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Introduction. The study analyzes a variety of newly discovered archival documents and materials for a comprehensive insight into the 1921–1922 mass famine in Uralsk Governorate. To facilitate this, the paper shall examine the causes, mitigation measures, and consequences of the famine in the designated region of present-day Kazakhstan. Materials. So, the study focuses on related documents from the State Archive of West Kazakhstan Region that have never been introduced into scientific discourse and received only fragmented attention. Results. The work provides a historiographic review on the topic under consideration, while some key research results are based on analytical insights into the archival papers. Our narrative centers around the causes and socio-demographic consequences, conditions of livestock breeding and agrarian industries, famine mitigation measures. Statistical data contained in the reports of governorate-level commissions prove most instrumental in evaluating the 1921–1922 famine’s scale and tracing negative socioeconomic dynamics. Conclusions. Uralsk Governorate happened to be a most famine-affected region of Kazakhstan, which was dramatically preceded (and paralleled) by harsh natural and climatic conditions, such as drought, crop failure, zud (jut), and livestock reduction. These were aggravated by poor agrarian development of the region and reduction of cultivated areas — only to be face the early twentieth century political cataclysms (e.g., Russian Civil War, increase of taxation, etc.). The famine’s consequences included increased mortality rates, population decline, dramatic fall of living standards, and large numbers of orphans and homeless children.

Introduction. The paper develops the idea of a hypothesized ethnogenetic succession of the Chonos and related groups from the legendary Bӧrtä-Čïno within the ‘Mongol’ Y-chromosomal subclade of R2a-M124 among Kalmyks (Oirats and Mongols at large), attempts ethnonymic reconstructions for potential ancestral communities from the designated period. Goals. The study attempts an analysis of ethnographic, linguistic and historical data proper in light of R2a-M124 Y-STR haplotypes of Kalmyks, and deepens the hypothesis suggesting ethnohistorical (ethnogenetic) succession of Oirats and Mongols’ ancestors from nomads (and other groups) of the Early and High Middle Ages. Materials and methods. The work investigates classical historical chronicles and treatises on Turkic and Mongolian studies, employs an interdisciplinary approach with the aid of tools inherent to system analysis, historical reconstruction, etc. Results. The article draws parallels between the ethnic names ‘Dörbän’, ‘Durban’ and ‘Dorbet’. It hypothesizes as to potential roots of the male ancestral line at earliest stages of the Mongolian and Oirat ethnogenesis, not excepting the possibility of its Sogdian origin via Ashina Turks within their vassal Toquz Oghuz elites (since the mid-sixth century CE). Finally, the paper tends to identify some ethnic communities from the designated era represented in totemic genealogical myths of Turko-Mongols, and sets forth a narrative of potential ethnohistorical succession of Bukhus Kalmyks from the medieval Bugu (Pugu).

Introduction. Tibetan-language scriptures created by Mongolian monastic scholars and related studies are extremely few. To date, we are aware of a total of ten such scriptures. Goals. So, the article aims to introduce one such text into scientific circulation, the rest be examined in a series of subsequent works. Materials and methods. The study employs the historical comparative method and those of scientific identification, analysis and synthesis. Results. The paper reveals some errors and inaccuracies that contradict available historical and textual data. Comparative insights into classical works of the designated period identify certain lettering proper (some letters classified neither as vowels nor as consonants in the attempted grammar of written Mongolian) and letter-naming differences, as well as somewhat invariants for same grammatical terms. The analysis has also yielded data unavailable in other works on written Mongolian. Conclusions. The paper reveals evidence of existence of a Mongolian writing school in the fifteenth century, and shows the stylistic levels were distinguished by certain writing patterns.

Introduction. The paper examines the cluster of toponyms derived from drymonyms. The relevance of the research topic is determined by the poor knowledge of this type of toponyms in the toponymic system of Bashkortostan (Russia). Goals. The study seeks to classify Bashkir toponyms derived from names of forests, groves, wild trees and shrubs, to describe their word-formation structure, semantics, origin and features of functioning in the toponymic system of the Southern Urals. Materials and methods. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that the paper is the first to identify toponyms associated with drymonyms using the method of continuous sampling — in the Dictionary of Toponyms of the Republic of Bashkortostan. The work also attempts to describe those systematically, traces new drymonyms of foreign origin, and reveals the latter’s role in the toponymy-related processes. Furthermore, the paper is the first to outline a lexical/semantic classification of such toponyms, defines their structure, semantics, and origin. Results. In addition to toponyms of common Turkic origin, the article identifies drymonymic toponyms formed from Indo-Iranian, Finno-Ugric, and Mongolian word stems. The insight into some drymonymic toponyms associated with beliefs of Bashkirs reveals their function in creating the unique toponymic picture of Bashkortostan. The analysis of related material shows the designated type of Bashkir toponyms characterize primarily natural landscapes of Bashkortostan, habitats of certain species of wild trees and shrubs. The toponymic substratum of Indo-Iranian, Finno-Ugric and Mongolian origin reflects historical backgrounds of the language and ethnos, while toponyms associated with deification of ancestral trees are indicative of specific ancient beliefs of Bashkirs.

Introduction. In West Kazakhstan and the Volga-Ural interfluve, it is Golden Horde cities, caravan routes, and caravanserais that remain as under- or uninvestigated. Particular attention be paid to the necessity of exploring caravan routes and caravanserais from Urgench to Saraychik (Saray-Jük), and from Saraychik to the Volga Golden Horde cities. Goals. The study seeks to systemize and analyze materials on caravan routes and caravanserais in the south and southwest of West Kazakhstan and in the south of the Volga-Ural interfluve. It also aims at reconstructing some functioning patterns of caravan trade routes from Saraychik to the Volga Golden Horde cities in the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries. So, the paper shall systemize and examine archaeological, ethnographic, archival data and sources on the Golden Horde cities, caravan routes, and caravanserais across the mentioned territories; describe some identified caravan routes and caravanserais. Materials and methods. The work focuses on materials from archaeological excavations in Kazakhstan, Russia, and Uzbekistan; considers outcomes of field (expeditionary) historical, geographical, and ethnographic surveys conducted across Mangystau and Atyrau Regions of Kazakhstan in 2019–2022; performs analyses of geographical maps. The research methodology includes general scientific, historical, and geographical tools and techniques. Results. The paper basically systemizes the efforts undertaken by scholars affiliated to Saraishyq State Reserve Museum of History and Culture (Kazakhstan). The field (expeditionary) surveys have identified more Golden Horde sites and settlements to yield an improved map of caravan routes. At large, the article provides a general territorial scheme of caravan routes and caravanserais from the Golden Horde period across the south and southwest of West Kazakhstan and the south of the Volga-Ural interfluve. Conclusions. Our insights attest to that the Golden Horde caravanserais and caravan routes were characterized by quite efficient territorial patterns in the examined regions that grew to shape a comprehensive transit-trade system for the transfer of people, goods, and knowledge along a northern branch of the Silk Road.

Introduction. The study examines some aspects of everyday life once led by inhabitants of Kalmyk uluses (Astrakhan Governorate). The relevance of the topic arises from the necessity to compile a more complete panorama of Kalmyk life witnessed by the period when Russian and local authorities were seeking for ways of introducing the region into Russia’s administrative and political agenda. Goals. So, given that the topic has remained somewhat understudied, the paper aims to characterize some aspects of everyday life viewed by governorate-level officials as ‘bottlenecks’ in the path toward Russia’s integration of Kalmyk society. Materials and methods. The work focuses on records-keeping material primarily housed at the State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast, and introduces the former into scientific circulation. The study basically employs both general scientific and special historical approaches, with particular roles be played by the method of systems analysis and principles of historicism and objectivity. These have proved most instrumental in outlining a true panorama of Kalmyk nomadic life in the second decade of the nineteenth century. Results. The paper characterizes some questions and proposals set forth by the civil Governor on various aspects of Kalmyk life — and related opinions of local landlords and ulus rulers. Conclusions. Our insights into the material attest to that most important issues of everyday life across Kalmyk uluses in the early nineteenth century included those of land, interior affairs, and trade. The then Kalmyk elites and governorate-level officials did come to consensus on some points, while others proved controversial enough.

Introduction. The year 2023 commemorates the 80th anniversary of the Kalmyk deportation (28 December 1943) to the eastern parts of the Soviet Union. In December 1943, ethnic Kalmyks were groundlessly repressed and forcibly relocated from native lands to be scattered across Siberia toward the Far East and Extreme North for the long thirteen years (1943–1957). Key aspects of Kalmykia’s contribution to the Great Victory have been duly investigated. However, the deportation and exile proper had remained untackled for quite a long time, and this period of Kalmyk history still lacks comprehensive investigation. It is urgent to assemble a complete picture of how people were relocated and survived in special settlement areas, which makes further endeavors aimed at obtaining additional related material timely enough. In February 2023, Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) arranged a scientific expedition to the Republic of Kazakhstan for documentary material on Kalmyks deported to the Kazakh SSR. The employees were granted a unique opportunity to consider documents housed at the Archive of the President of Kazakhstan, repositories of Almaty Region, Qyzylorda Region, and Aral District Archive proper. Goals. The article attempts a review of some documents discovered at Aral District Archive (Qyzylorda Region, Kazakhstan) and dealing with Kalmyks deported from Lagansky Ulus of the Kalmyk ASSR in the late 1943. Materials. So, the paper focuses on official papers contained in the mentioned repository and related scholarly publications. Conclusions. Insights into the documents prove instrumental enough in outlining how residents of Lagansky Ulus were relocated to the target territory and adapted to new living conditions. The former primarily deal with the years 1944, 1946, 1948, and 1950. However, even the reduced data are of utmost significance. The still unanswered questions are how many residents of the Ulus were deported to the Kazakh SSR and Siberian territories, and what the actual proportions were. The archival papers say that in January 1944, the Bureau of Aral District Party Committee and District Soviet of Workers’ Deputies decided to accept and accommodate a total of 745 households to be engaged in local fisheries. Another dispatch of April 1944 addressed to the Secretary of Kazakhstan Party Committee and the Head of Qyzylorda NKVD Department mentioned 1,200 individuals or 400 households of ‘special settlers’, while additional 2,200 fishermen and their family members were accepted thereafter. So, the actual number of accommodated Kalmyks was larger than the one in published scholarly works. Further detailed insights into the papers from Aral District Archive shall shed light on living conditions and challenges faced by relocated residents of Lagansky Ulus across special settlement areas.

Introduction. The publication finalizes the series of paleodemographic studies into materials from Catacomb burials discovered by archaeologists in grave mounds across the three territorial zones of Kalmykia — Sarpa Lowland, Yergeni Upland, and Caspian Depression. The current paper focuses on anthropological material from burials investigated in the Caspian Depression. Goals. The study shall introduce new anthropological material from the Middle Bronze Age once discovered in the territory of Kalmykia. Materials and methods. The work examines human bone remains from grave fields of the Caspian Depression stored at the Osteological Materials Repository of Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS). Age and sex determination procedures have been conducted following a comprehensive anthropological program. Results. The diverse research efforts have yielded paleodemographic characteristics of the population that once inhabited the Caspian Depression, a comparative intra-group principal component analysis involving synchronous anthropological series in the territory of Kalmykia (multivariate statistics), and a discussion of summarized results of our insights into the demographic situation across Middle Bronze Age Kalmykia. The paper notes some similarities (and differences) between the identified paleodemographic indicators and those of neighboring regions (Republic of Dagestan and Rostov Oblast) on average age of death, high mortality of children, and predominance of male individuals, the two latter being typical for societies of that era. The Kalmykia-based materials are characterized by almost equal mean ages of death in the male and female groups, and a larger number of individuals aged fifty and more, with a small but evident predominance of female ones among the latter.

Introduction. The cultural heritages of the Sakha (Yakut) and the Tuvan are distinguished by a similarity of basic worldview ideas pertaining to the structure of the Universe, multi-storeyedness of each of the Three Worlds, the pantheon of deities, etc. Goals. The article aims to interpret semantics of ethnic jewelry as a visual narrative articulating the ideas of individual soul in traditional Sakha and Tuvan cultures. To facilitate this, the paper shall summarize the available descriptions of these ideas from ethnographic material, identify some facts confirming jewelry used to serve as markers of soul, consider semantics of traditional jewelry signs. The study hypothesizes as follows: when it comes to soul visualizations, folklore sources manifest repeated indications localizing one of the three souls (aorta, blood, belt, etc.) ― hence, the other two must also have some certain locations and related beliefs, too. Methods. With due regard of the dynamics in religious and aesthetic preferences, the employed interdisciplinary and comparative historical approaches comprise the structural/functional, interpretative, and axiological methods. The method of mosaic reconstruction proves as instrumental in revealing jewelry symbolism. Results. The paper confirms adornments (jewelry pieces) act as means to visualize some valuable worldviews, ideas of human soul and its whereabouts, prestige and behavioral norms. The former are defined as utmost identity signs for an inhabitant of the Middle World that serve as markers and protective amulets for each of the three human souls, also viewed as mediators between the sacred and profane worlds, triggers in ritual communication, and social status indicators. Conclusions. Being a universal form, circle (silver disk, bead, infinity knot, and button) denotes the place and function of each soul. For instance, the air one of the Sakha and the middle one of the Tuvan are placed in the head and identified with head adornments (jewelry pieces). According to Sakha beliefs, the maternal soul is localized in the mediastinum (pulse and blood ― heart and liver), while Tuvans place soul one into the navel. Yakut women of fertile age tend to mark this soul with solar breast jewelry, with no identified symbolic parallels in the Tuvan costume. Yakuts believe the third earthly soul be indicated with a belt buckle and dwell in the navel, while the Tuvan tradition says the good soul dwells in the belt. So, the Yakut have retained somewhat more archaic version of the symbolic corpus. And the differences are largely determined by the late influence of Manchu-Chinese culture and Buddhism on worldviews of southern Tuvans.

The paper deals with the Transcaucasian prehistoric period in the history of the ancestors of the Chuvash people. Goals. The study aims to identify and analyse the sources and literature on the topic relating to events of the 7th to 1st centuries BC. Materials and methods. The work employs a complex approach to the examination of the material, which made it possible to analyse the sources and the thoughts of predecessors consistently and systematically. The study focuses on works of historians, ethnographers and linguists about the ethnic groups that previously inhabited and now inhabit the areas to the south of the Greater Caucasus. The sources that proved important include the works by such historians as Herodotus (5th century BC), Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd c. BC), Pseudo-Orpheus (4th c. AD), Priscus Panionensis (5th c.), Menander Protector and Stephanus of Byzantium (both 6th c.). The paper also makes use of some pronouncements by such remarkable researchers as Andrey Golovnev, Sergey Arutyunov, Alikber Alikberov, Nicholas Berdzenishvili, Vera Budanova, Murtazali Gadzhiev, and David Muskhelishvili. Results. Impartial investigation shows that the ethnonym of the Chuvash has undergone a lengthy course of transformation through history in the form of Savir (Saspir/Sapir, Savar, Sabir) → Suvar (Suvas, Suvan) → Suvash → T’šăvaš (Chuvash). As far back as the 7th century BC, to the southeast of Colchis a large confederation of tribes headed by the Saspirs came into being. The study reveals and confirms traces in the pre-history of the distant ancestors of the Chuvash that are shared with the peoples of Georgia. In the period under examination, the historical forerunners of the Chuvash lived in a territory between Media and Colchis, between the Medes and the Colchians. In the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD, they were recorded to inhabit the Chorokh River valley. Alongside historical events, the publication traces ethnographic parallels with the ancient Georgian peoples and some shared elements of vocabulary.

Introduction. The Sakha Republic (Yakutia) — the largest northeastern federal subject of Russia — is distinguished by that it rests on permafrost. The present-day permafrost degradation has significant impacts on rural everyday life characterized by persistent traditional economic practices largely dependent on environmental conditions. Goals. The article seeks to analyze some local experiences of human adaptations to current and potential threats resulting from permafrost thawing and cold deficit. Materials and methods. To facilitate this, the paper shall introduce materials collected during 2019, 2020 and 2022 field surveys, the former to include expert interviews, results of questionnaires filled in by residents of Amga village, and our visual landscape observations. Historical and anthropological approaches prove most instrumental, as is the personal history method that focuses on the respondents’ individual perceptions of the ongoing changes. Results. The study identifies some patterns of individual behavior adopted by rural residents in the face of emerging climate threats. Special attention is paid to separate aspects of how various rural groups tend to perceive permafrost degradation. The paper resumes that the most pressing challenges include agricultural land reduction, deterioration of rural housing stock and social infrastructure. It has been revealed that residents of Amga village strive to adapt to the current changes via the use of new technologies and introduction of modern construction elements that used to be rare or completely absent in rural practices. The work emphasizes there are both direct and indirect threats — including the ‘delayed’ ones — resulting from the changes in permafrost soils. So, certain direct risks for the traditional livestock-breeding and agricultural agendas do increase pressure on social stability and employment.

Introduction. The article examines a dictionary of Mansi compiled from lexemes recorded along the Chusovaya River in the early-to-mid eighteenth century. The dictionary was discovered in G. F. Müller’s archives. Other available archives (e.g., those of A. J. Sjögren and P. S. Pallas) contain no mention of the dictionary. So, the only source referring to the latter is a 1958 article by Hungarian linguist J. Gulya that analyzes several Mansi words recorded in the eighteenth century across the Lower Tagil, Lower Tura, and Chusovaya river basins to determine a total of three distinct features inherent to the local Mansi dialects. A comparison of lexemes contained in G. F. Müller’s dictionary of Chusovaya Mansi against the ones published in J. Gulya’s work has yielded a number of discrepancies with the scholar’s conclusions. Goals. So, the paper compares Chusovaya Mansi against other Mansi dialects — Berezovo, Solikamsk, Cherdyn, Kungur, Upper Tura, and Karpinsky ones — recorded during the same period and in the same area. The most extensive description and analysis of the latter sources based on L. Honti’s classification are to be found in J. Normanskaya’s article titled ‘How the Classification of Mansi Dialects Was Changed (On the Material of the First Cyrillic Books and Dictionaries of the 18th and 19th Centuries)’ (2022). Materials and methods. The work employs the comparative and comparative historical methods to examine a variety of Mansi-language archival sources. Results. The paper reconsiders the data contained in J. Normanskaya’s publication for a comparative analysis, and shows that the Chusovaya Mansi dictionary does confirm the Russian researcher’s conclusions: Northern and Western Mansi dialect differences developed by L. Honti were non-existent or had only just appeared in the eighteenth century. However, the proto-Mansi *k>χ transition before back vowels identified by J. Normanskaya as the one and only feature exclusively characteristic of Northern Mansi dialects has not been confirmed in the Chusovaya dialect traditionally clustered within Western Mansi: it happens to contain the traditional Northern transition (chot ‘шесть’, chórom ‘три’).

Introduction. The paper examines the correspondence between Civil Governor of Astrakhan S. Andreevsky and rulers, landlords of Kalmyk uluses — for an attempted analysis of the Zargo’s activity and common obligations imposed on residents of Astrakhan Governorate in the early nineteenth century. The issue in question remains understudied and needs some newly discovered archival sources be introduced into scholarly circulation. Goals. The study aims to characterize some essential aspects pertaining to fulfillment of obligations by Kalmyk communities and activity of the Zargo court in the early nineteenth century. Materials and methods. The paper focuses on record-keeping material currently housed at the State Archive Astrakhan Oblast and introduced hereby. The study basically employs both general scientific and special historical methods, with particular roles be played by that of systems analysis and the principle of historicism. Results. Our insights into the mentioned correspondence attest to both the sides were seeking to shape some general agenda of concerted practices. However, they were able to achieve consensus only on a number of issues, while others proved somewhat problematic. Conclusions. Special analyses show the then rulers of Kalmyk uluses were wary enough of most questions and proposals articulated by the Russian administration. So, the former voiced disagreements on a variety of facts, namely: lower wages of ethnic Kalmyk salt workers (as compared to those of Russian ones), absence of ethnic Kalmyk officers in Kalmyk frontier squads, arbitrariness of Russian executives in Kalmyk-inhabited lands, etc. The categorical objections of Kalmyk rulers and landlords resulted in that the Governor proposed to compile new regulations for Kalmyks and relocate the Zargo’s headquarters closer to Astrakhan. These are indicative of that Kalmyk elites tended to disapprove the then efforts of Russian authorities aimed at integrating Kalmyk-inhabited territories into the administrative and political system of Russia.

Introduction. The article examines the institution of bukaul in Chinggisid states and their successors. Special attention is given to functions implemented by the official in the uluses of Hulagu, Jochi and Chagatai — and the former’s evolution throughout centuries. It is also explained why the functions tended to vary in different Turko-Mongol states. Goals. The study seeks to characterize the status of bukaul in Chinggisid and post-Chinggisid states. To facilitate this, the paper introduces a Russian translation and an interdisciplinary analysis of one legislative act — yarliq (decree) — appointing an army bukaul, and compares it to other sources for specific features of this official in Turko-Mongol states. Materials and methods. The paper examines Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-fourteenth century by Persian official Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani, and other historical sources on Turko-Mongol states — from the empire of Genghis Khan and to Central Asian khanates of the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatic analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. Bukauls are often mentioned by medieval Asian historians but the messages tend to vary, which gives rise to different opinions as to their status and functions. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing a bukaul from Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. Our comparative insights into other sources attest to that functions of bukaul in different Chinggisid states were as different and diverse, which resulted from the latter’s specific sociopolitical and economic development conditions. Conclusions. Depending on correlations between Mongol imperial and regional traditions of power, administrative and socioeconomic patterns, bukaul could serve as distributor of material benefits in the army (Mongol Iran), as executive of administrative and law-enforcement structures (Ulus of Jochi), and even as courtier in charge of khans’ cuisine (Chagatai Ulus). At the same time in Chinggisid and post-Chinggisid states, bukauls were usually ethnic Turko-Mongols of noble origin with military-oriented minds and corresponding training, which resulted in that they could be actively involved into military endeavors regardless of their official positions and functions.

Introduction. The article examines the development of Soviet Kalmykia’s healthcare that was included into the public health system of the USSR. Chronologically, the study covers the Ninth and Tenth five-year plans, fragmentary insights into the Eighth one to yield comparative statistical data. Goals. The work seeks to analyze and reveal some distinct features characterizing the development of Soviet Kalmykia’s healthcare throughout the 1970s as part the then state health agenda. The paper focuses on state policies pursued during the Ninth and Tenth five-year plans, describes the region’s general conditions, some changes in the budget process which directly influenced healthcare in the Republic, composition of capital investments, dynamics of health-related material support, and staffing issues. Materials and methods. The study widely employs the statistical (quantitative) method to trace qualitative and quantitative changes in the health system of the Kalmyk ASSR during the period under consideration. The chronological and retrospective methods make it possible to examine the Republic’s healthcare in actual historical contexts and to implement a retrospective analysis free from any ideological factors. The paper considers documents and statistical material from the State Archive of the Russian Federation, National Archive of Kalmykia, and a number of related publications. Results. The study reveals some key trends in the organization of medical and sanitary services, delineates public health policies in the region and nationwide, delves into the legislative framework that shaped the basis for public health in the whole country. The medical network development of the 1970s delivered qualified medical services to rural inhabitants and dwellers of remote areas. The undertaken measures improved and diversified health maintenance patterns both in region- and district-level treatment/prevention facilities.

Introduction. Despite the centuries-long research, ethnic history of Kalmyks (Oirats) and Mongols at large still contains a number of unanswered questions. Recent academic insights into gene pools of Eurasian and, specifically, Mongolian peoples may be instrumental in revising some aspects of history, refuting others, and confirming the remainder. The Kalmyk gene pool investigation has so far been reduced to the level of sub-ethnic groups, while it is that of clans claiming common patrilineal descent which seems most promising when it comes to the study of Turko-Mongolian nomads. Goals. The paper attempts an analysis of Kalmyk R2a-M124 Y-STR haplotypes by clans and articulates a hypothesis as to possible ethnohistorical roots of the lineage. Materials. The study examines a total of forty three STR haplotypes of the mentioned Y-chromosomal subclade identified by Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) with the aid of AmpFLSTR YfilerTM Plus PCR Reagents. Results. The study shows bearers of the subclade largely represent Kalmyk clans with names containing the lexical unit ‘chonos’, and ones attesting to the clans had been founded by some noblemen, namely: Taichiud (Kalm. тәәҗүд ‘tayijis, princes’), Khashikhanar (Kalm. хашхнр ‘chiefs of appanages, governors’), Saiduud (Kalm. сәәдүд ‘superior ones, noblemen’), Kha(а)nud (Kalm. хаануд ‘Khans, rulers’). The paper articulates a hypothesis suggesting the lineage may descend from rulers of the Khoid Oirats and via the latter — from Quduqa-bäki of the medieval Oyïrad, and even further up to Duwa-soqor and the legendary ancestor of all Mongols — Bӧrtä-Čïno.

Introduction. Curses constitute an earliest stratum of ethnic oral narratives and still remain somewhat understudied. The former’s shaping resulted from belief in magic and the latter’s supposed ability to bring harm onto one’s opponent. The article attempts a textual analysis of oral curses once recorded from ethnic Kalmyks. Goals. The study seeks to outline semantic features inherent to formulas of curses in B. Bergmann’s dictionary of Kalmyk phraseological units, and investigate his letters for cursing phrases containing the lexeme ‘father’. Materials and methods. The phrases subject to descriptive analysis have been selected via continuous sampling. The paper focuses on B. Bergmann’s Kalmyk phraseological lists and letters (‘Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmȕken in den Jahren 1802 und 1803’), other Mongolian language materials. Results. The linguoculturological and contextual insights into the formulas of curses make it possible to delineate the latter’s communicative essentials and semantic components. Thematically, the variety of curses can be reduced to a number of ill wishes, such as loss of health and life, misfortunes in family and decreased living standards, etc. Our semantic analysis suggests the formulas are largely culture-specific and may be viewed as manifested spiritual experiences and mental attitudes of the then Kalmyks. So, the paper comprehensively examines the not that widespread Kalmyk curses containing the lexeme ‘father’ from B. Bergmann’s letters.

Introduction. The 19th century witnessed the emergence of a powerful Muslim merchant class in the steppe zone of Imperial Russia. Those were ethnic Tatars, Kazakhs, Sarts, Bukharans, Uighurs, and Shala Kazakhs based in Petropavlovsk and Semipalatinsk. Goals. The work aims to identify outcomes of charitable activities undertaken by Muslim merchants. Another objective is to distinguish the specifics of charity efforts and the latter’s main directions. Material and methods. The paper investigates documents housed at the Central State Archive of Kazakhstan, Historical Archive of Omsk Oblast, National Archive (former Central State Historical Archive) of Bashkortostan, Russian State Historical Archive, Archive of North Kazakhstan Region, and pre-revolutionary periodicals, reports of Muslim charitable societies, reference and encyclopedic materials. The study employs both general scientific (analysis, synthesis, generalization) and special historical research methods (comparative-historical and retrospective ones). Results. The paper outlines key directions of Muslim charities in the steppe, namely: social support, enlightening and educational endeavors. Muslim merchant benefactors tended to meet not only intra-confessional needs but also nationwide ones too. And while the imperial administration did welcome the assistance from entrepreneurs in solving country-wide problems, Muslim philanthropy would still face a number of obstacles. Officials were reluctant enough to grant permits for mosque constructions, inclined to limit the functioning of madrassas and charitable organizations, banned waqfs. However, despite all the bureaucratic and administrative barriers Muslims did manage to create a coherent system of funding their needs.

Introduction. It is urgent enough to reveal original features of epic traditions in certain ethnic environments to draw a general epic picture of Central Asian peoples. As is evident, shamanism has given rise to diverse epic and poetic genres. Shamanic and epic texts of Mongols are characterized by identical mythological patterns of world order, unified heavenly pantheons, coherent and synonymous ideas and concepts. Goals. The article aims to identify the functions of a shaman/shamaness in plots of Buryat epic narratives, determine the former’s position and status in the system of images. So, the paper shall analyze epic texts clustering with different local traditions of Cis-Baikal Buryats, delineate images of shamans and shamanesses to consider them in a comparative perspective with the involvement of ethnographic material. Materials and methods. The study employs comparative-historical and contrastive methods as key tools of analysis. It examines Buryat epic texts — both published ones and those contained in archives of the Center of Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs (IMBTS SB RAS). Results. The paper suggests that in the Buryat epic tradition shamans and shamanesses can be viewed as traditional characters traced back to most archaic beliefs, though their functions in uligers are essentially limited and monotypic. There is a gender division at different levels of the universe: celestial deities of upper realms are represented by male shamans, while only shamanesses exhibit activity in the Middle World (i.e., on the Earth). The functions of male shaman deities are nominal and not that significant for the plot. The status of a shamaness in variants and versions of the Unga Geseriad is quite high: she serves as mediator between Heaven and Earth, defender, assistant and adviser to the main characters, clairvoyant and soothsayer — and performs the classical role of shamans in society. Narratives recorded from shaman taletellers or individuals with extensive expertise in shamanic traditions tend to entrust shamanesses with larger plot development impacts rather than those delivered by mere narrators. However, in other uligers (not included in Geseriad) the shamaness — though endowed with the same functions of a clairvoyant, soothsayer and adviser — is opposed to the main character and supports his enemies. So, such uligers often contain the motif of her physical elimination. As can be seen from the above, in Buryat uligers male shamans are rather passive and nominal characters, while shamanesses do play most active roles. In general, the status of shamanesses in the epic tradition does not quite correlate with the traditionally high status of shamans and shamanesses among Cis-Baikal Buryats.

Introduction. The article examines a yarliq from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib to characterize the institution of ulug bitigchi that used to be widespread in the Mongol Empire and states of Genghis Khan’s descendants. Goals. The study attempts an interdisciplinary analysis of the historical monument — one yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi (head of scribes) and contained in Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-14th century by Persian official Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani. Materials and methods. The paper focuses on Dastur al-Katib and the mentioned yarliq proper, involves related medieval sources on Mongol Iran and other Chinggisid states, including works by Juvayni, Rashid al-Din, Fasih Khwafi, etc., official documents of the Chinggisid chancelleries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatics analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. The work clarifies specific features of an ulug bitigchi’s legal status — including his functions, rights, requirements for candidates in Chinggisid chance­lleries — and traces its evolution. It also shows reasons for the survival of the institution in those states even after the official conversion to Islam and shaping of a corresponding government system in accordance with traditions that had existed across the Volga Region, Iran and Central Asia long before the Mongol conquest. Conclusions. The fact that the institution of ulug bitigchi did survive the subsequent Islamization was to primarily position of Ilkhans as heirs of the Mongol Empire where it had first been established as well as to seek a compromised approach in governing their various subjects — nomadic and sedentary peoples, Turko-Mongols and those who spoke Iranian languages, Moslems and adherents of other religions.

Introduction. The article examines and introduces into scientific discourse some archival materials of G. S. Lytkin recorded by the latter in Kalmyk Steppe and pertaining to folk medicine, calendar rituals, and ethnography of the mid-to-late nineteenth-century Volga Kalmyks. Goals. So, the paper aims to describe and introduce into scientific circulation some unpublished materials from the library of the Faculty of Asian and African Studies (Manuscript Dept.), St. Petersburg University. Materials. The study examines archival records of G. S. Lytkin stored at the mentioned repository. Results. The tale of a plant referred to as ‘[wild] boar root’ once used by Kalmyks to treat animal and human diseases is of essential interest. The paper publishes an Oirat-language (Clear Script) manuscript titled ‘Caγān sarayin bičiq’ (‘The Writing of [How] Tsagan Sar [Be Celebrated]’) containing a didactic narrative of Lord Buddha’s miracles shown during the first half of the first lunar month for lay Buddhists. Besides, the work tabulates some statistical data on Kharakhuso-Erdnievsky and Baga Tsokhor Districts (Kalm. ulus), including lists of clans (communities) and their zaisangs, tamgas, nomadic areas allotted, etc. The Supplement contains a table compiled by G. S. Lytkin and containing data on clans across eight districts of Kalmyk Steppe.

Introduction. The article deals with exports and imports of precious metals between Russia and the Qing Empire in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Special attention is paid to activities of the Russo-Chinese Bank that established its offices across Russia-Mongolia frontiers for the latter to arrange silver trade with China. Goals. The paper aims to reveal actual causes, conditions and mechanisms of silver transit from Europe to China — and identify the role played by the Russo-Chinese Bank therein. Materials and methods. The study examines statutes and regulations, reports of the Russo-Chinese Bank, and previously unpublished records management and statistical documents stored at the State Archive of Buryatia (Collection of Kyakhta Customs Station and that of Kyakhta-based first-guild merchant M. Nemchinov, respectively). The work employs a number of historical research methods, special emphasis be laid on the principle of historicism and the comprehensive analysis method that have proved instrumental in interrelating the mid-to-late nineteenth and early twentieth century geopolitical events across Asia-Pacific — to the intensification of Russia-China precious metals trade. Results. The paper virtually reconstructs the mechanism developed by the Russo-Chinese Bank in Russia-Mongolia frontier territories to export precious metals from Western Europe to the Qing Empire. Conclusions. The late nineteenth-century weakening of the Qing Empire and subsequent changes in the balance of power across Inner Asia significantly modified the region’s geopolitical agenda. The altered vectors of external policies towards Asia Pacific enabled the Russian Empire to successfully expand its economic presence in China at the turn of the 20th century. The Tsarist government did succeed in holding strong positions in China’s market of precious metals via a specially created ‘tool’ — the Russo-Chinese Bank. The efficient combination of Russia’s smart trade strategies and special customs preferences yielded a highly profitable business of precious metals transit from Europe to China. And it was Kyakhta Office of the Russo-Chinese Bank that played a key role in securing uninterrupted supply of precious metals.

Introduction. It is in the mid-to-late 18th century at latest that the main phonetic characteristics of Buryat that distinguish the latter from other Mongolic languages — reflected in its western and eastern dialects — took shape. The initial period that had witnessed the formation of these specific elements still remains somewhat unclear. The paper analyzes authentic sources and attempts to show a possibility that the areal phonetic features of Buryat emerged within local population groups of Baikalia as far back as the early-to-mid 17th century. Goals. The article analyzes ethnonyms (and other onyms) relating to the Buryat population and recorded in seventeenth-century Russian-language documents to identify spelling (pronunciation) specificities characteristic of Buryat dialects. Materials and methods. Part One of the study deals with discussions over some general chronology of phonetic changes that have resulted in the shaping of Buryat, and distinguish the latter from other Mongolic languages. The paper examines major related works, analyzes methods and approaches employed by the researchers. Results. Our insights into scholarly publications conclude there is no compromise view on the lower chronological limit that would serve as terminus a quo for Buryat phonetic features. According to some researchers, key processes that fundamentally rebuilt the Buryat consonant system had begun in the 17th century and proceeded to completion by the early 18th century, while others insist those had emerged only in the late 17th century to culminate throughout the 18th century. Conclusions. Scholars that have dealt with Buryat phonetics tended to focus on eighteenth-century linguistic materials and rarely turned to other sources, such as Russian loanwords in Buryat, Mongolian loanwords in Evenki and Yakut, chronological attributions of the latter be further explored in historical contexts of phonetic systems of recipient languages, with due account for actual circumstances of interaction with native speakers of Mongolic languages. The absence of original written sources shall definitely leave these questions unanswered. So, historical linguistics can independently serve as a promising tool for such historical reconstructions.

Introduction. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Imperial Russia tended to prioritize the creation of trade and transport communications with countries of the East, which was vividly manifested in a number of projects, such as the Trans-Siberian Railway, Chinese Eastern Railway, and South Manchuria Railway. In this regard, not that widely known remains the Kyakhta Railway project, which implied a construction of a railway line from the Trans-Siberian Railway to Kyakhta with subsequent access to the territory of Mongolia. Goals. The paper attempts an analysis of how the concept of the Kyakhta Railway was evolutionizing throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and seeks to reveal some key features arising from the latter’s geoeconomic and geopolitical objectives. Materials and methods. The work involves understudied materials stored at the Russian State Historical Archive, and methodologically rests on a systemic historical approach that secures insights into the development of the project from the perspectives of Imperial Russia’s political and economic interests and opportunities across Asia at the turn of the 20th century. Results. The conducted analysis of documents shows how the Kyakhta Railway project was actually developing. So, the earliest initiatives to build a railway line from Kyakhta to China’s northern borders were announced at the beginning of the 20th century, after Chinese authorities decided to lay a Beijing–Kalgan railway line. The Government was showing interest in the project under study in the direct aftermath the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. And the project’s complete concept was introduced in a special note prepared by Kyakhta-based merchants in 1910 — to be finally approved in 1913. However, the outbreak of WWI postponed its implementation indefinitely. The article examines each stage in the shaping of the Kyakhta Railway project with emphases be laid on its geoeconomic and geopolitical objectives. The paper shows the project was viewed as a means to solve the then problems of Russian-Chinese and Russian-Mongolian trade, stimulate Eastern Siberia’s economy, fulfill transit potentials of Russia, and strengthen our geopolitical influence in the territory of Mongolia. Conclusions. The work attests to the Kyakhta Railway project was systemic and multifactorial by nature, illustrates its essential place in the overall geoeconomic strategies of the Russian Empire.

Introduction. The article examines gift donations practiced during the 1923–1926 expedition to Mongolia and Tibet led by the outstanding Russian explorer of Central Asia Pyotr K. Kozlov. Goals. The paper seeks to analyze items approved by the Soviet Government for P. Kozlov to have selected from the State Depositary, reasons why the traveler did receive the precious artifacts of gold and silver, circumstances of donations, addressees, and the latter’s perceptions. Materials and methods. The work focuses on materials from the State Archive of the Russian Federation and P. Kozlov’s expedition diaries, the objectives set be articulated via individual gift donation stories (occasions) with Mongolian elites and the 13th Dalai Lama, corresponding motives and offering forms. Results. The paper shows the gift-giving practices were viewed by the traveler not only as some homage be paid to local cultures but rather as a means of communication with Mongolian officials and authorities for the latter’s assistance in solving problems faced by the Expedition. No other Russian explorer ever delivered such high-value items to have been used as gifts. Conclusions. This suggests the Bolshevik Government was hoping — with the help of Kozlov’s expedition — to facilitate positive images of Soviet Russia in Mongolia and Tibet (during a scheduled meeting with the Dalai Lama). The Appendix to the article includes several documents from the State Archive of Russia describing the selected gifts and their distribution by individuals.

Introduction. The study analyzes Russian places of memory in contemporary Harbin. Goals. The paper seeks to answer the question if a memorial consensus regarding the Russian heritage in China is possible, the term ‘memorial consensus’ as such denote a certain formal or informal agreement — between governments or within the community — whether to accept or reject certain symbols of the past, and how to interpret the historical events. That would guarantee conflict-free attitudes to places of memory and their due use for ritual purposes. Moreover, such an agreement regulates how certain memorials or memorable dates associated with a common history may be used in a way most acceptable to all the parties. And the present-day war on monuments around the world makes the study timely enough. In this regard, the Chinese experiences of forming a model for accepting a common past are of essential interest. Materials and methods. Methodologically, the work clusters with memory studies. The paper relies on the concepts ‘places of memory’ and ‘cultural memory’ to apply them to empirical materials of Heilongjiang and focus on toponyms, monuments, cemetery, museum exhibitions, architectural monuments, including Orthodox Christian churches. The discussion shall comprise not only monuments associated with White Russian émigrés but also later Soviet memorials. The paper investigates topographic data, visual materials, reference books dealing with historical and cultural landscapes, and historical works. Discussion. In terms of academic disciplines, the study involves historical, political science, sociological, and cultural approaches. This makes it possible to combine the analysis of the position of memorial objects with political changes in the region. Results. The work shows that a memorial consensus about the ‘Russian past’ has been formed in Harbin to meet tourist needs within the city’s image. This has been facilitated by the rapid development of domestic tourism in China. An important role in finding a memorial consensus was played by the constant dialogue between leaders of the two countries. The study identifies a total of three periods when relationships between national leaders had positive impacts on the policy towards the past. The first period is the time of the union between I. V. Stalin and Mao Zedong, the second period is the dialogue between B. N. Yeltsin and Jiang Zemin, and the third one is the tandem of V. V. Putin and Xi Jinping.

Goals. The study attempts etymological analyses of several rare military terms attested in 17th-century Mongol chronicles. The following terms are specifically touched upon in the article: aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ ‘base camp’, bayirildu- ‘to battle each other, fight a battle’, bulγaldu- ‘to fight each other or together’, čaγuraγul- ‘to send on a military campaign’, ide- ‘to capture and plunder (a city)’, nengde- ‘to attack unexpectedly’, niγtarqa- ‘to be in close order’, toyin ‘(military) camp’. All these terms are either totally unattested in the dictionaries of written Mongolian, or used with unique or rare meanings in sources, and reflect important features of military structure in the era of the Mongol Empire. Materials and methods. The paper analyzes three Mongol chronicles of the 17th century, namely: Quriyangγui Altan tobči ‘Brief Golden Summary’ (ca. 1604 to 1634, or mid-to-late 17th century), Erdeni tunumal neretü sudur ‘The Jewel Translucent Sūtra’ (ca. 1607), and Altan tobči ‘Golden Summary’ by Blo-bzaṅ bstan-’jin (ca. 1651 to 1655, or late 17th – early 18th century). The work employs a number of research methods inherent to comparative-historical linguistics and textology. Results. The article presumes the Mongol Empire’s military structure still remained more or less efficient — with some modifications — when the examined Mongol chronicles were being compiled, but completely lost its relevance in subsequent times. In view of this, only a small number of medieval military terms have survived in modern Mongolic languages, sometimes greatly changed in meaning (aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ), used only as obsolete forms (bulγa/bulγaldu-) or bound morphemes (ča’ur). Conclusions. The paper suggests some of the terms are of foreign origin and bear obvious traces of the intensive areal contacts between Mongolic and neighboring languages, notably Turkic (aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ, bulγa(-), toyi/n), Tungusic (nen(g)de-), and Khitan (ča’ur) ones. Some are attested as hapax legomena in individual chronicles (bayirildu-, čaγuraγul-, niγtarqa-), while others articulate highly specific meanings that have no parallels in our sources, and thus either correspond to the semantics of the donor forms (toyi/n) or possibly reflect the influence of local dialects of that time (ide-).

Introduction. The article demonstrates the logical vulnerability of the opinion that ‘language categorizes the world in different ways’, and considers the existing idea of language motivation as interrelation and interdependence of various phenomena — and as proof of inseparability of the cognizer, what can/is to be cognized, and what has been cognized. Goals. Based on the fact that the common beginning of cognition for various linguistic collectives is neither some objective external world nor the inner world of a person, but rather the presence of the cognitive ability inherent in all humankind, the work articulates and tests a hypothesis that cognitive bias be a predetermining factor of linguistic categorization and incomplete interlanguage equivalence. Materials and methods. The paper provides comparative insights into groups of situations involving the use of signs denoting a result of an object’s position shift in Russian and Chinese. The main research method is deduction. Results. The non-equivalence of the considered signs from the two languages is predetermined by that Russian is characterized by the strategy of a person who ACTS and concentrates directly on the dynamics of his/her movement. The signs associated with the preliminary assessment of the initial arrangement of objects and the selection of an appropriate direction of movement become significant. Chinese is dominated by the strategy of a person who OBSERVES, which includes the latter’s own position in the coordinate system and shows much more interest in the relocated object’s position to the subject proper. The two strategies can be sometimes compatible and sometimes contradictory. Accordingly, there is both a zone of conditional equivalence and a zone of lacunarity for the examined signs. Conclusions. The paper shows that language categorizes no world independent of a person but rather — the person’s experience from interacting with the environment. And since at the moment of interaction with the environment a person necessarily performs a certain role, cognitive bias proves inevitable. Awareness of the features underlying linguistic categorization depends on the role of the individual in this interaction.

Introduction. The paper examines some archaeological evidence for a line of continuity between the Savirs (an ethnic group that had inhabited the Caucasus up to the mid-1st millennium CE), the Suvars (who were part of the northward migration of the Bulgar tribal federation to the middle reaches of the Volga later in the 1st millennium CE), and the present-day Chuvash people (first attested under that name in the early 16th century). Goals. The article aims to shed light on the history of ancestors of the Chuvash. Materials. Pottery and other artefacts support the link postulated to exist between the mentioned ethnic groups from different periods in history, while other archaeological discoveries indicate what connected them to and what distinguished them from their neighbors, suggest how they lived, and show the persistence of certain traditions and practices up to date. Results. Excavations of archaeologists from Makhachkala reject the version of the mid-fifth-century migration of Savirs from the region of Derbent towards southeastern Ciscaucasia allegedly because of the Pseudo-Avars that had arrived from Siberia. In fact, such movement resulted from the offensive of Sassanid Iran. The paper also reviews burial grounds located in Kizilyurtovsky District of Dagestan. The analysis of archaeological evidence confirms there is a continuity of black-and-gray pottery from the North Caucasus and Volga Bulgaria.

Introduction. The paper deals with the linguistic data documented in Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s Chuvash wordlist, which is known to be the earliest lexicographic source on the Chuvash language. The wordlist was published in Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s 1730 book but had been, most likely, collected much earlier, in 1711. Goals. The study aims to provide a philological interpretation of Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s wordlist and evaluate its significance for the history of Chuvash. This source has been widely considered to be of little linguistic value and, generally, hardly interpretable because of numerous errors and inconsistencies as well as the brevity of the wordlist. The starting point of this article is the idea that Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s wordlist can still be analyzed if it is taken not as an isolated piece of documentation of Chuvash, but within the broader context of, firstly, Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s materials on other languages of Northern Eurasia and, secondly, other sources on the 18th-century Chuvash language. Materials and methods. It is shown that Ph. J. Strahlenberg has documented 30 Chuvash words in total, including 28 words in the Chuvash wordlist proper, 1 word in the main text of his book, and 1 word mistakenly placed in the wordlist of the neighboring Mari language. These materials have been investigated through standard methods of philological analysis, with a main focus on the orthographic peculiarities of the wordlist (considered against the background of other old written Chuvash sources) and on proposing plausible conjectures. Results. The paper provides a comprehensive philological account of each item on Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s Chuvash wordlist. It is established that almost all difficulties of interpretation that are traditionally associated with this source are rooted in the use of limitedly known orthographic patterns and, additionally, in the distortion of the recorded forms during the period after the original documentation and before the publication of Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s book. After introducing conjectures into the wordlist, it becomes possible to reconstruct phonetic prototypes of the documented forms. This, in turn, sets the stage for placing Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s materials on the dialectological map of Chuvash. While not particularly specific in terms of historical dialectology, the features characteristic of this variety can be broadly described as Viryal Chuvash. Given the extra-linguistic evidence available, it can be assumed that Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s Chuvash wordlist was recorded in the vicinity of Šupaškar (Cheboksary). Therefore, the attested dialect should probably be classified among the northern varieties of Viryal Chuvash.

Introduction. The paper examines collections of rare Mongolian-language Christian editions housed at depositories of Zabaykalsky Krai and Buryatia. Goals. The study attempts a socioarchaeographic analysis of the mentioned collections at the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies (SB RAS) and the Kuznetsov Zabaykalsky Krai Museum of Local History and Lore. Materials and methods. In terms of methodology, the work rests on ‘cognitive history’ and some aspects of historical phenomenology. The paper assumes a content analysis of the collections be instrumental both in identifying Christian Buryat readers’ queries throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and in revealing specificities of missionary activity among Mongolic peoples in pre-revolutionary Russia. Conclusions. The content analysis of the two collections shows Transbaikalia was witnessing a specific cooperation between Protestant and Orthodox Christian missions. Personal libraries of Buryat Christians were largely compiled from Mongolian translations of the Bible funded mainly by the Protestant missions. The study attests to that the most promising missionary activity among Buryats (and Mongols at large) — dissemination of Christianity via primary education — was not supported by representatives of the missions. Our insights into the history of the collections show that results of Christian missionary translation activities aroused interest of Buryat Buddhists, and the latter tended to include such biblical translations into their libraries. Due to linguistic and historical circumstances, the Russian collections of Mongolian-language Christian publications have remained virtually unattended — both in terms of bibliographic description and scholarly research — for a long time. However, territorial, manufacturing and historical circumstances make the examined editions essentially unique. Our content analysis confirms there is a need for such investigations to reveal a coherent agenda of religious publications once used for the development of Christianity within Mongolian culture.

Introduction. The paper analyzes available Chinese-language scientific works that review contemporary history of the Daur people and examine its different aspects. Goals. The study attempts a historiographic analysis of certain Chinese-language scholarly publications (monographs, articles) dealing with contemporary history of the Daurs. So, the objectives be set and tackled thereto shall include insights into peculiarities of Chinese historiography pertaining to contemporary Daur history, reviews of monographs containing related materials, and analyses of Chinese scientists’ articles considering significant events and facts of 20th-century Daur history. Conclusions. The paper shows China’s historiography of contemporary Daur history is abundant in scientific works, both monographs and diverse articles. Peculiarities inherent to regional collections of articles largely authored by ethnic Daurs result, in our opinion, from that the shaping of historiographical science in the PRC remains somewhat incomplete. The monographs undoubtedly contain a large amount of factual materials on many aspects of contemporary Daur history. However, those are distinguished by the traditional Chinese approach to the study of history characterized by that chronologies of events (chronicles) and biographies of famous figures hold central and unshakable positions. The articles also contain various facts, descriptions of specific historical events and characters, e.g., the peasant uprising of Shaolang and Daifu, biographies of the revolutionary Guo Daofu (Merse), participation of Daurs in the anti-Japanese movement. Another peculiarity traced is that the articles widely use data collected from informants, which is supposedly due to that Chinese sources covering regional history are few enough, and the special value of information provided by participants or eyewitnesses of those events.

Introduction. The article examines results of associative experiments with native speakers of Tuvan and Buryat to analyze the color term ‘white’. Goals. The paper attempts conceptual and semantic analyses of obtained associative fields in comparison to traditional cultural representations of Tuvans and Buryats. Materials and methods. The paper considers materials of associative experiments attended by native speakers of Tuvan and Buryat in different years. Results. The study reveals that associative meanings of the color terms ak and sagaan are largely constituted by semes common to nomadic culture and relating to milk, white ritual food, religious representations of white as a pure and sacred color. In the associative thesaurus of Tuvan and Buryat, white conveys predominantly light semantics and positive emotions, correlates with a wide range of objects and phenomena of the outer world. Like in lexicographic sources, no semantics associated with negative emotions have been traced. However, despite such concepts as ‘death’ and ‘passing away’ are not associated with white color, nor there are any linguistic mentions — this color is involved in corresponding customs and rites. The experimental materials also show meanings specific to both the Tuvan and Buryat linguocultures, which results from differing ethnocultural traditions and language structures. In Buryat, such discrepancies occur in reactions of religious contexts — Sagaalgan, Sagaan Ȕbgen. In Tuvan, those are toponyms, such as Ak-Turug, Ak-Khem, and the reaction kara that has broad functional meanings. The analysis also shows that many associative values coincide with main meanings of corresponding lexemes (reactions/superordinates unge(n) and on). Conclusions. The study confirms that cultural and historical similarity plays an important role, and many ethnocultural stereotypes of native speakers of related languages have more conformities than differences.

Introduction. The article discusses an essential upcycling practice to have existed in various local cultures of the past — and still observable in different forms. Goals. The study aims at describing and analyzing a contemporary form of the children’s clothing sharing tradition of Tuvans, indigenous population of the Tyva Republic. The former is viewed as a local traditional variant of upcycling. The tradition proper has no special name in Tuvan culture but there are several Tuvan terms to denote old things. The most common one is ergindi — ‘old stuff’. The paper draws examples to introduce present-day patterns of the tradition and outlines it, since the latter has been totally uninvestigated. Materials and methods. The study comprises autoethnographic observations, employs anthropological methods and data from related academic disciplines, including philology, linguoculturology, and history. Results and conclusions. Tuvan folklore and ethnic literary narratives, 19th and 20th century ethnographic publications do mention the practice, the latter to be confirmed by stories of Tuvan elders about their childhood, family customs. The tradition was not only to save money or instruct people to handle things carefully but also illustrated special attitudes of Tuvans towards children, and furthermore acted as a kinship maintenance mechanism. Similar characteristics are inherent to contemporary patterns. Nevertheless, the paper also lists some innovations, e.g., expanded categories of things involved (children’s clothes proper be added to with clothes for pregnant women, children’s implements, toys, books), sharing not only with relatives, use of national costumes once owned by relatives, etc.

Introduction. The paper provides a first historiographic insight into official ranks and social status of Russian diplomats to have been dispatched on diplomatic missions to leaders of nomadic military/political associations across Northern Central Asia in the 17th century. Goals. The study aims to determine essentials of how the Tsardom of Russia tended to perceive its counterparties’ status through the analysis of official positions and social backgrounds of Russian diplomats. Materials and methods. The article analyzes a wide range of published and unpublished documents, systemizes and generalizes qualitative and quantitative data pertaining to official ranks of Russian diplomats discovered in records management papers, such as Tsar’s ukazes, nakazes and reminder nakazes, as well as those referred to as stateyny spisok (list of officers) and otpiska voevody (governor’s report). Results. The work reveals diplomatic missions to Kirghiz and Teleut lands, Dzungaria and Mongolia were usually headed by offsprings of the nobility (deti boyarskie) and regular servicemen (nachalnye lyudi) — Cossack leaders, atamans, squadron (pyatidesyatnik) and section (desyatnik) commanders. However, it was not that rare when such diplomatic endeavors were entrusted to servicemen of lower ranks and, occasionally, representatives of indigenous (non-Russian) populations. Conclusions. In terms of 16th–17th century Russian ambassadorial semiotics, the choice of diplomats from commoners and those characterized by lower social status was definitely purposeful and aimed at demonstrating that Turkic and Mongolian nomadic rulers were to enjoy fewer honors due to a higher standing of the Russian Tsar. Since the Tsardom of Muscovy was seeking to gain control over the nomadic military/political alliances of Northern Central Asia and bring nomadic elites under ‘the higher hand of the monarch’, the appointments of lower-ranked servicemen as heads of diplomatic missions were to meet the goals (and logic) of Russian expansionist policy. Low ranks of dispatched diplomats indicated not only the Russian Tsar’s political superiority over nomadic rulers but also attested to that Russians already tended to perceive nomads as potential subjects of the Tsar.

Introduction. In the 1920s and 1930s, one of the most important directions of Soviet nationalities policy was the building of Soviet nations on the basis of various ethnic groups. Utmost difficulties were to be faced when it came to identify small dispersed ethnic communities located in ethnocultural ‘borderlands’. In Stavropol Region, one such community were Sherets to have emerged as a result of historical synthesis of Kalmyk and Turkmen cultures and ethnic environments. Goals. The article seeks to analyze government policies towards Sherets and attempts a scientific understanding of their phenomenon in the Soviet era. Materials. The study examines archival documents housed by the State Archive of the Russian Federation, as well as other archival papers and published sources. Results. The work delineates main approaches to the study of Sherets in the prerevolutionary and Soviet periods. It shows that religion was chosen as a key identification factor for the group by Russian ethnographers and officials, which made it logical enough to cluster Stavropol Sherets with Turkmens. However, the Soviet approach rested on the primacy of primordialism and actual ethnic origins, and proclaimed Sherets an integral part of the Kalmyk people. The paper reveals main directions and mechanisms of work among Sherets at municipal, regional, and republican levels aimed at their rehabilitation and relocation to the native village of Kucherli in Turkmensky District. It is proved that Sherets — despite small numbers — sought to retain their identity based on clan system. The 1930s curtailment of the korenization policy resulted in accelerated assimilation of Sherets into the Turkmen population.

Introduction. The contemporary transformation of the place and role attributed to shamanism in social structures cannot be explained in isolation from social and political trends. Goals. The study aims at revealing causes of shamanism’s revival in post-Soviet Russia, analyzing the latter’s mechanisms, and attempts an efficient policy roadmap that could be followed by the Government. Materials and methods. The comparative historical method identifies structural inconsistencies between official clerics and institutions supposed to sustain intrasystemic balance in human society — and individual shamans performing similar functions in the so called ‘big universe’ that additionally comprises the world of natural phenomena and that of spirits. Results. The paper shows that when social institutions headed by authorities are capable of securing acceptable solutions for most problems of an individual citizen, shamanism tends to turn vividly oppositional and retains its potentials in ‘peripheries’ only — within ‘gaps’ of social systems. Meanwhile, the experiences of post-Soviet Buryatia attest to that in acute crisis shamanism may be recruited again to tackle actual mundane objectives. In this case, it becomes an important structural element to a wider social relations system with boundaries of society proper further extended. Conclusions. The paper asserts the latter phenomenon may imply an efficient strategy be incorporation of shamans into the public law field with limited allocations of specific resources owned by the Government only. This may result in that the former’s spiritual potentials and impacts be used to common advantage — to avoid takeovers by spiritual leaders from peripheries of social systems.

Introduction. The article analyzes materials from one reference site of the Caspian culture in the Northern Caspian. Two main achievements of prehistoric society — emergence of metalworking and that of productive economy — are associated with this culture. Goals. The paper aims to identify cultural and chronological complexes inherent to the site of Kurpezhe-Molla. So, the study seeks to characterize stone and ceramic inventories, their cultural attributions, attempts a comparative analysis of pottery production techniques in different cultures, and determines their absolute ages. Materials and methods. The work focuses on materials from Kurpezhe-Molla — a key site of the Caspian culture. The latter was being excavated from 1980 to 1989 to have yielded publications covering the first five years only. This paper is first to publish and consider complexes of all years of research. The employed research methods include the typological, planigraphic, technical/technological, and radiocarbon ones. Results. Typological analysis makes it possible to identify ceramics of the Khvalynsk and later cultural types (in addition to ceramics of the Caspian culture proper). This was confirmed by that the stone artifacts included some typical for the Early Eneolithic. Technical and technological characteristics of the Caspian and Khvalynsk pottery samples prove similar enough but there are some differences. The work estimates an earlier age of the Caspian culture and a later one for that of Khvalynsk. Conclusions. Comprehensive insights into respective materials attest to a complex character of the site of Kurpezhe-Molla. Artifacts of the Caspian culture proper are paralleled by materials of the Khvalynsk type. The radiocarbon dates obtained imply the Caspian materials be referred to an earlier period. The paper traces both similar and distinctive features inherent to typology and manufacturing techniques characteristic of the archaeological cultures examined. This may indicate the Khvalynsk ceramic tradition had evolved from the Caspian one, or serve evidence of their coexistence at a certain stage.

The Yakutia Comprehensive Research Expedition of 1925–1930 proved a most essential stage in the intellectual discovery of Russia’s Arctic and North. Even nowadays the insights into climate and natural resources, socioeconomic and demographic analyses, living conditions assessments remain as topical. It is noteworthy that the efforts undertaken were largely humanitarian, thus making the collected data on socioeconomic history and everyday life rich enough. Ivan Soikkonen was heading the Yakut Ethnographic Subgroup in 1926–1927, the latter to have been working in the central part of the Republic. Long-term stationary observations resulted in materials covering ethnic culture of the Yakuts, including detailed descriptions of household life, economic activities, and family relations. Soikkonen’s papers are distinguished by ‘photographic’ reflections of rural Yakutia’s local realities typical for earliest decades of the 20th century. Goals. The article aims to introduce into scientific circulation one manuscript by the Russian ethnographer Ivan P. Soikkonen containing ethnographic materials from late 1920s Central Yakutia. Materials. The manuscript titled ‘Winter Day of the Yakut Woman’ is stored together with other unpublished Yakutia-related materials of Soikkonen at the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg Branch). Results. The expedition materials are invaluable sources for humanities research. The manuscript examined contains interesting facts that shed light on social relations, standards and qualities inherent to rural life refracted in the mirror of everyday gender. The phenomena dominating throughout the to be presented document is that of natural winter cold which limits, restrains, and regulates activities of a Yakut woman in winter everyday life in earliest decades of the past century. Soikkonen’s notes make it possible to examine aspects of the economic determinism among Yakuts to have arisen from natural and climatic conditions of the region in the period prior to the Soviet modernization in interdisciplinary perspectives. Conclusions. The paper is first to publish the manuscript, only some small fragments have been cited before. The article pioneers the interpretation of Soikkonen’s materials from the standpoint of the anthropology of cold. The author comments and transcribes Yakut terms contained in the manuscript.

Introduction. The article publishes a report delivered at the Thirteenth Congress of Orientalists and deals with problems of searching materials on repressed Kalmyks and their 1944–1957 life in Siberia with additional emphasis be laid on their preservation and duplication for specialists in Kalmyk studies. Materials and methods. The study employs a wide range of research methods, both common scientific (analysis, synthesis, etc.) and special historical ones (historical genetics, historical systemic methods, etc.). The comparative historical methods proves instrumental in identifying actual storage and access conditions at archives across different regions, agencies, and authorities. Results. The paper covers the Siberian period of the repressed Kalmyk people’s life between 28 December 1943 and 9 January 1957. The ‘thirteen years and thirteen days’ witnessed tremendous hardships and miseries experienced and survived by two thirds of the population only. Part 1 of the article has reviewed Kalmyk Deportation proper, its geography, living conditions, and demographic losses among exiled settlers. Part 2 evaluates federal and regional Siberian archives as sources on the history of Kalmyk Deportation. The initial analysis shows those contain vastest materials relating to the issue under consideration. However, since Kalmyk exiled settlers were scattered across several regions quite a share of archival documents are essentially sketchy, difficult or even impossible to access. Specialists have explored materials housed by federal depositories but the regional and municipal ones — as well as key archives of Siberia — still remain a terra incognita, especially those of particular agencies and institutions. Meanwhile, the situation tends to get aggravated for some categories of archival files to have reached the retention period of 75 years may be considered valueless and disposed of, i.e. lost to any further research. The paper concludes it is urgent to mobilize quite a number of research associates to search for materials dealing with the topic in archival depositories nationwide, primarily regional ones.

Introduction. The paper discusses some religious beliefs — identified as original and authentic ones — based on shamanic traditions among the Old Barga (Barghuts). Despite the active presence of Buddhism and coexistence with the latter, the Old Barga shamanism remains viable enough. Goals. The study attempts to delineate elements that would indicate connections and interactions between the shamanic tradition of Old Barghuts and those of Buryats and Manchus. To facilitate this, the work pursues a number of objectives, namely: a brief review and analysis of published studies covering the topic; identification of common features inherent to Barghut, Buryat and Manchu shamanisms. Materials and methods. The main research methods employed are the historical/genetic one and that of comparative analysis (with due regard of historicism principles). Results. The available works and materials of different authors, mainly field studies, make it possible to reconstruct the structure and hierarchy of the Old Barga shamanic pantheon, highlight key religious cults that form their unified religious beliefs and preferences. At the same time, publications to have examined the Old Barga shamanism state a genetic relationship with the Buryat tradition — without any essential insights into ideas to be associated with a more archaic layer, and the strong influence of Chinese culture, despite the fact Old Barghuts had been rather placed in Manchu environments. The paper assumes the religious ideas of Old Barghuts which had begun to take shape during the medieval domination of Tengrism (with its central idea of worshiping and deification of the Eternal Blue Sky) also contain and essentially rest on Tengrian views and ideas. Conclusions. So, the Old Barga shamanism is a flexible and changeable system of religious views. However, the transformations experienced nowadays may attest to both its evolution and certain destructive processes.

Introduction. The history of British Raj’s foreign economic activity development at the turn of the 20th century remains somewhat understudied both in Russian and foreign historiography. Since the 1880s, India significantly increased foreign trade to become Asia’s leader in this regard. Goals. The paper aims at examining dynamics of India’s export-import operations and foreign trade by countries. Materials and methods. The article analyzes reports and accounts of Russian diplomats to have worked in British Raj, the Near East, and Great Britain. The employed research methods include the historical/genetic, comparative historical, and historical/typological ones. Results. Britain had been India’s dominating trading partner. However, gradually other states also increased trade operations with the latter, especially import ones. The paper emphasizes Russia failed to become a key foreign trade partner of British Raj (except for export of kerosene and import of tea). The identified reasons are contentious British-Russian relations in Central Asia in the 1860s–1890s, poor knowledge of the Indian market, and geographical remoteness. British Raj turned an outpost of Great Britain’s economic strength in the Persian Gulf. At the same time, Indian goods displaced products from other countries — including Britain manufactured ones — in many ports of the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula. The article stresses that the bulk of India’s foreign economic relations were maintained via maritime transport. This was due to complicated natural and climatic factors along land borders, instability in frontiers (Afghanistan and Persia). Nonetheless, British Raj was increasing its economic presence in Afghanistan, Persia, Nepal, Ceylon, Siam, and western provinces of China. An important place in India’s foreign trade was occupied by transit trade and re-export of goods from other states, which makes it difficult to accurately determine the actual volume of its foreign trade. Conclusions. The specifics of India’s national economic development can thus be traced in the structure of its foreign trade. The exports were dominated by raw materials and foodstuffs; manufactured products were only making their way to foreign markets. The difficulties were largely associated with the Great Britain’s colonial policy in India since the former sought to keep using the latter as a market for industrial products produced in the British Isles. On the eve of WW I, British Raj was building up its economic potential through strengthening its positions in world trade.

Introduction. The article introduces into scientific circulation newly discovered archival materials and analyzes actual conditions in Kalmyk Steppe of Astrakhan Governorate in the late 19th century. The issue remains topical enough, which results from its poor historiographic tradition: only a few works have been published in the modern period just to outline some fragmentary aspects. In addition, interdisciplinary, civilizational and cultural approaches are urgently needed to address this theme. Goals. The work attempts a complex characterization of Kalmyk uluses and Kalmyk society in the late 19th century. The former shall be instrumental in defining traditional features and identifying the degree of introduction of new phenomena in socioeconomic development of the region. So, the paper provides data on quite a range of aspects inherent to Kalmyk life. The chronological framework of the study (late 19th century) is well justified: the Kalmyks had spent almost 300 years within Russia’s borders, which makes it possible to determine the degree of preservation of traditional essentials and identify the influence of innovations. Materials and methods. The work employs a set of general scientific and special historical research methods. Special attention is paid to the principles of historicism and systemacity helpful in analyzing events from over 100 years ago and considering the latter in connection with other aspects of Kalmyk social life. Interdisciplinary and civilizational approaches make it possible to present objective accounts of complex processes. The mentioned documents are stored at the Russian State Historical Archive and the National Archive of Kalmykia. The former are mainly represented by consolidated annual reports of Astrakhan Governor describing actual conditions in Kalmyk Steppe — a special administrative and territorial unit of Astrakhan Governorate. Results. The paper analyzes the reports for data on territory and population of Kalmyk Steppe, economy and social structure of Kalmyk society, school and medical aid systems. It also stresses accounts of Astrakhan Kalmyks’ moral appearances by Astrakhan officials. Conclusions. The study shows that Astrakhan Kalmyks were still a traditional nomadic society at the turn of the 20th century. Their livelihood was based on extensive nomadic livestock breeding with the same species and breeds as 300 years ago, though some innovations had been perceived (occasional winter forage conservation, construction of permanent buildings in some localities). All needs of Kalmyks were fully satisfied with their own farmsteads. The innovations included attempts to engage in agricultural activities in suitable areas of Maloderbetovsky Ulus next to resettled Russian peasants, and the involvement of Kalmyk communities in market relations.

Introduction. The majority of Russian historiographic works deal with political history, namely: class struggle, wars, sociopolitical and socioeconomic development, prominent figures, etc. Meanwhile, it is evident enough that an ultimate basis for historical development and existence of any ethnos is everyday labor of the masses. The article reviews the emergence and development — in historical science as such and Russian historiography proper — of the research trend exploring everyday life. The paper notes virtually no such works have been published in Kalmykia, nor can one find any essential scholarly narratives on everyday life of Kalmyks. Goals. The study aims at delineating long-term benefits of academic insights into Kalmyk routine life, all estates and social groups throughout the 17th to 19th centuries. Results. The paper revisits activities by founders of the Annales school (France) — Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. Special attention is paid to similar works on everyday life in Russian historiography. Conclusions. The available ethnographic narratives examine the past household life of Kalmyks, their rites, economic affairs and other aspects integral to the subject area ‘mundane life’. However, the article concludes no special works to have covered Kalmyk routine life of the past have been published yet.

Introduction. The article examines the history of emergence and development of unauthorized settlements of individual peasants in the territory of Kalmykia between 1930 and 1991. The insight into the topic provides an opportunity to learn more about the past of certain social groups, strata, classes — and related state policies during the Soviet era. Goals. The paper primarily aims to show a history of settlements arbitrarily established by individual peasants in Soviet times. The work examines causes and factors to have resulted in new settlements across Kalmykia, analyzes official Soviet policies, relations between government agencies and such settlers. Materials and methods. The study employs the historical comparative and historical genetic methods, analyzes works by previous authors and materials from the State Archive of the Russian Federation and National Archive of Kalmykia, including new unpublished materials thus to be introduced into scientific circulation. Results. The analysis shows the emergence and development of settlements were determined by such factors as island locations, desolate and undeveloped character of lands, harsh natural conditions, persistence of settlers, and the unspoken support from authorities of Priyutnensky District in earliest years of existence. The paper presumes it be also very important to take into account the fact unauthorized settlements had been initiated by individuals who — unlike kulaks — were considered unconscious, ‘lost’ people, and not socially alien elements. Most of the ‘unauthorized settlers’ were ones to have avoided dekulakization, the wealthiest ones had been able to liquidate their farms before lists of the to be dekulakized were compiled. Authorities identified such settlements as kulak ones, although in formal parameters those were socially different. Conclusions. Unauthorized settlements of individual peasants in Kalmykia appeared as a result of forced collectivization and served a manifested protest against official restriction policies. The collectivization movement and sociocultural ideology kept them under constant pressure, but two settlements did survive to resist for decades to come. In general, the Soviet period witnessed a success in eliminating unauthorized settlements of individual proprietors.

Introduction. The article examines a yarliq from Dastur al-Katib (14th c. CE) and attempts to an insight into the principles of using the Mongol language in the 13th–14th century Persian records management system. Goals. The study provides an interdisciplinary analysis of the historical monument — a yarliq appointing a bakhshi (senior scribe) included in Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-14th century by Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani, a financial statesman under the late Hulaguids and early Jalairids. To facilitate this, the paper shall: 1) translate the examined document into Russian, 2) characterize the latter as a valuable source on history of state, law and chancellery culture of Mongol Iran, 3) analyze the yarliq as an official act and a source of law, 4) identify the legal status of the Mongolian language in 13th–14th century Iran. Materials and methods. The study explores the yarliq proper and other materials of Dastur al-Katib, additional medieval sources on Mongol Iran and Genghisid states, including works by Rashid al-Din, Wassaf, etc., official documents of Genghisid chancelleries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatics analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing a secretary (bakhshi) from the medieval Persian treatise titled Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. The work clarifies specific features of a bakhshi’s legal status as a senior scribe responsible for translating official edicts from Persian into Mongolian, his functions, rights, requirements for candidates. An attempt to identify the person to have been appointed scribe therein was made. Conclusions. The works concludes Mongolian had a status of the official language in records management system of Iran throughout the late 13th and 14th centuries, the former having been extensively used by nomadizing subjects of Hulaguid and Jalairid Ilkhans, including top-rank executives of Mongolian descent. This was reflected in the appointment of a special official responsible for articulating legal and other documents into Mongolian for nomadic elites and warlords. However, to extrapolate this conclusion onto other Genghisid states it is necessary to compare the researched document and additional information on Mongol Iran with similar sources from other heirs of the Mongol Empire, such as the Golden Horde, Chagatai Ulus, etc.

Introduction. The article examines peculiarities of missionary activities performed by the Russian Orthodox Church among Buddhists of Eastern Siberia in the mid-to-late 19th century. Goals. The paper aims to analyze — in social and archaeographic perspectives — a Tibetan manuscript collection at the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies (SB RAS) compiled through efforts of the Orthodox Christian missionary Konstantin K. Stukov (1809–1883). Materials and methods. The so called ‘cognitive history’ and certain elements of historical phenomenology serve as a methodological basis of the research. The structure of the Stukov Collection contributes to further understanding of both functioning patterns inherent to mid-to-late 19th century Buddhist communities of Eastern Siberia — and essentials of concurrent Orthodox Christian missionary endeavors across the region. The main research problem is to determine the substantial specifics of this collection for subsequent reconstruction of certain aspects in missionary activities of the priest. Conclusions. Ven. Stukov was interested in exploring worldviews and ritual practices of lay Buddhists for the cause of his missionary work. Those to be learnt knowledge areas (besides fundamental Buddhist doctrines proper) were to include visions of life characteristic of native inhabitants and largely rooted in pre-Buddhist culture of Siberia, South and Inner Asia. And the paper suggests that very interest proved crucial to the success of Ven. Stukov’s missionary deeds. The analysis claims personal initiative was an important factor of missionary work in mid-to-late 19th century Eastern Siberia integral to the then (and there) government policies at large. The article also introduces some newly discovered episodes from the biography of Konstantin K. Stukov — an Orthodox Christian priest, ethnographer, and social activist.

Introduction. The article analyzes legends and songs about Genghis Khan recorded in expeditions across Buryatia, Mongolia and China — to further compare them with related archival and published materials. Goals. The work aims at identifying distinctive features inherent to folklore texts dealing with Genghis Khan in different linguistic and ethnic environments. The issue of revival of ethnic consciousness actualizes insights into ethnic culture and its peculiarities. Methods. The paper is first to consider local versions of Buryat songs about Genghis Khan in a comparative aspect. Semantic contextual analysis proves instrumental in revealing ethnic markers. Results. The article discusses songs about Genghis Khan of both local and general Mongol significance. Songs about kinship with Genghis Khan and the ancestral homeland of Buryats — Nayan Nava — have a local and specifically tribal meaning being connected to the history of the Khori Buryats proper. Songs with a motif of chase contain parallels with plots of all-Mongol toponymic legends. The song titled ‘Two Steeds of Bogdo’ (Bur. Bogdyn hoyor zagal) and known among the Mongolic peoples dates back to the Mongolian medieval literature — The Tale of Two Steeds of Genghis Khan. The songs are examined in comparison with legends and The Secret History of the Mongols. Conclusion. Contextual analysis of songs about Genghis Khan along with legends and The Secret History reveals a hidden deep layer in the semantics of texts. The songs of Russia and Mongolia’s Buryats identify ancient roots of the motif of kinship with Genghis Khan that date back to the historical homeland. The Shinehen Buryats of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (China) have shown a perfect preservation of authentic materials in an isolated environment, while Mongolia’s Buryats experienced a transformation and song borrowings in the close ethnic culture. The paper also concludes there are virtually no such songs about Genghis Khan among modern Buryats of Russia. In general, the comparative analysis of Buryat songs about the legendary warlord proves those had been created in their historical homeland of present-day Russia to be further preserved both in the alien (China) and kindred (Mongolia) ethnocultural environments.

Introduction. The article aims to study key types of Tuvan women’s wedding headdresses as signs associated with certain stages of the wedding ritual. Materials and methods. The research is mostly based on pre-revolutionary historical and ethnographic materials from the Aldan-Maadyr National Museum of Tuva and the authors’ field data. The method of historicism employed for the analysis proves helpful in capturing the elements of culture in dynamics. The work also uses the comparative typological and field research methods that are traditional enough for ethnography studies. Results. The paper analyzes historical, ethnographic, and folklore materials to reveal the semantics of the Tuvan traditional wedding ritual and identify symbolism of wedding headdresses and their semiotics, materials used for their manufacture and decoration, local variants in terms of pragmatism and specific characteristics. Conclusions. The research indicates that despite some differences in several parameters (presence or absence of a particular rite or its functional significance), the traditional wedding ritual across different territories of Tuva is characterized by commonality of their basic structural and typological components, including matchmaking (Tuv. kudalaashkin and kudalai koor), bride show (dugdeeshkin), and wedding proper (kuda-doi). Accordingly, wedding clothes from different districts of Tuva have common ritual elements along with some specific local peculiarities. So, the paper focuses on key types of headdresses once used in wedding rites.

Introduction. This paper introduces the authentic text of ”Gesr bogdyn tusk tuuji” (The Saga of Geser-bogdo) for the academic community. It was written down in Malye Derbety, Maloderbety raion, Kalmyk ASSR in 1982 by the present author; its performer was Sharlda Dordzhievich Dordzhiev (1893–1984), Baga khurul shabiner, uimguilmyd. The original text is supplemented by Russian translation made by the author of the publication and a short biography of the performer. Also, the article includes a brief description of the sample, focusing on the specifics of recording and of keeping the field notes. The article aims at introducing new material, such as the authentic text ”The Saga of Geser-bogdo”, its Russian translation, and the performer’s biographical data. Data and methods. The research is based on the manuscript from the author’s private archive; the Kalmyk text of eleven pages is written down on paper (A4, yellow paper). There are also additional materials, such as the interviews with Dordzhiev’s relatives and villagers. Results. ”The Saga of Geser-bogdo” is devoted to an interesting story of Geser-bogdo’s mission, i. e. the protagonist’s efforts to free the Earth (Middle World) from cold, as well as demons personified as Andzhlula and his wife. The narrative is based on two microstories: i) an unsuccessful attempt to getrid of cold on the Earth with the help of Khurmusta Tengri and ii) the victory over Andzhlula and his wife with the help of Sandzhi, the protagonist’s brother from heavens. The analysis shows that, in terms of its structure and content, ”The Saga of Geser-bogdo” includes a number of important segments, which are parallel to other Geser’s epic narratives. The manuscript is of relevance for studies of the Kalmyk oral tradition of Geser sagas. Conclusions. ”The Saga of Geser-bogdo”, performed by Dordzhiev in 1982, indicates that oral retellings of Geser sagas were widely circulated in Kalmykia. Also, the data pertaining to the storyteller’s life and art shows the popularity of the epic narratives in the Kalmyk milieu at the time the recording was made (late 20th c.). The epic sample maybe of interest to folklorists and epic scholars for their comparative and textological studies, as well as for the studies of storytelling tradition and of the linguistic aspect of popular oral art.