiai mérőállomás átlagos napi pollenkoncentrációiból számoltuk, míg a hosszú távú légszennyezettséget kormányrendelet alapján kialakított légszennyezettségi zónákba sorolás alapján kaptuk. Az elemzéshez leíró és analitikus statisztikai módszereket alkalmaztunk. Eredmények: A mérések alapján jellemző magas tartományban a pollenterhelés nem mutatott szignifikáns összefüggést az allergia rizikójával. Országos szinten szignifikánsan kisebb volt az allergia előfordulása az alacsonyabb légszennyezettségű területeken, Pest megye kizárása után azonban ez a szignifikáns hatás eltűnt. Gyakrabban fordult elő allergia fiú gyermekeknél, továbbá növelte az allergia rizikóját a pozitív családi anamnézis, a kora gyermekkori súlyos, alsó légúti infekció, a különálló, saját gyermekszoba. A rendszeres szociális juttatásban részesülő szülők gyermekeinél kisebb gyakorisággal fordult elő allergia. A várandósság alatti dohányzás negatív összefüggést mutatott a kimenetellel az országos elemzésben, de Pest megye kizárásával a szignifikancia eltűnt. Az anyai életkor a gyermek születésekor nem mutatott szignifikáns összefüggést az allergiarizikóval. Következtetés: A genetikai hajlam mellett számos környezetei tényező is szerepet játszik a fokozott allergiarizikó hátterében, ugyanakkor az előfordulási gyakoriságot egyéb faktorok (szülői ismeretek az allergia tüneteiről, infrastrukturális különbségek, ellátórendszerhez való hozzáférhetőség) is befolyásolhatják, melyek hatását további vizsgálatokban tervezzük elemezni.

The composition of fungal biota and air quality of five traditional subterranean wine cellars and one store building of a modern wine production facility were examined in the Tokaj wine region (northeastern Hungary). Air samples were collected with SAS IAQ sampler onto PDA, MEA and RBA. Strains representing morphotypes were isolated from colonies formed on agar plates from either air or surface samples. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene cluster was amplified with primers ITS1 and ITS4. Altogether 90 morphotypes were isolated, 48 and 12 strains (43 species) from the air and surfaces, respectively. The number of spore-forming species generated high diversity of indoor fungi and differences between the cellars’ fungal compositions; however, their dominant species were proved to be the same. Among the isolated strains Penicillium spp. were the most frequent. The walls of cellars were covered by colonies of Zasmidium (Cladosporium) cellare often referred to as a noble mold. Even so, this mold has been found only at a small concentration in the air samples (10–30 CFU/m3). The walls of the modern store were free of molds. Diversity of fungi of the examined wine cellars was influenced by environmental conditions to a certain degree, such as elevation (height above sea level), age, reconstruction time of cellars, indoor ethanol concentration and the number of chimneys. The location of cellars poorly influenced the concentration of fungi of the air inside cellars, contrary to outdoors where the air of the municipal area contained more CFUs than that of rural spaces.

Substantial knowledge is available on the association of the indoor school environment and its effect among schoolchildren. In the same context, the SINPHONIE (School indoor pollution and health: Observatory network in Europe) conducted a study to collect data and determine the distribution of several indoor air pollutants (IAPs), physical and thermal parameters and their association with eye, skin, upper-, lower respiratory and systemic disorder symptoms during the previous three months. Finally, data from 115 schools in 54 European cities from 23 countries were collected and included 5175 schoolchildren using a harmonized and standardized protocol. The association between exposures and the health outcomes were examined using logistic regression models on the environmental stressors assessed in classroom while adjusting for several confounding factors; a VOC (volatile organic compound) score defined as the sum of the number of pollutants to which the children were highly exposed (concentration > median of the distribution) in classroom was also introduced to evaluate the mul tiexposu re - outcome association. Schoolchildren while adjusting for several confounding factors. Schoolchildren exposed to above or equal median concentration of PM2.5, benzene, limonene, ozone and radon were at significantly higher odds of suffering from upper, lower airways, eye and systemic disorders. Increased odds were also observed for any symptom (sick school syndrome) among schoolchildren exposed to concentrations of limonene and ozone above median values. Furthermore, the risks for upper and lower airways and systemic disorders significantly increased with the VOCs score. Results also showed that increased ventilation rate was significantly associated with decreased odds of suffering from eye and skin disorders whereas similar association was observed between temperature and upper airways symptoms. The present study provides evidence that exposure to IAPs in schools is associated with various health problems in children. Further investigations are needed to confirm our findings. (C) 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

International audience; There are multiple distinct habitats for microbiota inhabiting the plant microbiome (phyllosphere, endosphere, litter, rhizosphere) and habitats that act as additional sources (and sinks) of microbes and nutrients for the plant microbiome (atmosphere, pedosphere, bedrock, and fauna). These habitats harbor distinctive microbial communities that differ in structure, composition, function, and spatiotemporal dynamics. Each habitat also differs in the mechanisms that provide “gateways” of exchange of microbes (and microbial products) between two communities, or in their access to “highways” that connect multiple communities. Of the environmental processes driving microbial community exchanges, precipitation events seem to represent the only one highway that can connect all the abovementioned habitats—the “hydrologic highway”. When precipitation contacts plants, it is partitioned into interception (water stored on, and evaporated from, plant surfaces), throughfall (water that drips from canopy surfaces and through gaps), and stemflow (water that is drained down the stem). This chapter describes the ways that precipitation partitioning in vegetated ecosystems (into interception, throughfall, and stemflow) may connect microbial communities from the top (atmospheric boundary layer) to the bottom (bedrock face) of the critical zone via these hydrologic highways.

For close to a century, scientists have recognized the important role of throughfall and stemflow (precipitation water that falls through plant canopies and runs down plant stems, respectively) in the cycling of materials. These “hydrologic highways” carry atmospherically deposited and canopy-derived materials from the top of the plant canopy to the ground below, thus integrating biological, physical, and chemical processes occurring at the top of and within the canopy and linking above and belowground components of ecosystems. Diverse in nature, abundance, composition, and effects, the materials that flow through plant canopies can be dissolved or particulate, living or nonliving, nutrients or pollutants, beneficial or pathogenic. Yet, despite decades of research, only a small fraction of the components within throughfall and stemflow have been “seen” in studies on material cycles. Thus, our goal in this chapter is to uncover and call attention to the plethora of “unseen” materials in throughfall and stemflow, for example, those that are discarded after filtration and those that remain hidden within precipitation waters. From a biogeochemical standpoint, their quantification is important. Recent research highlights the abundance of particulates, bacterial cells, fungi, and potentially even microplastics in throughfall and stemflow with broader social, economic, and ecological implications for nutrient cycling, soil formation and fertility, decomposition, aquatic ecosystems, climate change, air quality, decontamination, radiation hygiene, species distribution, and disease transmission.

The usage of bottled water dispensers (BWDs) has spread worldwide. Despite their popularity, few studies have dealt with their microbial contaminants, and little attention is given to their fungal contamination. To our knowledge this is the first mycological study of BWDs in Europe. 36 devices have been examined in Budapest, Hungary. Despite of the strictly regulated water hygiene system in Hungary, molds and yeasts were detected in 86.8% of the samples, 56.76% were highly contaminated. Elevated heterotrophic plate counts were also observed in all samples compared to that of Hungarian drinking water. As all physical and chemical water quality characteristics have met the relevant national and European parametric values and neither totally explained the results of microbial counts, the effect of usage and maintenance habits of the devices were examined. Fungal concentrations were affected by the time elapsed since disinfection, days remaining until expiration of bottles, month of sampling and exposure to sunlight during storage. Microbes are able to proliferate in the bottled water and disperse inside the BWDs. Many of the detected fungal species (Sarocladium&nbsp, kiliense, Acremonium&nbsp, sclerotigenum/egyptiacum, Exophiala&nbsp, jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, Exophiala&nbsp, equina, Meyerozyma&nbsp, guilliermondii, Cystobasidium&nbsp, slooffiae, Aspergillus&nbsp, jensenii, Bisifusarium&nbsp, biseptatum) are opportunistic pathogens for subpopulations of sensitive age groups and patients with immunodeficient conditions, including cystic fibrosis. Thus BWDs may pose a health risk to visitors of healthcare institutions, especially to patients with oral lesions in dental surgeries. The study draws attention to the need to investigate microbial contamination of these devices in other countries as well.

The present study applied indicator value analysis as a novel approach to estimate honey authenticity: microscopic indicators of honey origin were identified based on the distinct fungal content of honeys from different sources. The abundance and the IndVal index of 34 selected fungal spore types were quantified in 82 melissopalynological honey samples originating from various honeydew (Pinus, Abies) or nectar sources using multivariate statistical approaches. A dissimilarity matrix of honey samples was obtained by computing Bray-Curtis coefficients, and the distances were visualized using non-metric multidimensional scaling. K-means clustering was applied to sample coordinates to create a classification based on the frequency of selected fungal taxa. Strikingly, the resulting clusters were on a high level of agreement with the melissopalynological or geographical classification of samples. Various fungal taxa were shown to characterize groups of honey samples with a significant indicator value: floral honeys (Metschnikowia reukaufii), Pinus honeydew honeys (Capnobotrys sp., Antennatula sp.), Abies honeydew honeys from Greece (staurospore and scolecospore types) and honeydew honeys from Italy (Tripospermum spp. and Excipularia fusispora). Having revealed that the mere presence of distinct fungal taxa can indicate differences in the botanical and geographical source of honeys, the present findings encourage the confirmation of honey origin also by recording the occurrence of given honeydew elements during routine melissopalynological analysis.

Water-filled tree holes (dendrotelmata) are mostly ephemeral micro-ecosystems characterized by high level of heterotrophic microbial activity sustained by allochthonous organic matter. In this paper, description of a five-year long observation of fungal consortia in a Norway maple tree-hole is presented. Overall, 139 fungal taxa were detected. Among them, Excipularia fusispora, Ellisembia leptospora, Rebentischia unicaudata, Tricladium castaneicola, Thielavia terricola and Alternaria spp. occurred most frequently. Our observations suggest that even an individual dendrotelma represents an exceptional microhabitat, forming a hot-spot for microfungi due to its role as a natural spore trap and its (temporarily) aquatic environment. Our results show that this aquatic micro-ecosystem supports highly diverse mycobiota with continuous temporal dynamics, with an important fraction of sporadic taxa.

Mycoceros antennatissimus gen. et sp. nov. is described and illustrated from pollen grains deposited on the bark of Elaeagnus angustifolia and Platanus × acerifolia in Hungary. This fungus is shown to capture pollen grains by its three-dimensional shape. It clearly shows seasonality and appears to be rare. The following factors determine its ecological niche: (1) the availability of fresh Pinaceae pollen grains deposited from the air on the bark of a nearby standing angiosperm tree with (2) water-retaining spongious bark, and (3) rainy weather. Conidia are mainly dispersed by stemflow rainwater, while they hardly become airborne. Direct polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from single conidia made it possible to perform molecular phylogenetic investigation in order to clarify its taxonomic relationship within the Ascomycota.

Lecophagus vermicola sp. nov. is described and illustrated as a predacious (carnivorous) hyphomycete living in bark fissures of living trees of Platanus and other angiosperm and gymnosperm trees, recorded in Hungary, Luxembourg and France. The fungus captures nematodes unlike other Lecophagus species, which are predators of rotifers and tardigrades. The morphology of the sessile, adhesive knobs differ from all previously described species of the genus which form adhesive pegs. Molecular data confirms that the new species belongs to the Lecophagus clade but without matching existing sequences. The fungus captures victims with adhesive knobs and colonizes its prey with a mycelium of rather broad hyphae on which, again, adhesive knobs are formed which penetrate the cuticule of the victim. Clusters of colonized nematodes form a network utilized to capture more prey. The fungus lives in the xeric, ephemerally aquatic habitat of bark fissures of standing, living or dead, corticated trunks and branches. The genus Haptocara is compared, which has similar adhesive knobs capturing nematodes and similar broad hyphae, but for which no molecular data was available.

BACKGROUND Higher exposure to air pollution may contribute to the increased prevalence of allergic diseases in children. The study investigated the associations between the prevalence of childhood respiratory diseases and long-term exposure to NO2, SO2, PM10, furthermore some surrogates in schoolchildren in Hungary. We also analysed the possible modification effects of some confounders by interaction analysis. METHODS A total of 6,771 children aged 8-9-year-old residing at their current addresses since their births with air pollution monitoring stations were selected into this analysis. Health outcomes and their possible determinants, as well as, surrogates of air pollution were surveyed by using a standardized questionnaire. Long-term exposure to PM10, NO2, and SO2 was calculated at settlement level derived from daily average concentrations of pollutants. Descriptive and analytical statistical methods were applied. RESULTS NO2 levels were positively associated with respiratory allergies and asthma. Decreased risk for ragweed, any other pollen, house dust mite and animal fur allergy was detected with PM10 level. There were significant associations between respiratory allergies to ragweed, any other pollen, house dust mite, animal fur, wheeze symptoms and living or attending school nearby a factory, power station or bus station as well as living in a home with intensive noise or vibration. Gender, parental atopy, home mold and early respiratory infection were significant effect modifiers in some cases. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate that respiratory health in children is adversely affected by air pollutants.

Washing machines (WMs) are convenient places for fungal colonization. This study is focused on fungal diversity of WMs, and investigates relationships between habits of WM users and colonising species. Housekeeping conditions and habits were assessed in Hungary with a questionnaire. Several fungal species were identified by microscopy and sequence analysis of diagnostic loci. Based on the results, 32 % of the sampled WMs were highly polluted with various species of fungi. Forty six percent of them were colonised also by opportunistically human pathogenic species. In total, 32 yeast and 39 filamentous fungal strains were isolated. Growth tests were conducted with five selected taxa (Cutaneotrichosporon dermatis, Cystobasidium slooffiae, Meyerozyma guilliermondii, Candida parapsilosis and the Fusarium oxysporum species complex (FOSC)) to ascertain their tolerance ranges. None of the examined isolates were able to grow50 °C, 4.10pH10.88. FOSC could grow at high salinity. More species were detected in WMs operated in rooms without heating systems (p = 0.0025). The number of species was higher in WMs located in the kitchen than the ones kept in bathroom or in other rooms (p = 0.0205). WMs may serve as a reservoir of pathogenic fungi, the presence of which may depend on the usage of these devices.

Introduction and objective Hungary is one of the areas in Europe most infected with ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) and its pollen, and is the most important cause of seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis in the country. The aim of the study was to investigate the association between ragweed pollen allergy and long-term ragweed pollen load, as well as analysis of the the impacts of additional potential risk factors on health outcomes. Material and methods A modified version of standardized questionnaires, based on the International Study of Asthma and Allergy in Childhood, were completed by the parents of schoolchildren aged 8 - 9 attending 3rd grade classes throughout the country. Pollen load was calculated for each settlement from daily ragweed pollen concentrations monitored by 19 monitoring stations in the country. Descriptive and analytical statistical methods were applied. Results At national level there was a significant inverse association between prevalence of ragweed allergy and its pollen load, but significance was lost after excluding data from Budapest, the capital city, due to the impact of urbanization. In the adjusted model, parental atopic disease was the strongest risk factor (either parent had atopic disease aOR=2.60; 95% CI=2.31-2.93 or both parents had atopic disease aOR=4.56; 95% CI=3.71-5.60). Further significant risk factors were male gender (aOR=1.52; 95% CI=1.36-1.71), lower respiratory infection in the first two years of life (aOR=1.91; 95% CI=1.70-2.16), and unshared children's room (aOR=1.22; 95% CI=1.09-1.37). Allergy was significantly less common among children whose parents received social aid (aOR=0.83; 95% CI=0.72-0.97) and whose mother smoked during pregnancy (aOR=0.80; 95% CI=0.64-0.99). Conclusions Higher ragweed pollen exposure was not found to be associated with higher risk of ragweed allergy.

In this study, the effect of the thermophilic fungi of composts was analysed on the fungal composition of the air above. Air samples were collected with an Andersen air sampler at 1.5 m height in three large industrial composting facilities treating different waste types. Repetition was collected on three calm and rain-free days of three consecutive weeks in October 2011, in January, April and July 2012; five plates were exposed successively per sampling day. Compost samples were also collected (averaging 1 kg/compost piles). Air and compost samples were cultured at 50 °C. The thermophilic fungal composition of the air near the compost piles of different waste types differed significantly (p

The mycobiota of the Orchidarium of ELTE Botanical Garden (Budapest) has been studied applying aerobiological methods and isolating of tissue samples taken from 92 individuals of sixty orchid species. Among isolated basidiomycetaceous fungi 13 strains of Rhizoctonia solani were surviving in axenic culture. These symbiotic R. solani strains proved to be pathogenic on 24 cultivated plant species at varying degree. The symptoms of disease caused by R. solani strains isolated from orchids did not differ from that caused by reference strains. Three groups of strains could be separated regardless of their source or aggressivity. The host plants clustered into two groups, and their taxonomic position had no role in this respect. In general, we can assume that orchid associated Rhizoctonia strains are potential plant pathogens, and removed or withdrawn orchid stools should be treated as hazardous waste.

The emission parameterization is a crucial part of numerical pollen dispersion models. This paper shows that Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) can substantially improve the performance of the Ambrosia pollen emission in numerical pollen dispersion models such as COSMO-ART. Based on simultaneous measurement of Ambrosia pollen concentrations and meteorological variables in the source area, ANNs were trained to predict the diurnal profile of pollen emission. Six different combinations of explanatory meteorological variables were trained with five different ANN configurations resulting in 30 candidate emission models. The best network configuration for each combination of explanatory variables were used as emission parameterization in the numerical pollen dispersion model COSMO-ART. In addition, two benchmarks were implemented: an emission parameterization based on sigmoid functions and an artificial neural network using only time as an explanatory variable. The Ambrosia pollen seasons of 2015 and 2016 were simulated using the two benchmarks and the six emission parameterizations. The modelled diurnal profile of emission fluxes at 15 different sites from Serbia, Hungary and France with strong local pollen sources were compared with observed concentrations. Artificial Neural Networks based emission parameterization substantially improved the performance of the Ambrosia pollen emission in COSMO-ART compared to the emission based on the sigmoid functions in all these three countries. However, a time-related explanatory variable must be used. This suggests that the ANN-based emission parameterizations can be used at distant locations as well. On the other hand, the use of meteorological related parameters did not increase the performance compared with the time-only benchmark.

Several countries refuse the import of wheat if it is contaminated with Tilletia spp. Local quarantine regulations are in effect regarding Tilletia indica and Tilletia controversa as part of a strategy to first hinder the disease from establishing in the country or eradicate the disease and, more recently, to prohibit the spread of it. Because of the economic importance of these fungal pathogens in the warehouses, the aerobiology of Tilletia spp. should be known better. Air (with a portable Hirst-type volumetric impaction sampler) and wheat seeds were collected in two central grain warehouses in Budapest (Bp) and Jaszapati (Ja) and in 14 farm warehouses. Quarantine organisms (T. controversa and T. indica) were not detected in any of the samples. Tilletia caries dominated in the air and seed samples, while Tilletia laevis were present only in a low concentration in the samples collected in Bp, but this fungus was absent in both Ja and the farm warehouses. Teliospore levels of the two different sites of wheat storage rooms in Bp were compared, but no significant difference was found between them (p = 0.16). Similarly, the volume of stored wheat did not significantly affect the Tilletia spp. concentrations (p = 0.46) in the air. Teliospore levels in seed samples correlated with those in the air samples which were collected from above the wheat heaps (r = 0.596, p

Fusarium is globally one of most important genera of fungi, causing an array of plant diseases, producing mycotoxins and adversely affecting human health. Some Fusarium species are associated with grasses, as saprophytes, endophytes or pathogens. A study was carried out on the distribution and diversity of Fusarium species associated with non-agricultural grasses, maize, sorghum and millet in Hungary. Grasses (Poaceae), both agricultural and wild, are important hosts of pathogenic Fusarium species. Little is known, however, about endophytic fusaria in wild grasses in Hungary.The aim of this paper was to present data on the occurrence of fusaria on grass species collected from wild populations. A total of 106 plants belonging to 43 different grass species were collected in different locations in Hungary, and 11 different Fusarium species were isolated from the stems of 62.3% of the plant samples. The most common species were F. compactum (19.1%), F. equiseti (16.2%) and F. graminearum (14.7%). Wild grasses...

Response of 19 wheat varieties cultivated in Hungary varied within large limits to soil borne Rhizoctonia infection. The most frequent symptom, usually leading to damping off was the root neck necrosis. Four significant factors influencing the susceptibility of wheat comprised 71% of total variation but none of them was dominant. The inhibition of development of survivors in Rhizoctonia infested soil correlated with overall susceptibility of variety concerned. The varieties Emese, Kikelet and Palotas are proved to be less susceptible, but none of the varieties could be certified as tolerant. No relationships were revealed between pathogenicity of 26 Rhizoctonia strains studied and their taxonomic position or origin. The anamorph strains of Athelia, Ceratobasidium, Ceratorhiza and Waitea similar to Thanatephorus anamorphs selectively infected the wheat varieties, but the syndromatic pictures were undistinguishable with unarmed eye. R. solani was proved to be more aggressive against germinating wheat than R. cerealis. Nine significant factors influencing the virulence of Rhizoctonia strains comprised 82% of total variation, and six of them influenced exclusively Thanatephorus anamorphs.

Airborne propagules of Fusarium spp. were collected on Fusarium selective medium with Andersen sampler in maize field. Fusarium isolates were identified based on morphological characters and using speciesspecific primersVERT 1/2, PRO 1/2 and SUB 1/2. The PCR analysis confirmed morphological identification of F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum and F. subglutinans. The VERTF 1/2 set of primers were used to discriminate potential fumonisin-producing strains of F. verticillioides, and all F. verticillioides strains scored positive for VERTF 1/2 pair of primers. This is the first study where specific primers were used for the confirmation of morhological determination of the above-mentioned Fusarium species, and selection of fumonisin-producing airborne isolates of F. verticillioides in Hungary.

In a continental climate, the pathogens causing the most serious problems are species belonging to the Fusarium genus. When the pathogen attacks the stalk, the plant dies earlier, reducing grain filling and resulting in small, light ears. In addition, the stalks break or lodge, resulting in further yield losses from ears that cannot be harvested. During the three years of the experiment, 14 inbred lines were examined. The genotypes were sown in a two-factor split-plot design with four replications, with the genotypes in the main plots and four treatments in the subplots: two Fusarium graminearum isolates (1. FG36, 2. FGH4), 3. sterile kernels, 4. untreated control. The results experiments showed significant differences between the genotypes for resistance to fusarium stalk rot. Among the inbred lines the best resistance to fusarium stalk rot was exhibited by P06 and P07, both of which were related to ISSS. The precision and sensitivity of disease evaluations carried out visually and using image analysis software were compared in the experiment, and with two exceptions the CV values were lower for the image analysis. As the CV for measurements can be considered as a relative error, it can be stated that image analysis is the more precise of the two methods, so this technique gives a more accurate picture of the extent of stalk rot. The extent of stalk rot developing in response to natural infection is extremely environment-dependent, so the use of artificial inoculation is recommended for selection trials.

The orchid collection of the ELTE Botanical Garden, Budapest, Hungary was monitored for airborne fungi using viable and non-viable air-sampling methods (Hirst-type and a 3-stage Andersen sampler) with three different culture media. A new culture method was also applied to identify fungal spores from Hirst-type samples. The aim of this study was to determine the diversity, human- and phytopathological potential of the air spora. To find out sources of airborne fungi, samples were collected from the air in an adjacent greenhouse and outdoors, and from necrotic plants. A total of 58 genera were found in the air samples. Cladosporium and Penicillium spp. were common members of the airborne biota. A high proportion (27.5%) of identified genera may be presented as a member of microbial consortium associated with the orchids. Airborne fungi potentially pathogenic to humans were also detected. One species, Zygosporium masonii, was new to Hungary. Statistical analysis indicated that conditions of sampling had significant effects. The principal component analysis elucidated the three principal components representing 75.34% of the total variance; the clusters of variables were related to the three types of culture media. Relative abundance of small-sized spores was high, presumably because of the fungal species composition and accelerated sedimentation of large spores in still air. Apparently, in the studied orchid greenhouse, a specific mycobiota developed due to the climate and hosts (Orchideaceae) grown there.

The anamorphic taxon Pyrigemmula aurantiaca gen. et sp. nov. is described and illustrated from specimens that were collected from the inner bark of living woody hosts (Vitis vinifera, Pyrus communis, Mespilus germanica, Platanus hybrida, Elaeagnus angustifolia) and plant debris in Hungary. The fungus is generically distinct in the nature of the pyriform, golden conidiogenous cell with a solitary terminal pore and the ellipsoidal, distoseptate, phragmoconidia that germinate from each end and that have a rarely noted internal hilum quite unlike the hilum of the conidiogenous cell. The new fungus is compared with the type species of a number of allied genera of hyphomycetes. Free spores of the fungus were trapped in air, honeydew sap and rainwater samples. Aerobiological studies showed that the spores are infrequent in the air, whereas their concentration increased with higher atmospheric pressure. Pyrigemmula aurantiaca lives in bark fissures and rarely becomes airborne and the spores are mainly dispersed by rain splash.