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One of the most basic criteria in documenting rangeland use prospects is the recognition of byproducts and their economic appraisal. The current study was conducted to assess the economic indices of exploiting byproduct production in Shahindej, Northwest Iran. For this purpose, 24 by-product-generating species were selected in 114 locations that belong to 49 rangeland units. The total expected value of 24 by-product generating species yield and forage production was calculated at 44.22 USD ha(-1). The results of this study showed that the sustainability of natural resources depends on the effective participation and empowerment of local communities. Furthermore, by-product exploitation contributes significantly to the local economy and employment while also reducing grazing intensity. Overall, the findings of this study show that by-product earnings should be considered in range management schemes and comprehensive natural-area management.

Foetid juniper (Juniperus foetidissima Willd.) is one of the most important coniferous species faced with multiple threats and it is difficult to propagate it with sexual reproduction. Therefore, the main goal of this study was finding appropriate salt concentrations and growth regulators for shoot regeneration and rooting of J. foetidissima under in vitro conditions and also shortening time of mass production. The effects of 6 different basal culture media (Olive Medium (OM), Murashige and Skoog (MS), Driver and Kuniyuki (DKW), Woody Plant Medium (WPM), 1/2 MS, and 1/4 MS) on shoot proliferation and two different methods of root induction on explants were investigated. Results revealed that OM culture medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) (1 mg L−1) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) (0.1 mg L−1) was the best medium for shoot proliferation of J. foetidissima (P

Sumac (Rhus coriaria L.) is one of the important forest species dispersed in the northwest of Iran. It is one of the important spice in Iran and the Middle East because of active components containing organic acids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, tannins and terpenoids. This study aimed to investigate population structure and linkage disequilibrium (LD) extent within Rhus coriaria L. genotypes using ISSR markers and identify molecular markers associated with phytochemical traits using association analysis. In the molecular part of the experiment, the genetic diversity of 75 sumac genotypes from five different areas of northwest Iran was assessed by 18 ISSR primers. In the phenotypic assessment, the fruits of the sumac genotypes were analyzed using HPLC‐LC/MSMS for determining phytochemical components including maleic acid, ellagic acid, maleic acid hexoside, gallic acid, coumaric acid, quercetin, caftaric acid, and linoleic acid. The phenotypic data analysis revealed the great phenotypic diversity among and within Iranian sumac populations for the studied phytochemical traits. The studied sumac genotypes were divided into two subpopulations based on molecular marker‐based structure analysis. A significant level of LD was observed in 11.64% of the ISSR marker pairs (p, Present work was conducted to investigate population structure in a collection of Iranian sumac germplasm and identify the association of ISSR markers with phytochemical traits in the plant. A total 12 ISSR markers associated with studied traits was identified using an association mapping approach. These ISSR markers provide primary molecular information for marker‐assisted selection in sumac.

Our ability to forecast future Land use/cover changes (LUCC) is extremely limited due to lack of understanding of how rapid and drastic changes like socio-economic shocks and disturbances (e.g., po...

To avoid flooding and erosion hazards, post-fire management actions are essential in Mediterranean forests after severe wildfires. In this regard, mulching is the most common action but some mulch materials, such as straw, may lead to adverse impacts in burned forests. The use of yellow mistletoe fruits (Loranthus europaeus Jacq., hereafter “LE”) for the production of biodegradable mulch and its effectiveness in post-fire hydrology have never been studied. To fill this gap, this study has evaluated surface runoff and rainsplash erosion in a pine forest in Central Eastern Spain burned by a wildfire and mulched by a mixture of LE fruits and straw (with or without adding clay particles) using a portable rainfall simulator. Compared to untreated sites, runoff increased in burned and mulched soils (by 13.6% for the mixture without clay and by 17.2% when clay was added, in the latter case significantly). This increase was mainly due to the compact layer created by mulch application on the soil surface. However, the peak flow and the time to peak were lower in mulched soils (on average by 32.7% and 60.5%, significantly only for the mulch mixture without clay), thus indicating that, in these soils, peak runoff takes longer and its maximum value is lower compared to untreated sites. Soil erosion noticeably and significantly decreased (up to 97%) in mulched areas in comparison to untreated sites without significant differences between the two mixtures. Overall, this study indicates to land managers that soil mulching with a mixture of Loranthus europaeus Jacq. and straw is an effective post-fire management action to reduce the soil erosion risk after a wildfire.

Zagros Forest provides various ecosystem services such as food, timber, water, carbon storage, air purification, wildlife habitat as well as social and cultural benefits for both humans and animals. Due to the economic expansion beginning in the early 1990s in Iran and its resulting desertification, Zagros has lost numerous forests over the last 30 years. To overcome this issue, Zagros Forest Preservation Plan (ZFPP) has been under implementation in Northwestern Iran since 2003 to reduce forest destruction and attract the people's participation. However, it faced shortcomings caused by a variety of factors including insufficient funds, incomplete preservation, and unsuitable organization during implementation. This research aims to study the effect of ZFPP on forest loss in Sardasht County as a representative of Iranian Northern Zagros Forests. A series of Landsat images were used to analyze the forest loss before ZFPP implementation (1993–2002), after 10 years of implementation (2002–2012), and finally after its revision (2012–2016). Land Change Modeler (LCM) was employed to detect land cover changes for land cover prediction in 2024. We used land cover maps between 2002 and 2012 for calibration. We then compared the predicted land cover map from LCM with actual land cover map in 2016 for validation. The results indicated that 3330, 4562, and 1234 ha of forestlands converted to agricultural lands, rangelands, and built-up areas during 1993–2002, 2002–2012, and 2012–2016, with annual deforestation rates of -0.40%, -0.52% and -0.36%, respectively. The highest deforestation rate was observed between 2002 and 2012 because of the destructive effects of population growth. Land cover prediction indicated that per capita forest area would continue to decline while the other land cover uses would continue to grow more severely around the existing agricultural lands and built-up areas in Sardasht until 2024.

This study was conducted to determine indices and components of economic sustainability assessment in the pastoral units of Sahand summer rangelands. The method was based on descriptive-analytical survey (experts and researchers) with questionnaires. Analysis of variance showed that the mean values of economic components are significantly different from each other and the efficiency component has the highest mean value (0.57). The analysis of rangeland pastoral unitswith the technique for order-preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) indicated that from an economic sustainability standpoint, Garehgol (Ci = 0.519) and Badir Khan (Ci = 0.129), pastoral units ranked first and last, respectively. This study provides a clear understanding of existing resources and opportunities for policy makers that is crucial to approach economic sustainable development. Accordingly, this study can help better define sustainable development goals and monitor the progress of achieving them. (C) 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Research on species diversity in different gradients of altitudes, aspect and slope is attempting to understand the interactions of vegetation and the non-living environment. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of altitude, slope and aspect variation on the woody species diversity in the Oak forests of Zagros (northern of Iran). 178 samples were taken by using of transect method with a fixed length of 50 m. Altitude, slope, aspect, woody species and diameter at breast height of all trees was recorded in each transect. Margalef richness index, Shannon and Simpson diversity indices and Shannon evenness index were calculated. The Means of the different diversity indices were compared with Kruskal- Wallis test. Results showed that altitude had significant impact on the diversity, richness and evenness of woody species and the middle elevation class (1400 - 1600 m) allocated maximum values of indices. Also, the highest species richness was observed in the (0 - 20%) and (20 - 40%) slope classes but the slope hadn’t effected on the woody species evenness and diversity. The lowest amount of species richness was observed in the east aspect than other aspects. In general, it can be concluded that the altitude had a large proportion of diversity variation than slope and aspect in the research area.J. bio-sci. 23: 19-27, 2015

The present research aimed to quantitatively and economically evaluate Cornelian cherry (Cornus masL.) fruit as a non-timber forest product for a resident rural community across three consecutive years. A forest stand of 50 hectares in Kalaleh village, Northwest of Iran (Arasbaran biosphere reserve), was selected. After estimating the number of stems per hectare, the rate of fruit production rate was determined. Forty five individuals were then selected and assessed for their vegetative characteristics, including total height (m), crown height (m), crown diameter (m), diameter at breast height (mm), number of coppice shoots and annual fruit production (kg). Relationships between the vegetative characteristics and fruit production were then determined using multiple regression analysis to estimate the total fruit production per ha (estimated number of stems per hectare x mean fruit production per stem). Questionnaires and interviews were conducted to determine the number of stakeholders, quantity of fruit harvested and their harvesting methods; in addition to the costs and revenues of the harvest. Our results indicated that in 2012, 2013 and 2014, the annual total fruit production and local harvesting rates were: (i) 17 500, 10 705 and 8 169 kg and (ii) 4 900, 6 540 and 6 700 kg respectively. The revenue from selling the fruit contributed from 3.6% to 7.3% to household livelihoods. Mean economic rent of Cornelian cherry utilization and the average expected value of the forest were US$ 52.9 and US$ 17.6 respectively, while the average marketing margin of utilization was 65.5%. We believe that the inflated harvest rate recorded in 2014, which was above the allowable quota, might be a crucial threat to viability and also the sustainability of the forest stand. In conclusion, launching and implementing non-timber forest products projects including tree domestication is required to help conserving biodiversity in one hand and to sustainably manage natural resources in the other hand.

The role of armed conflicts on land use/cover changes (LUCC), especially in Zagros forests of Iran, remains ambiguous after 30 years of the Iraq-Iran war. Our goal in this study was to assess LUCC in Sardasht related to the Iraq-Iran war in a 22 year period (1976–1998). LUCC of Sardasht city was evaluated using Landsat satellite image time series of MSS and TM data. We classified multi-temporal Landsat imagery using Random Forest classifier, then Land Change Modeler (LCM) was used to change detection and analysis. Change detection results showed that during 1976–1998, 5363.37 ha of forest areas were declined and converted to the croplands, rangelands and built-up areas. The highest decrease of forest areas was in periods of before (1976–1984) and after the war (1988–1993 and 1993–1998), 1331, 1734, and 2066 ha, respectively. While, during the war (1984–1988), only 54 ha decrease has taken place in forest lands of Sardasht. Also, increasing in other land uses during this period was significantly less than other periods. Calculation of annual rate of deforestation showed that the period of 1993–1998, has the highest rate of degradation in forest areas with a rate of −0.45%. While, during and before the war, it was −0.01% and − 0.20%, respectively. With the start of the war, residents of the region migrated to safe areas. The result of this migration was reducing forest conversion to other land uses. Trends in deforestation and forest degradation intensified after the end of the war. The causes of this destruction were destroying regulatory and control infrastructure on forests and natural resources in addition to the return of the inhabitants and an increase in demand for food and agricultural development. Moreover, after the war, the attention of the government was towards supplying the needs of human societies. Therefore, not enough attention was paid to monitoring and controlling over the degradation of natural resources. It is therefore necessary to reduce residents' dependence on natural resources through accurate and detailed planning and to increase their participation in forest conservation. In this regard, conservation programs should be continued strongly.

Ecotourism development in a forest area includes many positive and negative aspects and requires a comprehensive study that can consider all simultaneously. Because of the inner and outer dependence or feedback links between the criteria in this research, the Analytical Network Process (ANP) based on the BOCR Model was used. Decision making and planning for the development of ecotourism is influenced by the attitude of experts towards development impacts. The question of this research was whether due to different environmental conditions in Iran, is it appropriate to follow ecotourism development patterns of developed countries? Given the different forest conditions in Iran, the weights of decision-making criteria for ecotourism development was significantly different for experts from Iran and developed countries. Weight difference for five sub-criteria, ECB2, ECB3, SOB4, ENC4 and, ENR2 were not significant, but for the rest of the sub-criteria were significant at 1% level. The results of comparing the mean weight values of the alternatives with an independent t-test indicated the difference was significant at 1% level. According to experts of the developed countries, ecotourism development with a weight of 0.927 and according to experts of Iran with a weight of 0.531 was prioritized.

We investigated the effects of planting interval and soil type on qualitative and quantitative charac - teristics of seven poplar ( Populus nigra) plantations with 1 × 1 m and 2 × 2 m planting intervals in Diwandareh. Pa - rameters including diameter at breast height (DBH), total height, crown height, stem height, number of suckers and crown vitality were measured and compared regarding soil characteristics and planting intervals. A transect method with 10% sampling intensity was used for collecting data. Results showed significant differences in the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of poplar trees between planting intervals and soil physical characteristics. An increase of the interval decreased total height and crown height, while stem height, number of suckers and crown vitality of poplar trees increased. But DBH of poplar trees did not increase in these areas. Vegetative characteristics showed the strongest correlation with physical properties of soil rather than with the chemical ones. Soil properties had higher effects on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the studied stands in comparison with planting intervals.

Protection policy of forests is an important strategy to improve quantitative and qualitative characteristics of forest stands and their services. In addition, the concurrence of global climate change and the decline in natural resources has led scientists to focus on the sustainable development of forest land use. Unfortunately, the allocation of different uses to land has led to urbanization, industrialization, and environmental risks. Forty-five years of forest protection policy in Arasbaran Biosphere Reserve, Northwest of Iran, has created a venue to assess the effectiveness of forest conservation-based management. For this purpose, by using random systematic sampling methodology, 132 samples (66 sample plots in the protected area and 66 sample plots in the unprotected area) with a total area of 300 square meters were collected in the northern slopes. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of woody species in each plot, as well as regeneration frequency, were recorded. Topsoil samples were also collected, and some soil characteristics were measured. Biodiversity indices were calculated for tree species using the inventory collected data. Results revealed that parameters such as diameter at the breast height (DBH), basal area (BA), proportions of seed-origin stems, total height, crown’s height, and canopy area were significantly higher in the protected area (p

Arasbaran forests are located in East Azerbaijan (northwest Iran). Increasing of socio-economic problems in this area causes destruction of biodiversity and structure of these forests. Using multipurpose trees such as cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L) to encourage villagers to produce forest by-products is a basic approach for preserving these forests. This species grows naturally in Arasbaran forests and the fruit is annually exploited using traditional harvest methods. This study aims to assess the ecological requirements of cornelian cherry and the important factors affecting its distribution. For this purpose, 40 circular sampling plots (300 m2) on various slope aspects were demarcated for sampling the occurrence of cornelian cherry in forest stands. DBH and crown cover percentage on north aspects were significantly greater than on other aspects and 4.5% of all trees were cornelian cherry in mature forest stands. North aspects had more seed-origin trees (standards) of cornelian cherry than coppiced trees, while west facing aspects had more coppiced than standard trees. This species had the highest regeneration rate in the sapling stage of 0–2.5 cm DBH. Thus, I recommend cultivation and development of cornelian cherry as a multi-purpose tree in the Arasbaran region on degraded forest lands on north and west aspects.

Most of the rangeland of Urmia in Iran is degraded and will require considerable reclamation to achieve a desirable state. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of 14 years of grazing exclusion on vegetation and soil properties in Imam Kandi rangelands. Sampling in both grazing exclosure and grazed areas were conducted using a systematic randomized sampling method. Six 100-m long transects were randomly located in each area and ten 1 × 1 m sampling plots were located along each transect. Within each plot, species presence, canopy cover, species yield, and plant densities were measured. Soil cores were taken in the center of each vegetation sampling plot at 0–30 cm and 30–60 cm depths. Organic matter, nitrogen content, the amounts of phosphorus and potassium, electrical conductivity (ECe), pH, the percentage of CaCO3, and soil texture were determined for each sample. Results indicate differences in plant canopy cover, species composition, and yield between the grazing exclosure and the control ...

In this study, a part of Arasbaran forest stands in two protected and non-protected areas have been compared for quantitative and qualitative factors of regeneration. Thus, using aerial photographs of 1967 in the scale of 1:20000, the similarity of these stands was examined and the comparable stands were chosen. Afterward, 77 circle plots of 0.01 ha in protected area and in the same way 77 circle plots of 0.01 ha in non-protected area with a grid size of 250x250 m were established. In each plot, all species with diameter at breast height (dbh) from zero to 7.5 cm were measured. According to the results the number of regeneration average in protected area was significantly higher than that in non-protected area. Oak and Hornbeam regeneration percentages showed highest significant difference in the selected areas. Additionally, these two species have the highest mixture percentage. The regeneration structure in both areas includes high and coppice systems, but coppice is prevalent. In both regions cutting, branching and grazing are the most important destructive factors, and the effects of these factors are higher in non-protected area.

To study the results of interference of strip cutting and single selection systems during the performance of the plan (1993-2003) in the Janbe Sara district, raw data which was collected during two years were compared together. Inventory was done in systematic random way and intensity of 3.3% in both years. In this research parameters like average diameter of basal area mean (in breast height), volume mean and density in ha, diameter distribution, regeneration situation and qualitative class of trees were studied. Totally this study's results showed that although the diameter distribution curve in 2003 was getting close to the normal curve, as compared with 1993, but was still for from it in district. Also against the reduction of volume mean in ha, diameter of basal area mean and the percentage of trees in high qualitative classes in both methods were reduced, we should point that, this reduction in single selection parcels is less than strip cutting parcels. Results of studying the density in ha of trees and regeneration show the equal increasing process in both groups of parcels (single selection and strip cutting). Generally according to failure of the plan, with comparing both methods, we can conclude that we can get better results of single selection rather than strip cutting. Meanwhile considering 68% strip cutting harvest of the district the majority of strip cutting is affecting the failure of the plan.

Sustainable development by forest managing need to identify forest ecosystem elements. Forest soil is the most important element of forest ecosystem that has key roles in forest managing. Therefore, studying of soil properties and evolution under different environmental conditions is necessary for sustainable management of forest ecosystems. Spatial variation of soil properties is significantly influenced by some environmental factors that slope position is one of them. The aim of this study was evaluating effects of slope position on forest soil change which was carried out in Arasbaran forest, North-West of Iran. Nine soil profiles were dug, described and sampled in three different parts of an altitudinal transect with same environmental conditions and different slope positions. Then soil samples were analysed physicaly and chemicaly and so classified based on Soil Taxonomy 2014. Also according to obtained results One-way analysis of variance was used to test relations of soil properties and slope positions. This results revealed significant effect of slope positions on thickness of the soil profile and solum, clay, organic carbon and total nitrogen percentages and cation exchange capacity at 5% level of confidence which lead to change of type, depth and sequence of soil horizons along altitudinal transect. Finally, it has found that slope position not only has important role in soil properties changes and soil evolution but also it can't be refused the various role and influence of same forest stand in different slope positions. Therefore various soils such as Inceptisols, Alfisols and Molisols were observed under different slope positions. Then it can be achieved that, because of special forest vegetation, soil evolution along altitudinal transect of forest ecosystems are differing from other ecosystems. Thus, for forest soil management program it is necessary to consider both of topography and vegetation effect over the area, even if one of them is constant.