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The regularities of the realization of physical phenomena and phase-structural transformations developing during the operation of smart materials of various physical nature, composition and functional applications, which provide the formation of their physical, mechanical, and operational properties, are generalized. We propose a classification scheme of physical and chemical phenomena, which covers phase and structural transformations in metal alloys, atomic-nanostructured, electrical, magnetic, mechanical, optical, chemical, and biochemical phenomena, on which the formation of the properties of smart materials (metallic and non-metallic, solid and liquid) is based in the process of their operation. The main features of these phenomena and transformations are formulated; they determine the expected positive effect that manifests itself in the emerging or improving individual properties or their complex. A review analysis of the groups of smart materials of various physical nature and functional purposes is carried out, implemented in them during the operation of physical phenomena, transformations and effects leading to the formation of conditioned properties. The features of smart materials of various physical nature and the phenomena (transformations) realized within them during operation are considered. Models of the phase and structural evolution of traditional (stable) and smart (metastable) materials, which are self-organizing during operation due to the implementation of physical phenomena, transformations, and effects throughout their life cycle, are proposed. The necessity of controlling these processes for the formation of improved properties as well as a stable and long life cycle is shown. Based on the analysis and review generalization, the principles of designing smart (metastable) materials with unique properties are formulated.

Learning about the world that surrounds a child begins well before the start of primary education. Experiential concepts, which children form in direct interaction with the environment, represent an experiential basis on which the formation of scientific concepts in the teaching process relies. Experiential notions based on ungrounded generalisations and misconceptions are also known as preconceptions, alternative ideas, and naive beliefs. The aim of this paper was to examine pupils' preconceptions about physical phenomena in the fields Physical Properties of Materials, Movement and Light at the beginning of primary education. The survey was conducted on a sample of 324 students, by using a criteria-based test of knowledge. The results of the research indicate that seven-year-olds from Serbia have some typical preconceptions and doubts that were confirmed by the previous research conducted in other countries (United Kingdom, USA). The respondents had the fewest misconceptions about the movement of bodies, while they mostly had wrong beliefs about the physical properties of materials. Given that the identification of the preconceptions that pupils have at the beginning of primary school can be useful for the creators of educational policies, textbook authors and teachers when deciding which physical phenomena should be given additional attention because they are not well understood by students, or what phenomena are pupils already familiar with, a more in-depth research of this content in teaching is necessary.

The paper provides data on the complex influence of space geophysical factors and meteoreological conditions on the body's nonspecific resistance (BNSR) in Saint Petersburg dwellers. Associations and relationships have been established between the environmental parameters. The leading factors negatively affecting BNSR in the residents of the megapolis have been identified. The changes in the hematological and biochemical parameters characterizing the BNSR have been ascertained to be variable in response to heliogeophysical activity fluctuations and gravitation field changes.

One of the possible ways for complete and final solution of the problem of determination of three-dimensional structure of proteins on amino acid sequence is simulation of protein three-dimensional structure formation. The use of the code physics method developed by the author has been suggested to fulfill this task. The simulation of alpha-helix and beta-hairpin formation in water-soluble proteins as a start of realization of the plan is described here. The results of the simulation were compared with the experimental data for 14 proteins of no more than 50 amino acids and therefore with little number of alpha-helices and beta-strands (to meet limits of simulation process) and with secondary structure predictions by the best to data methods of protein secondary structure prediction, PSIpred, PORTER and PROFsec. Secondary structure of the proteins, obtained as a result of the simulation of alpha-helix and beta-hairpin formation using the code physics method, corresponded completely to experimental data while the secondary structure predicted by the PSIpred, PORTER and PROFsec methods differed from these data significantly.

The goal of this work was to synthesize Klepper mathematical models (MM), which describes the probability of post-radiation complications (PRC) in tissue subjected to radiation therapy with given scheme of dose fractionating (DF), and population-phenomenological (PP) MMs PP3 and PP4, which describe equivalent DF schemes for a fixed PRC value. Construction of synthesized MMs (SMMs) becomes possible only on the basis of several assumptions requiring further clinical validation. Synthesized MMs can be used for determination of the optimal dynamic conditions of irradiation of malignant tumors. These conditions include the optimal physical plan of irradiation and the optimal time scheme of its implementation. Synthesis of MMs leads to determination of radiological invariants (constants), which can become a basis for a new branch of medical science, quantitative radiology.

A formula for assessing the error of calculation of the effective energy of combined X-ray beam is derived. Maximal error of calculation of the effective energy of combined X-ray beam is found to be (4% for anode voltage of 40-150 kV and aluminum filter thickness of 2-45 mm.

A short review of various approaches to determination of the effective energy of mixed X-ray beam is presented. An analytic expression for calculation of the effective energy of mixed X-ray beam as a function of X-ray tube anode voltage and filter thickness is derived. The results of calculation of the effective energy using the obtained analytic expression are shown to coincide well with the data of GOST R IEC 61267-2001.

The integration results of fundamental and applied medical-and-technical research made at the chair of biomedical systems, Moscow state institute of electronic engineering (technical university--MSIEE), are described in the paper. The chair is guided in its research activity by the traditions of higher education in Russia in the field of biomedical electronics and biomedical engineering. Its activities are based on the extrapolation of methods of electronic tools, computer technologies, physics, biology and medicine with due respect being paid to the requirements of practical medicine and to topical issues of research and design.

The authors considered contemporary methods of air ions dosimetry, suggested new approaches to dosimetry of ions in air, set new concepts for exposure and absorbed dose rate. The article covers experimental results and method determining absorbed dose rate under exposure to air ions.

Compared are contrasted are moving, stationary, and combined SHF-discharges, methods of discharge generation and diagnostics of the discharge temperature, electron concentration in the discharge tube. and SHF contribution. A combination of the SHF and arc discharges was selected for prototyping the carbon dioxide and hydrogen processor within a physical-chemical life support system. To sustain temperature in the interval between 1000 and 3500 degrees C to support the initial Bosch reaction, a low-power (30-50 mA) glow discharge will be used instead of the continuous current arc (3-5 A). This combination increases plasma efficiency and is suitable for designing a non-inertia air supply within the space life support system.

Recommendations on an optimal choice of mammography settings and on evaluating a dose load received by patient are presented and substantiated in the paper.

The paper presents 20-year experience in using various devices for tissue dissection and coagulation of such as electrosurgical ones EN-57M, Efa-0201 (Russia), Karl Storz-endoscope (Germany), Force-300, Force-FX, LigaSure ("Valley-lab", USA), Erbotom ICC 350 ("Erbe"), Argo-3000 ("Soring", Germany), a Surgitrone radioknife ("Ellman", USA), ultrasonic Auto Sonix devices ("Auto Suture", USA), a harmonic Ultracision scalpel ("Ethicon Endo-Surgery", USA), laser Scalpel-1 and Romashka-1 devices (Russia), plasma Fakel-01 and Prometey devices (Russia). The results of 424 experimental studies and clinical application of different energies in 1683 patients are analyzed. The influence of different types of energy on tissue and reparative processes were revealed, morphological changes were studied. Advantages and shortcomings of each type of energy are demonstrated, recommendations for their optimum application are formulated.

A correlation between quasiperiodic variations in 239Pu alpha-activity and geophysical periods was revealed.

A study of macroscopic fluctuations for objects separated by large distances confirmed the conclusion drawn earlier that, if the objects being measured are in different time zones, the increase in the probability of occurrence of histograms of similar form corresponds to the difference in the local time at the points of measurement. It was also found that, upon realization of pseudo-random sequences of numbers in mathematical generators, sequences of histograms very similar to those in real physical series can be realized. This suggests the presence of previously unknown regularities, both physical and mathematical, in sequences traditionally considered as absolutely random.

A correlation between the solar activity (Wolf numbers) and electric conductivity of water was found. It was suggested that changes in the electric conductivity of water are the primary cause of the known correlations between the solar activity and various processes in the biosphere.

The dynamics of the system with a determined chaotic behavior (Lorentz system) was studied by comparing the histograms. It was shown that the dynamics of the system exhibits phenomena similar to those observed in studies of fluctuations in physical systems. In particular, upon comparison of histograms constructed from different time intervals, the "near zone" effect makes itself evident. It was shown that a very slight modulation of only one parameter of the system leads to a change in behavior.

An explanation of the appearance of the reproducible fine structure of the histograms corresponding to different processes from simple chemical reactions to radioactive decays is developed. Earlier this explanation was reduced to extremely strong influence of small changes between energy levels of a quantum system under study and its environment on the transition probability of the system (chemical reaction, radioactive decay, e.t.c.) from the system last quantum state to final result of the studied process. In the present paper it is supposed that the main factors determining this probability is the periodical or quasi-periodical low frequency changes of local gravitational field leading to corresponding changes of the system mass (the quantum transition probability depends exponentially on the latter). This approach seems to able to propose non-contradictory explanation of many manifestations of macroscopic fluctuation.

The necessity of launching a new field of science that combines biology, physics, and mathematics for an adequate description of natural-science systems (khaimatika) is substantiated.

It was shown that, while interpreting life as a physical phenomenon, fundamental physics allows for the following alternatives: relativity of animate and inanimate upon canonical transformations; the impossibility of the change from animate to inanimate state of isolated systems; the abandonment of attempts to reduce biology to the physics of isolated systems. The possibility of reducing biology to phenomenological physics was considered. A number of equations for the general phenomenological dynamics of density matrix was proposed.

Based on the final elements method, the authors simulated the stressed-deformed state of dental abutment tissues in normal and abnormal position of the teeth. The distribution of normal and tangent tensions in dental transverse sections and their contact interactions with the alveolar process (periodontium-periosteum) were studied. The effect of the inclination angle of abnormally positioned teeth in various force of occlusion was demonstrated and maximum values of this force were established from the strength viewpoint. The results confirm the efficiency of the proposed scheme for estimation of the stressed-deformed status of dental abutment teeth in practical orthodontics.

The author gives a comparative analysis of the mechanism of biological action of microwaves and laser radiation in the range of molecular to body level. Similar and different characteristics of these factors are specified.

Frontal area fields 8 and 47 were studied in gifted people of different age using series of frontal paraffin slices. Neuronal parameters were detected. Density of localization was determined in neurons and gliocytes including perineuronal ones and also in lipofuscin, containing neurons and those surrounded with satellite gliocytes. Relation of the latter to general number of pyramidal neurons in layers 3 and 5 of cortical fields (index HC/C) was defined so as the thickness of cortex and its certain layers. Brain of the same age common people served as the control. The sum total of characters determined (both general and individual) and especially the neuroglial system state (more than double increase against the control with HC/H index) exceeds both age and individual variability and is probably typical for the frontal area of exceptionally gifted people and is not dependent on age and type of brightness.

Mechanic emission is an effect observed in dissipation of mechanical energy due to mechanochemical reactions and electrophysic processes at tension, deformation or friction of blood samples dried on the chromatographic paper. The effect is accompanied by electron emission and electromagnetic radiation. The physical principles of mechanic emission were technically realized while developing and designing a microcomputer approximate analyzer (MPA) for spectral analysis of blood mechanic emission when it was recorded in the optical, electric, and radio channels of information conversion. The arrangement of MPA and analytical methods for its technical parameters are given in the paper. MPA may be useful in supplementary non-invasive differential diagnosis of cancer and inflammatory diseases, as well as in the solution of some diagnostic goals of radiology and cardiology.

The torsion rigidity of the outer sheaths of flexible medical endoscopes was theoretically and experimentally studied. It has been shown that the bulk of the torsion rigidity of the sheaths is provided by the outer plastic sheath plus a procedure for its fastening to the braiding, as well as the braiding. A way of fastening the outer sheath to the braiding has a great impact on torsion rigidity.

The paper deals with the functional diagram of the device for quantification, pre-processing, and input of ultrasound data into an IBM personal computer and discusses the algorithms for performance of some units and the block diagram of an experimental sample of the device (a scanning converter).

The paper is concerned with foundation of the Association of Medical Physicists under the Physical Society of the USSR. The Association is to unite the efforts of physicists, chemists, mathematicians and engineers working at the medical institutions and engaged in physical problems of medicine and in the design of appropriate instruments, devices, equipment and materials in industry, at the Institutes of the Academy of Sciences, and at higher educational establishments. The functions of medical physicists and their roles in consolidation of the relations between medicine and natural sciences and engineering are discussed.

Electron probe x-ray microanalysis of 3 commercial cobalt-chromium-based alloys, CCA (USSR), Biosil and Vakukast (FRG), has revealed that CCA is initially heterogenic, this being explained, probably, by elevated chromium content. Biosil and Vakukast are similar in composition and represent a matrix with eutectic insertions of intermetallides and a small amount of oxides. Physical and mechanical characteristics of these alloys are described.

On the basis of equations of external ballistics and probability theory the largest possible distances of free (independent) flight of gunshot powder and metal particles having different forms and sizes were calculated. Experimental control of the calculated data for different types of battle and sports hand fire-arms was carried out. The correspondence of the calculated data to maximal free (independent) particle flight in blank shots was stated. In experiments with cartridges equipped with bullets the distances of free particle flight were significantly lesser (by 53-65%) which may be connected with effect of gunshot projectile on the process of particle distribution. Reversed adapted formulas and calculation variants are presented.

Analytical construction of the eye floating was carried out. Buoyancy equations were deduced including the equation for dynamic equilibrium at various eye (head) orientations in space. Design formulae were derived for evaluating buoyancy force on the eye, negative pressure, stability and compensational (heeling) forces of the eye muscles.

Changes of surface potential difference of neutral BLM in the presence of negatively charged liposomes were controlled by means of potentiodynamic method. The liposomes were prepared by sonication of PS-suspension in buffer solution. BLM was formed conventionally from lecithin--decane mixture. Measurements were carried out in buffer solution 2 mM KCL, 5 mM Tris-Cl pH 7.6) at 30 degrees C. It is shown that the liposomes are irreversibly bound to BLM, but do not fuse with it under the conditions investigated.

Laser Doppler spectroscopy permits to investigate the velocity distribution of the biological objects either single cells or ensembles. The main principles of laser Doppler spectroscopy and its practical application connected with the spectral correlation dependence of biological objects have been studied.

A theoretical analysis of the forces responsible for BLM interaction in the contact zone has been carried out. It is shown that these are the forces of Van-der-Vaals attraction, electrostatic repulsion and surface tension of the membranes. Values of Hammaker constant and surface potential of BLM are determined. The value and remote action of each force, as well as the possibilities of the method of measuring the distance between the contacting membrane are discussed.

A transition region from black bimolecular lipid film to the volume phase of a lipid solution (to tore) has been studied by the model which links the profile and size of the transition region with disjoining pressure brought about by the Van der Vaals's forces. Simple formulas linking the profile and size of the transition region with the thickness and wetting angle of the bilayer lipid membrane have been obtained. If the terminus of the transition zone is determined by the cross section where the real thickness of the film is one per cent more than that obtained by extrapolation of the tore surface profile outside the transition zone into this zone, the width of the transition region from the bilayer to the volume phase is essentially less than 1 mkm. With the decrease of the bilayer thickness the width of the transition zone also decreases.