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Spearing mantis shrimps are aggressive crustaceans using specialized appendages with sharp spikes to capture fishes with a fast movement. Each spike is a biological tool that have to combine high toughness, as required by the initial impact with the victim, with high stiffness and strength, to ensure sufficient penetration while avoid breaking. We performed a multimodal analysis to uncover the design strategies of this harpoon based on chitin. We found that the spike is a slightly hooked hollow beam with the outer surface decorated by serrations and grooves to enhance cutting and interlocking. The cuticle of the spike resembles a multilayer composite: an outer heavily mineralized, stiff and hard region (with average indentation modulus and hardness of 68 and 3 GPa), providing high resistance to contact stresses, is combined with a less mineralized region, which occupies a large fraction of the cuticle (up to 50%) and features parallel fibers oriented longitudinally, enhancing stiffness and strength. A central finding of our work is the presence of a tiny interphase (less than 10 μm in width) based on helical fibers and showing a spatial modulation in mechanical properties, which has the critical task to integrate the stiff but brittle outer layer with the more compliant highly anisotropic parallel fiber region. We highlighted the remarkable ability of this helicoidal region to stop nanoindentation-induced cracks. Using three-dimensional multimaterial printing to prototype spike-inspired composites, we showed how the observed construction principles can not only hamper damage propagation between highly dissimilar layers (resulting in composites with the helical interphase absorbing 50% more energy than without it) but can also enhance resistance to puncture (25% increase in the force required to penetrate the composites with a blunt tool). Such findings may provide guidelines to design lightweight harpoons relying on environmentally friendly and recyclable building blocks.

International audience; Photopolymer-based additive manufacturing has received increasing attention in the field of acoustics over the past decade, specifically towards the design of tissue-mimicking phantoms and passive components for ultrasound imaging and therapy. While these applications rely on an accurate characterization of the longitudinal bulk properties of the materials, emerging applications involving periodic micro-architectured media also require the knowledge of the transverse bulk properties to achieve the desired acoustic behavior. However, a robust knowledge of these properties is still lacking for such attenuating materials. Here, we report on the longitudinal and transverse bulk properties, i.e., frequency-dependent phase velocities and attenuations, of photopolymer materials, which were characterized in the MHz regime using a double through-transmission method in oblique incidence. Samples were fabricated using two different printing technologies (stereolithography and polyjet) to assess the impact of two important factors of the manufacturing process: curing and material mixing. Overall, the experimentally observed dispersion and attenuation could be satisfactorily modeled using a power law attenuation to identify a reduced number of intrinsic ultrasound parameters. As a result, these parameters, and especially those reflecting transverse bulk properties, were shown to be very sensitive to slight variations of the manufacturing process.

The hardest and toughest tissues formed by living organisms are organic-mineral composites termed biominerals 1,2. When they are crystalline, their mesostructure includes the nano- and micro-scale crystallite size, shape, arrangement, and orientation. Mesostructures vary enormously across marine CaCO3 biominerals (aragonite, vaterite, calcite) because they result from divergent evolution: biominerals were formed long after organisms diverged from one another 3,4. Despite such diversity, CaCO3 marine biominerals share a convergent character: adjacent crystals are similarly oriented 5-32. The reason for such convergence is unclear. Here, we show with quantitative, precise measurements at the nanoscale that the slight misorientation is consistently between 1°-40° in diverse biominerals. Can this slight misorientation confer a desirable materials property and therefore an evolutionary advantage to the forming organisms? We test and confirm this hypothesis with nanoindentation in diverse biominerals, geologic aragonite, and in abiotic, slightly misoriented, synthetic spherulites. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of bicrystals reveal that aragonite, vaterite, calcite, exhibit toughness peaks when they are misoriented by 10°, 20°, 30°, respectively, demonstrating that slight misorientation alone increases crack deflection and therefore fracture toughness. Slight misorientation, along with other previously known and co-existing toughening mechanisms, was selected repeatedly and convergently, during the course of evolution, to postpone fracture and thus provide organisms with competitive advantage. We anticipate slight misorientation-toughening to be a starting point for more sophisticated materials synthesis and additive manufacturing in many fields. Compared to previously known toughening mechanisms, in fact, the advantages of slight misorientation are that it can and does occur in synthetic materials, it requires one material only and no specific top-down architecture, it is easily achieved by self-assembly of organic molecules (e.g. aspirin, chocolate), polymers, metals, and ceramics 29 well beyond biominerals.

International audience; Functional grading is a distinctive feature adopted by nature to improve the transition between tissues that present a strong mismatch in mechanical properties, a relevant example being the tendon-to-bone attachment. Recent progress in multi-material additive manufacturing now allows for the design and fabrication of bioinspired functionally graded soft-to-hard composites. Nevertheless, this emerging technology depends on several design variables, including both material and mechanistic ingredients, that are likely to affect the mechanical performance of such composites. In this paper, a model-based approach is developed to describe the interaction of ultrasound waves with homogeneous and heterogeneous additively manufactured samples, which respectively display a variation either of the material ingredients (e.g., ratio of the elementary constituents) or of their spatial arrangement (e.g., functional gradients, damage). Measurements are performed using longitudinal bulk waves, which are launched and detected using a linear transducer array. First, model is calibrated by exploiting the signals measured on the homogeneous samples, which allow identifying relationships between the model parameters and the material composition. Second, the model is validated by comparing the signals measured on the heterogeneous samples with those predicted numerically. Overall, the reported results pave the way for characterizing and optimizing multi-material systems that display complex bioinspired features.

Stomatopoda is a crustacean order including sophisticated predators called spearing and smashing mantis shrimps that are separated from the well-studied Eumalacotraca since the Devonian. The spearing mantis shrimp has developed a spiky dactyl capable of impaling fishes or crustaceans in a fraction of second. In this high velocity hunting technique, the spikes undergo an intense mechanical constraint to which their exoskeleton (or cuticle) has to be adapted. To better understand the spike cuticle internal architecture and composition, electron microscopy, X-ray microanalysis and Raman spectroscopy were used on the spikes of 7 individuals (collected in French Polynesia and Indonesia), but also on parts of the body cuticle that have less mechanical stress to bear. In the body cuticle, several specificities linked to the group were found, allowing to determine the basic structure from which the spike cuticle has evolved. Results also highlighted that the body cuticle of mantis shrimps could be a model close to the ancestral arthropod cuticle by the aspect of its biological layers (epi- and procuticle including exo- and endocuticle) as well as by the Ca-carbonate/phosphate mineral content of these layers. In contrast, the spike cuticle exhibits a deeply modified organization in four functional regions overprinted on the biological layers. Each of them has specific fibre arrangement or mineral content (fluorapatite, ACP or phosphate-rich Ca-carbonate) and is thought to assume specific mechanical roles, conferring appropriate properties on the entire spike. These results agree with an evolution of smashing mantis shrimps from primitive stabbing/spearing shrimps, and thus also allowed a better understanding of the structural modifications described in previous studies on the dactyl club of smashing mantis shrimps.

A contrast in Poisson ratio is a possible strategy to enhance the stiffness of composite structures. In solid materials Poisson ratio is hardly tailorable unless cellular architectures are considered. Here, we first investigated the effect of a single re-entrant inclusion acting as a defect into a regular (non-re-entrant) honeycomb lattice. Building on this, we generated regular patterns of re-entrant inclusions into a regular hexagonal cellular matrix and we characterized the apparent stiffness and Poisson ratio of the obtained structures. We also explored the role of the intrinsic material properties of the inclusion as well as of its closest environment on the interplay between the deformations of different phases in the lattice. Our main finding is that a small fraction of re-entrant inclusions (around 12%) is sufficient to generate a substantial augmentation in stiffness (300%) at constant overall relative density and without inducing strong anisotropy. Eventually, we fabricated by 3D polyjet printing bi-material composite architectures to demonstrate the superior mechanical behavior obtained exploiting the Poisson effect.

14 www.nature.com/bonekey P33 Wolff’s Law and the Interplay between Bone Structure and External Loading Davide Ruffoni1, Patrik Christen2, Heike Scherf3, Richard Weinkamer4 1Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium, 2Institute for Biomechanics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland, 3Institute for Archaeological Sciences, University of Tubingen, Tubingen, Germany, 4Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany

Anchorage of orthopedic implants depends on the interfacial bonding between the implant and the host bone as well as on the mass and microstructure of peri-implant bone, with all these factors being continuously regulated by the biological process of bone (re)modeling. In osteoporotic bone implant integration may be jeopardized not only by lower peri-implant bone quality but also by reduced intrinsic regeneration ability. The first aim of this review is to provide a critical overview of the influence of osteoporosis on bone regeneration post-implantation. Mechanical stimulation can trigger bone formation and inhibit bone resorption; thus, judicious administration of mechanical loading can be used as an effective non-pharmacological treatment to enhance implant anchorage. Our second aim is to report recent achievements on the application of external mechanical stimulation to improve the quantity of peri-implant bone. The review focuses on peri-implant bone changes in osteoporotic conditions and following mechanical loading, prevalently using small animals and in vivo monitoring approaches. We intend to demonstrate the necessity to reveal new biological information on peri-implant bone mechanobiology to better target implant anchorage and fracture fixation in osteoporotic conditions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Anchorage of orthopedic implants depends on the interfacial bonding between the implant and the host bone as well as on the mass and microstructure of peri-implant bone, with all these factors being continuously regulated by the biological process of bone (re)modeling. In osteoporotic bone, implant integration may be jeopardized not only by lower peri-implant bone quality but also by reduced intrinsic regeneration ability. The first aim of this review is to provide a critical overview of the influence of osteoporosis on bone regeneration post-implantation. Mechanical stimulation can trigger bone formation and inhibit bone resorption; thus, judicious administration of mechanical loading can be used as an effective non-pharmacological treatment to enhance implant anchorage. Our second aim is to report recent achievements on the application of external mechanical stimulation to improve the quantity of peri-implant bone. The review focuses on peri-implant bone changes in osteoporotic conditions and following mechanical loading, prevalently using small animals and in vivo monitoring approaches. We intend to demonstrate the necessity to reveal new biological information on peri-implant bone mechanobiology to better target implant anchorage and fracture fixation in osteoporotic conditions. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 36:584-593, 2018.

Bone is a complex material which exhibits several hierarchical levels of structural organization. At the submicron-scale, the local tissue porosity gives rise to discontinuities in the bone matrix which have been shown to influence damage behavior. Computational tools to model the damage behavior of bone at different length scales are mostly based on finite element (FE) analysis, with a range of algorithms developed for this purpose. Although the local mechanical behavior of bone tissue is influenced by microstructural features such as bone canals and osteocyte lacunae, they are often not considered in FE damage models due to the high computational cost required to simulate across several length scales, i.e., from the loads applied at the organ level down to the stresses and strains around bone canals and osteocyte lacunae. Hence, the aim of the current study was twofold: First, a multilevel FE framework was developed to compute, starting from the loads applied at the whole bone scale, the local mechanical forces acting at the micrometer and submicrometer level. Second, three simple microdamage simulation procedures based on element removal were developed and applied to bone samples at the submicrometer-scale, where cortical microporosity is included. The present microdamage algorithm produced a qualitatively analogous behavior to previous experimental tests based on stepwise mechanical compression combined with in situ synchrotron radiation computed tomography. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of simulating microdamage at a physiologically relevant scale using an image-based meshing technique and multilevel FE analysis; this allows relating microdamage behavior to intracortical bone microstructure.

Although mechanical stimulation is considered a promising approach to accelerate implant integration, our understanding of load-driven bone formation and resorption around implants is still limited. This lack of knowledge may delay the development of effective loading protocols to prevent implant loosening, especially in osteoporosis. In healthy bone, formation and resorption are mechanoregulated processes. In the intricate context of peri-implant bone regeneration, it is not clear whether bone (re)modelling can still be load-driven. Here, we investigated the mechanical control of peri-implant bone (re)modelling with a well-controlled mechanobiological experiment. We applied cyclic mechanical loading after implant insertion in tail vertebrae of oestrogen depleted mice and we monitored peri-implant bone response by in vivo micro-CT. Experimental data were combined with micro-finite element simulations to estimate local tissue strains in (re)modelling locations. We demonstrated that a substantial increase in bone mass around the implant could be obtained by loading the entire bone. This augmentation could be attributed to a large reduction in bone resorption rather than to an increase in bone formation. We also showed that following implantation, mechanical regulation of bone (re)modelling was transiently lost. Our findings should help to clarify the role of mechanical stimulation on the maintenance of peri-implant bone mass.

High dietary protein imposes a metabolic acid load requiring excretion and buffering by the kidney. Impaired acid excretion in CKD, with potential metabolic acidosis, may contribute to the progression of CKD. Here, we investigated the renal adaptive response of acid excretory pathways in mice to high-protein diets containing normal or low amounts of acid-producing sulfur amino acids (SAA) and examined how this adaption requires the RhCG ammonia transporter. Diets rich in SAA stimulated expression of enzymes and transporters involved in mediating NH4 (+) reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle. The SAA-rich diet increased diuresis paralleled by downregulation of aquaporin-2 (AQP2) water channels. The absence of Rhcg transiently reduced NH4 (+) excretion, stimulated the ammoniagenic pathway more strongly, and further enhanced diuresis by exacerbating the downregulation of the Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransporter (NKCC2) and AQP2, with less phosphorylation of AQP2 at serine 256. The high protein acid load affected bone turnover, as indicated by higher Ca(2+) and deoxypyridinoline excretion, phenomena exaggerated in the absence of Rhcg. In animals receiving a high-protein diet with low SAA content, the kidney excreted alkaline urine, with low levels of NH4 (+) and no change in bone metabolism. Thus, the acid load associated with high-protein diets causes a concerted response of various nephron segments to excrete acid, mostly in the form of NH4 (+), that requires Rhcg. Furthermore, bone metabolism is altered by a high-protein acidogenic diet, presumably to buffer the acid load.

Bone has the ability to adapt to external loading conditions. Especially the beneficial effect of short-term cyclic loading has been investigated in a number of in vivo animal studies. The aim of this study was to assess the long-term effect (>10 weeks) of cyclic mechanical loading on the bone microstructure, bone stiffness, and bone remodeling rates. Mice were subjected to cyclic mechanical loading at the sixth caudal vertebra with 8N or 0N (control) three times per week for a total period of 14 weeks. Structural bone parameters were determined from in vivo micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) scans performed at week 0, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14. Mechanical parameters were derived from micro-finite element analysis. Dynamic bone morphometry was calculated using registration of serial micro-CT scans. Bone volume fraction and trabecular thickness increased significantly more for the loaded group than for the control group (p = 0.006 and p = 0.002 respectively). The trabecular bone microstructure adapted to the load of 8N in approximately ten weeks, indicated by the trabecular bone volume fraction, which increased from 16.7% at 0 weeks to 21.6% at week 10 and only showed little change afterwards (bone volume fraction of 21.5% at 14 weeks). Similarly bone stiffness - (at the start of the experiment 649N/mm) - reached 846N/mm at 10 weeks in the loaded group and was maintained to the end of the experiment (850N/mm). At 4 weeks the bone formation rate was 32% greater and the bone resorption rate 22% less for 8N compared to 0N. This difference was significantly reduced as the bone adapted to 8N, with 8N remodeling rates returning to the values of the 0N group at approximately 10 weeks. Together these data suggest that once bone has adapted to a new loading state, the remodeling rates reduce gradually while maintaining bone volume fraction and stiffness.

The determining factors for the fixation of uncemented screws in bone are the bone-implant interface and the peri-implant bone. The goal of this work was to explore the role of the peri-implant bone architecture on the mechanics of the bone-implant system. In particular, the specific aims of the study were to investigate: (i) the impact of the different architectural parameters, (ii) the effects of disorder, and (iii) the deformations in the peri-implant region. A three-dimensional beam lattice model to describe trabecular bone was developed. Various microstructural features of the lattice were varied in a systematic way. Implant pull-out tests were simulated, and the stiffness and strength of the bone-implant system were computed. The results indicated that the strongest decrease in pull-out strength was obtained by trabecular thinning, whereas pull-out stiffness was mostly affected by trabecular removal. These findings could be explained by investigating the peri-implant deformation field. For small implant displacements, a large amount of trabeculae in the peri-implant region were involved in the load transfer from implant to bone. Therefore, trabecular removal in this region had a strong negative effect on pull-out stiffness. Conversely, at higher displacements, deformations mainly localized in the trabeculae in contact with the implant; hence, thinning those trabeculae produced the strongest decrease in the strength of the system. Although idealized, the current approach is helpful for a mechanical understanding of the role played by peri-implant bone.

On a sub-millimeter length scale, bone is a very heterogeneous material with varying mineral content. This heterogeneity can be measured by quantitative backscattered electron imaging (qBEI) and quantified by a probability distribution called the bone mineralization density distribution (BMDD). The stochastic nature of the backscattering of electrons during the measurement makes the results dependent on the acquisition time. In this work the influence of the measurement conditions was quantified and was corrected for using Tikhonov regularization. Deconvolution reduces the width of the BMDD and allows a more precise definition of a reference BMDD for healthy adults. The corrected information was used as input for a mathematical model that predicts the time evolution of the BMDD. Simulations of osteoporosis treatment reveal a double peak in the BMDD that is not observed in experiments due to limited acquisition time. Our method allows determining the necessary acquisition time to resolve such double peaks.

Stem cell-mediated gene therapy for fracture repair, utilizes genetically engineered mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for the induction of bone growth and is considered a promising approach in skeletal tissue regeneration. Previous studies have shown that murine nonunion fractures can be repaired by implanting MSCs over-expressing recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2). Nanoindentation studies of bone tissue induced by MSCs in a radius fracture site indicated similar elastic modulus compared to intact murine bone, eight weeks post treatment. In the present study we sought to investigate temporal changes in microarchitecture and biomechanical properties of repaired murine radius bones, following the implantation of MSCs. High resolution micro computed tomography (Micro-CT) was performed 10 and 35 weeks post MSC implantation, followed by micro finite element (Micro-FE) analysis. The results have shown that the regenerated bone tissue remodels over time, as indicated by a significant decrease in bone volume, total volume and connectivity density combined with an increase in mineral density. In addition, the axial stiffness of limbs repaired with MSCs was 2 to 1.5 times higher compared to the contralateral intact limbs, at 10 and 35 weeks post treatment. These results could be attributed to the fusion that occurred between in the ulna and radius bones. In conclusion, although MSCs induce bone formation, which exceeds the fracture site, significant remodeling of the repair callus occurs over time. In addition, limbs treated with an MSC graft demonstrated superior biomechanical properties, which could indicate the clinical benefit of future MSC application in nonunion fracture repair.

The heterogeneous distribution of mineral content in trabecular bone reflects the continuous renewal of bone material in bone remodeling and the subsequent increase in mineral content in the newly formed bone packets. The bone mineralization density distribution (BMDD) is typically used to describe this nonuniform mineral content of the bone matrix. Our mathematical model describes changes of the BMDD of trabecular bone as a function of bone resorption and deposition rates and the mineralization kinetics in a newly formed bone packet. Input parameters used in the simulations were taken from experimental studies. The simulations of the time evolution of the BMDD after increase in bone turnover (perimenopausal period) resulted in a shift of the BMDD toward lower values of the mineral content. Transiently, there was a broadening of the BMDD configuration partly showing two peaks, which points to a strongly heterogeneous distribution of the mineral. Conversely, when the remodeling rate was reduced (antiresorptive therapy), the BMDD shifted toward higher values of the mineral content. There was a transient narrowing of the distribution before broadening again to reach the new steady state. Results from this latter simulation are in good agreement with measurements of the BMDD of patients after 3 and 5 yr of treatment with risedronate. Based on available experimental data on bone remodeling, this model gives reliable predictions of changes in BMDD, an important factor of bone material quality. With the availability of medications with a known effect on bone turnover, this knowledge opens the possibility for therapeutic manipulation of the BMDD.

The mechanical integrity of the bone-implant system is maintained by the process of bone remodeling. Specifically, the interplay between bone resorption and bone formation is of paramount importance to fully understand the net changes in bone structure occurring in the peri-implant bone, which are eventually responsible for the mechanical stability of the bone-implant system. Using time-lapsed in vivo micro-computed tomography combined with new composite material implants, we were able to characterize the spatio-temporal changes of bone architecture and bone remodeling following implantation in living mice. After insertion, implant stability was attained by a quick and substantial thickening of the cortical shell which counteracted the observed loss of trabecular bone, probably due to the disruption of the trabecular network. Within the trabecular compartment, the rate of bone formation close to the implant was transiently higher than far from the implant mainly due to an increased mineral apposition rate which indicated a higher osteoblastic activity. Conversely, in cortical bone, the higher rate of bone formation close to the implant compared to far away was mostly related to the recruitment of new osteoblasts as indicated by a prevailing mineralizing surface. The behavior of bone resorption also showed dissimilarities between trabecular and cortical bone. In the former, the rate of bone resorption was higher in the peri-implant region and remained elevated during the entire monitoring period. In the latter, bone resorption rate had a bigger value away from the implant and decreased with time. Our approach may help to tune the development of smart implants that can attain a better long-term stability by a local and targeted manipulation of the remodeling process within the cortical and the trabecular compartments and, particularly, in bone of poor health.

The local interpretation of microfinite element (μFE) simulations plays a pivotal role for studying bone structure–function relationships such as failure processes and bone remodeling. In the past μFE simulations have been successfully validated on the apparent level, however, at the tissue level validations are sparse and less promising. Furthermore, intratrabecular heterogeneity of the material properties has been shown by experimental studies. We proposed an inverse μFE algorithm that iteratively changes the tissue level Young’s moduli such that the μFE simulation matches the experimental strain measurements. The algorithm is setup as a feedback loop where the modulus is iteratively adapted until the simulated strain matches the experimental strain. The experimental strain of human trabecular bone specimens was calculated from time-lapsed images that were gained by combining mechanical testing and synchrotron radiation microcomputed tomography (SRμCT). The inverse μFE algorithm was able to iterate the heterogeneous distribution of moduli such that the resulting μFE simulations matched artificially generated and experimentally measured strains.

Perfusion bioreactors are known to exert shear stresses on cultured cells, leading to cell differentiation and enhanced extracellular matrix deposition on scaffolds. The influence of the scaffold’s porous microstructure is investigated for a polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold with a regular microarchitecture and a silk fibroin (SF) scaffold with an irregular network of interconnected pores. Their complex 3D geometries are imaged by micro-computed tomography and used in direct pore-level simulations of the entire scaffold–bioreactor system to numerically solve the governing mass and momentum conservation equations for fluid flow through porous media. The velocity field and wall shear stress distribution are determined for both scaffolds. The PCL scaffold exhibited an asymmetric distribution with peak and plateau, while the SF scaffold exhibited a homogenous distribution and conditioned the flow more efficiently than the PCL scaffold. The methodology guides the design and optimization of the scaffold geometry.

This study sought to determine whether deficient Igf1 expression in osteocytes would affect loading-induced osteogenic response. Tibias of osteocyte Igf1 conditional knockout (KO) mice (generated by cross-breeding Igf1 floxed mice with Dmp1- Cre transgenic mice) and wild-type (WT) littermates were subjected to four-point bending for 2 wk. Microcomputed tomography confirmed that the size of tibias of conditional mutants was smaller. Loading with an equivalent loading strain increased periosteal woven bone and endosteal lamellar bone formation in WT mice but not in conditional KO mice. Consistent with the lack of an osteogenic response, the loading failed to upregulate expression of early mechanoresponsive genes ( Igf1, Cox-2, c-fos) or osteogenic genes ( Cbfa-1, and osteocalcin) in conditional KO bones. The lack of osteogenic response was not due to reduced osteocyte density or insufficient loading strain. Deficient osteocyte Igf1 expression reduced the loading-induced upregulation of expression of canonical Wnt signaling genes ( Wnt10b, Lrp5, Dkk1, sFrp2). The loading also reduced (by 40%) Sost expression in WT mice, but the loading not only did not reduce but upregulated (∼1.5-fold) Sost expression in conditional KO mice. Conditional disruption of Igf1 in osteocytes also abolished the loading-induced increase in the bone β-catenin protein level. These findings suggest an impaired response in the loading-induced upregulation of the Wnt signaling in conditional KO mice. In summary, conditional disruption of Igf1 in osteocytes abolished the loading-induced activation of the Wnt signaling and the corresponding osteogenic response. In conclusion, osteocyte-derived IGF-I plays a key determining role in bone mechanosensitivity.

Trabecular bone is a highly dynamic tissue due to bone remodeling, mineralization and demineralization. The mineral content and its spatial heterogeneity are main contributors to bone quality. Using time-lapsed in vivo micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), it is now possible to resolve in three dimensions where bone gets resorbed and deposited over several weeks. In addition, the gray values in the micro-CT images contain quantitative information about the local tissue mineral density (TMD). The aim of this study was to measure how TMD increases with time after new bone formation and how this mineralization kinetics is influenced by mechanical stimulation. Our analysis of changes in TMD was based on an already reported experiment on 15-week-old female mice (C57BL/6), where in one group the sixth caudal vertebra was mechanically loaded with 8 N, while in the control group no loading was applied. Comparison of two consecutive images allows the categorization of bone into newly formed, resorbed, and quiescent bone for different time points. Gray values of bone in these categories were compared layer-wise to minimize the effects of beam hardening artifacts. Quiescent bone in the control group was found to mineralize with a rate of 8 ± 1 mgHA/cm3 per week, which is about half as fast as observed for newly formed bone. Mechanical loading increased the rate of mineral incorporation by 63% in quiescent bone. The week before bone resorption, demineralization could be observed with a drop of TMD by 36 ± 4 mgHA/cm3 in the control and 34 ± 3 mgHA/cm3 in the loaded group. In conclusion, this study shows how time-lapsed in vivo micro-CT can be used to assess changes in TMD of bone with high spatial and temporal resolution. This will allow a quantification of how bone diseases and pharmaceutical interventions influence not only microarchitecture of trabecular bone, but also its material quality.

Animal models are widely used to gain insight into the role of genetics on bone structure and function. One of the main strategies to map the genes regulating specific traits is called quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis, which generally requires a very large number of animals (often more than 1000) to reach statistical significance. QTL analysis for mechanical traits has been mainly based on experimental mechanical testing, which, in view of the large number of animals, is time consuming. Hence, the goal of the present work was to introduce an automated method for large-scale high-throughput quantification of the mechanical properties of murine femora. Specifically, our aims were, first, to develop and validate an automated method to quantify murine femoral bone stiffness. Second, to test its high-throughput capabilities on murine femora from a large genetic study, more specifically, femora from two growth hormone (GH) deficient inbred strains of mice (B6- lit/lit and C3.B6- lit/lit ) and their first (F1) and second (F2) filial offsprings. Automated routines were developed to convert micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) images of femora into micro-finite element (micro-FE) models. The method was experimentally validated on femora from C57BL/6J and C3H/HeJ mice: for both inbred strains the micro-FE models closely matched the experimentally measured bone stiffness when using a single tissue modulus of 13.06 GPa. The mechanical analysis of the entire dataset (n = 1990) took approximately 44 CPU hours on a supercomputer. In conclusion, our approach, in combination with QTL analysis could help to locate genes directly involved in controlling bone mechanical competence.

Computational models are an invaluable tool to test different mechanobiological theories and, if validated properly, for predicting changes in individuals over time. Concise validation of in silico models, however, has been a bottleneck in the past due to a lack of appropriate reference data. Here, we present a strain-adaptive in silico algorithm which is validated by means of experimental in vivo loading data as well as by an in vivo ovariectomy experiment in the mouse. The maximum prediction error following four weeks of loading resulted in 2.4% in bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and 8.4% in other bone structural parameters. Bone formation and resorption rate did not differ significantly between experiment and simulation. The spatial distribution of formation and resorption sites matched in 55.4% of the surface voxels. Bone loss was simulated with a maximum prediction error of 12.1% in BV/TV and other bone morphometric indices, including a saturation level after a few weeks. Dynamic rates were more difficult to be accurately predicted, showing evidence for significant differences between simulation and experiment (p

Bone is probably the most frequently investigated biological material and finite element analysis (FEA) is the computational tool most commonly used for the analysis of bone biomechanical function. FEA has been used in bone research for more than 30 years and has had a substantial impact on our understanding of the complex behavior of bone. Bone is structured in a hierarchical way covering many length scales and this chapter reflects this hierarchical organization. In particular, the focus is on the applications of FEA for understanding the relationship between bone structure and its mechanical function at specific hierarchical levels. Depending on the hierarchical level, different issues have been investigated with FEA ranging from more clinically oriented topics related to bone quality (e.g., predicting bone strength and fracture risk) to more fundamental problems dealing with the mechanical aspects of biological processes (e.g., stress and strain around osteocyte lacunae) as well as with the micromechanical behavior of bone at its ultrastructure. A better understanding of the relationship between structure and mechanical function is expected to be important for the current trends in (bio)materials design, where the structure of biological materials is considered as a possible source of inspiration, as well as for more successful approaches in the prevention and treatment of age- and disease-related fractures.

Osteoporosis, the most prevalent degenerative disease in western societies, is characterized by a reduction in bone mass and altered architectural arrangement of bone tissue; however, how bone morphology on different length scales contributes to overall bone strength and how mechanical stresses are translated into biochemical signals is still poorly understood. This study aims to establish a framework for the automated high-throughput assessment of bone morphology and bone competence on length scales ranging from cellular to organ.

Many plant tissues and organs are capable of moving due to changes in the humidity of the environment, such as the opening of the seed capsule of the ice plant and the opening of the pine cone. These are fascinating examples for the materials engineer, as these tissues are non-living and move solely through the differential swelling of anisotropic tissues and in principle may serve as examples for the bio-inspired design of artificial actuators. In this paper, we model the microstructure of the wild wheat awn (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccoides) by finite elements, especially focusing on the specific microscopic features of the active part of the awn. Based on earlier experimental findings, cell walls are modeled as multilayered cylindrical tubes with alternating cellulose fiber orientation in successive layers. It is shown that swelling upon hydration of this system leads to the formation of gaps between the layers, which could act as valves, thus enabling the entry of water into the cell wall. This supports the hypothesis that this plywood-like arrangement of cellulose fibrils enhances the effect of ambient humidity by accelerated water or vapor diffusion along the gaps. The finite element model shows that a certain distribution of axially and tangentially oriented fibers is necessary to generate sufficient tensile stresses within the cell wall to open nanometer-sized gaps between cell wall layers.

The human parathyroid peptide fragment hPTH 134 is an anabolic drug which, given intermittently, turns on bone remodeling by increasing bone formation. Its exact mode of action is however still unclear to date. In an earlier study, we found that in mechanically loaded animals, formation occurs preferentially at highly loaded areas, and resorption at lowly strained areas [1]. Here we investigate if and how PTH combined with mechanical loading alters the mechanoregulation of bone remodeling. With this, we aimed at a better understanding of the effectiveness of PTH in the treatment of bone diseases such as osteoporosis.

It is widely accepted that osteocytes transduce mechanical signals in bone. To better understand the micromechanical response of the osteocyte lacunae to imposed macroscopic strains finite element (FE) models were introduced to predict how mechanical loads act on the lacuno canalicular network (LCN). Yet these FE analyses were based on idealized LCN models. Recent progress in imaging allows quantitative assessment of bone microstructure in 3D down to the level of individual osteocyte lacunae and its canaliculi. Our goal was to study the influence of the microstructure on the mechanical response to imposed macroscopic strains by combining true 3D LCN data with image based FE modeling.