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Presents examples of interference phenomena, lexical, grammatical, and orthographic, which occurred in the translation section of examinations given to prospective teachers of English in German university-preparatory high schools. The elements of error are analyzed, and corrected versions are supplied. (IFS/WGA)

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After discussing the origins and the underlying philosophy of the Vilnius Philomath Society as well as the way in which its archives are preserved, the author proceeds to examine one of the surviving manuscripts: The Virgin of Orleans, authored by Adam Mickiewicz. Set against the data from previous research on the language of the Philomaths by Kurz, the analysis of the spelling convention and the phonetics of the manuscript (e.g. the orthographic representations of j, o / ó, ż / z, x; prepositional phrases; word truncations; the pronunciation of nasal and raised vowels; palatalisation of consonants) helps determine that they fall closer to the language of the Philomaths and the North-Eastern Borderlands of Poland than to the national literary norm of the time. Above all, the analysis reveals that Mickiewicz’s spelling patterns were highly inconsistent, posing a major challenge to his publishers.

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Copyright of Lernen und Lernstörungen is the property of Hogrefe AG and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the 15th century, at a time when codification via dictionaries and grammars had not yet taken effect, printers, editors, and compositors were already producing pamphlets and books that had to meet the new requirements of the letterpress, especially as regards the arrangement of white space and uniform line justification (even-margined on the left and right). The following analysis investigates five German editions of the Mirabilia Romae (Marvels of the City of Rome), a well-known pilgrim guide, all printed in 1500 for the contemporaneous Jubilee year and thus for short-term sale. The results show that compositors used different means for text alignment: In addition to deviations in line counts and the repositioning of lines, they chose extended or contracted spelling variants, predominantly on the second half of the page. The most frequent variants are abbreviations in the form of tildes. However, just a few spelling patterns with tildes were used. With respect to explanatory processes in a historical perspective, the results call for a closer consideration of page format, text layout (mise-en-page) and line justification when evaluating spelling variation in early book printing.

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In the course of digitization, the social role and value of writing is changing. This article discusses how literacy practices are differentiated along the two modes of text-oriented writing and interaction-oriented writing (Storrer 2018) and why and how this process can be observed in particular in the everyday life of adolescents. Finally, in order to argue that adolescents make use of different registers of writing, which are grounded in metacommunicative awareness, depending on the communicative context the paper provides insight into the results of a recently published study on adolescents' digital texting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Specialized texts are notoriously difficult to translate, especially when the translator is a philology graduate with no or little experience with a scientific or technical domain. Scientific jargon is particularly complex and difficult at a first sight. However, with experience, one begins to distinguish certain patterns of similarity between languages, Romanian and English in this case, especially when the shared Greek or Latin origins of the scientific terminology are involved, but not only. Such patterns, once identified, prove very useful and reduce considerably the time required to look up terms in a dictionary or an online resource. This article will provide details for the recognition and use of some of the most encountered such patterns of similarity and inform on the difference between apparent equivalencies.

In 1832, a Latin grammar book Knjixica Rucsna was published in Osijek by the Bosnian Franciscan Ambroz Matic. Ambroz Matic taught Latin and mathematics in Kraljeva Sutjeska and, for teaching purposes, he compiled an arithmetic and a Latin grammar textbook written in Croatian. The paper studies the content concept of Knjixica as pragmatic amendments to Marijanovic's Latin grammar. The Croatian text analyzes the spelling and grammatical terminology while it singles out some translational lexical solutions that did not take remain in the Croatian language.

Povilas Višinskis was a significant figure of the Lithuanian culture, society, and politics at the end of the 19th c. and the beginning of the 20th c., an active advocate of the Lithuanian national movement, a member of the national revival organisation Varpas, and a supporter of the movement to regain the banned Latin characters for the Lithuanian language. His creative legacy includes various publicistic works, found in the press or published as separate booklets; that has yet received little attention. The paper analyses some characteristic spelling and language features of publicistic works by Višinskis. Concerning the spelling, a special focus should be on its promiscuity and randomness. The principles of spelling are mixed up, different word forms are used side by side in the same text, and often it is difficult to explain the reasons and consistency of a particular spelling. With this in mind, it is rather difficult to tell which language and spelling is authentic, and which is edited, proofread or corrected by editors. At the same time, it should be pointed out that such variation in spelling is common to Lithuanian writings of that time, reflecting a phase of the developmental process of the standard language at that time. What concerns the language of Višinskis’ publicistic works, it is characterised by the use of some Samogitian features, rather frequent retention of archaic morphological forms (dual number of nouns and verbs, supinum, athematic verbs, archaic pronominal forms) and cases of stem mixing of nouns. His vocabulary is full of dialecticisms, barbarisms, and semantic archaisms. His syntax contains a lot of non-Lithuanian, foreign constructions, especially those with prepositions. In conclusion, one could say that gradually Višinskis’ language and spelling became more homogeneous. In his latest publicistic works, this language and spelling uniformity becomes clear, while particular forms and constructions are used more consistently.

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In this paper, we took a thorough look at the characteristics of graphemes of the consonant system in Baranja Transcription of Dušan’s Code, created at the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century. We took the following features into consideration: the spelling of the consonants j, ć, đ, lj and nj and the groups consisting of the aforementioned consonants and vowels, the use of the grapheme Z, the use of the Greek letters, and the spelling of the consonant group št. It has been noticed that the consonant j has traditionally been marked with the grapheme i (vsakoi), that the groups ja and je has followed the traditions of Raška (po]sq, Eresi), and of Resava orthography (dJakou, jgo, ni;Jega), that the groups ji and ju have always been marked the traditional way (taiti, svo}), and lastly, the group jo had three ways of being marked (svowmq, iOanikJEŒ). To mark the consonant ć a combination of graphemes kq was used (vlasteli;ikq), and to mark the groups ća and će of the graphemic groups with ligatures (vrak]}, sokE). More than one solution for writing the group ći has been registered: kouki, kMkQ, prikJ}, vekJi, kMkI. There are few examples of the groups ću and ćo, which point to the use of graphemic groups k} and kw (tisMk}, kMkwmq). The groups đa, đe, đu were marked following the same principle as the groups ća, će, ću, i.e. with the help of the graphemic groups g], gE, g}: krag], nagE, meg}. In the only registered example, the group đi is written as: kragQi. The examples from the corpus point to three ways of spelling the consonant lj (volno, koudel`nica, kralq). The group lja was marked in two ways – with the graphemic group l] (zeml]ne) and lq (volqnq). To mark the group lje graphemic group lE was used (zemlE). The groups lji, lju and ljo were always marked with the combination of graphemes li, l}, lw (zemli, l}bO, volwmq). The consonant nj was marked in two ways in The Baranja Transcription – with nq (konq) and n` (sM/qn`stva). The graphemic combinations n] and na were used to indicate the group nja (kon], proklin]}), and the graphemic group nE to indicate the group nje (nEi). The group nji was spelled in three different ways, as seen in the examples of nimQ, konQ, manJi. The isolated examples of the groups nju and njo attest to the following spelling solutions: n} (n}) and no (noi). The research has shown that the grapheme Z, in accord with the Raška Ortography School, was used only with the numeric value (vxlyto Z=. w=n=z=.). In the corpus, the examples of the Greek letters Ѯ, θ and V have been registered (jѮar’si, anaθema, kVrq), which are in accord with the orthography of Resava. It was established that the consonant group št was marked in a traditional way, with the ligature { (tisM{ ”).

The article is devoted to a modern problems research of television titles editing of the media addressee by the media addressor. The objectives of work are achieved by application of methods of deductive and inductive logical analysis, descriptive method, content analysis, lexical and semantic, lexical and grammatical, and stylistic analysis, comparative analysis, deep interview and poll of informants. Titles as fragments of media texts of the television program “Time Will Show” act as material of the research. In the article, attention is paid to a problem of television titles editing of the mediaaddressee in which editorial work of the media addressor is often limited to an inscription: “The spelling and a punctuation of the author are kept”. Authors in details analyze television titles of the mass media addressee of the “Time Will Show” program broadcast on Channel 1 of the Russian television; sort a number of examples from other elements of media system subject to influence of the research object and from fiction with justified violation of language norms. Authors offer the answer to a question how the editor has to work with text elements on the screen, support the position with opinions of scientists and results of the comparative analysis of the actual material, deep interview and poll of social networks users. The received results are significant for development of psycholinguistics, pragmalinguistics, cognitive linguistics, linguosemiotics, cultural linguistics, discursive linguistics, in particular, of media discourse theory, influence theory. This is because the peculiarities of verbal self-presentation of the media addressee in television titles characterizing the language personality of the media addressee as the media addressor producing the media message as reaction to a television message of the media addressor, and making influence on the mass addressee – television audience are revealed. The article will be useful to philologists, editors, journalists not only in the theoretical plan, but also in practical work.

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This article discusses the influence of lawyers on language culture. First, jurisprudence is identified as a specific form of philology, which explains its affinity to questions of language culture. This is followed by a sketch of the lawyers' influence on German language culture which is based on historical examples. Finally, the article offers a critical discussion of the official bureaucratic use of German language ("Kanzleistil") which was mainly founded by lawyers.

Functions of Upper-Case Letters in an Old Polish Manuscript. Karta Rogawskiego The use of capital letters in Old Polish manuscripts is an unexplored subject. The present article is an analysis of the function of capital letters in Karta Rogawskiego (‘Rogawski’s Card’), a fifteenth-century Polish-language manuscript. Despite the small size of the monument (175 lines), it contains 70 upper-case letters, used consciously and consistently. In this respect, the text is unique compared to other mediaeval monuments in Polish. In Karta Rogawskiego, upper-case letters perform two functions. One is the rhetoric-syntactic function, i.e. they segment the text, introduce additional comments, start integrals which describe the activities of other characters and, above all, they introduce utterances of individual characters, separating the citation from the introduction. The other role of upper-case letters is the stylistic-semantic function, when they are used at the beginning of proper names. In the case of important words, it can be seen that their use is conscious and consistent; e.g. the word cesarz ‘emperor’ is always spelt with an upper-case letter when it refers to a specific person, and with a lower-case one when it only means a function. In addition, upper-case letters appear in the same places in the text, i.e. at the beginnings of titles and chapters.

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This article discusses the influence of lawyers on language culture. First, jurisprudence is identified as a specific form of philology, which explains its affinity to questions of language culture. This is followed by a sketch of the lawyers‘ influence on German language culture which is based on historical examples. Finally, the article offers a critical discussion of the official bureaucratic use of German language („Kanzleistil“) which was mainly founded by lawyers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A research project on the use of the HAT Afrikaanse Skoolwoordeboek by primary school learners is described. (In South Africa the term learner is used to describe a pupil at school). Studies on the way in which learners use dictionaries provide valuable information for both lexicographers and language teachers. The assessment of users' skills regarding the use of the HAT Afrikaanse Skoolwoordeboek was made in the learners' home language. In order to design a test to assess dictionary skills regarding the language learning outcomes of Grade 4 learners, the language learning assessment outcomes in the Grade 4 Afrikaans home language curriculum had to be unwrapped. The process was undertaken in cooperation with Grade 4 teachers to ensure that a realistic assessment of dictionary skills was made and an assessment of dictionary skills of 200 learners ensued. The assessments were marked, marks were calculated and results were analysed. Teachers were trained in teaching dictionary learning strategies and language skills. Learners then received training from their teachers to extract semantic information from a dictionary, as this proved to be the most difficult skill to master, according to the results of the assessment.

Despite some heroic efforts over the past few years, Lusoga remains mostly underdeveloped. It is under continuous pressure from more prestigious languages, such as the neighbouring Luganda and especially the only official language in Uganda, English. Lusoga is undergoing rapid language shifts, with new concepts entering the language daily. Ironically, this process is taking place before Lusoga has even been properly reduced to writing. There is no single official orthography that is truly being enforced; people who do write, write as they think fit. Language data is needed for the production of reliable reference works. In the absence of a substantial body of published material in Lusoga, the researcher can resort to recording and transcribing the living language. This opens Pandora's box, in that spoken language (which is meant to be heard, and is typically less formal) is far more complex than written language (which is meant to be read, and is typically more formalised). Spoken and written variants are, by definition, different. And yet one wants to move the language forward, in a way, before the time is ripe. But then, with over two million speakers, how much longer can one wait? This article reports on the building of a new Lusoga corpus, nearly half of which consists of transcribed oral data. The writing problems encountered during the transcription effort are given detailed attention. Dealing with those writing problems in lexicography requires a multipronged approach. While most could be solved by laying down a norm, and thus through prescriptive lexicography, others need a more cautionary approach, and thus descriptive lexicography. Others still can only sensibly be solved when the lexicographer proposes certain options in defiance of existing norms and assumptions, at which point proscriptive lexicography needs to be called in.

Die Paramediese Woordeboek, die eerste Afrikaanse mediese woordeboek om in 'n era van internasionale paradigmaverskuiwings in geneeskunde te verskyn, word teen daardie agtergrond beskou. 'n Historiese perspektief op die invloed van sulke verskuiwings en hul oogmerke word gegee, met klem op interkollegiale, kommunale en transaksionele kommunikasie. Die enigma van die titel gaan oor die bedoelde teikengroep, en 'n vermoedelik afsonderlike tegniese terminologie. Die voorwoord, met sy aanspraak op eenvoudige definisies, en beweerde probleme met die internasionaal erkende Afrikaanse mediese taal word bespreek. Konstruksionele gebruikersonvriendelike aspekte en foutiewe definisies word aangetoon, met 'n opmerking oor die Afrikaanse spelwyse. Ten spyte van sy titel is dit hoofsaaklik 'n skoolwoordeboek. 'n Perspektief op die toekoms van mediese woordeboeke word gegee; paradigmaverskuiwings het waarskynlik minder terminologiese as strategiese implikasies. Laasgenoemde betrek die bereiking van, en voorsiening in die behoeftes van agtergeblewe teikengroepe ten einde toegang te verkry tot 'n hoogs gespesialiseerde interkollegiale tegniese taal.Die behoefte aan bywerking van die bestaande standaard Afrikaanse verklarende woordeboek word beklemtoon; uit so 'n hersiene uitgawe kan gebruiker-gedefinieerde verklarende woordelyste ekstraheer word deur 'n paneel vakmanne uit die bedoelde teikengroep. 'n Uitdagende taak wag op Afrikaanse mediese woordeboeke.Sleutelwoorde: mediese woordeboek; paramedies; paradigmaverskuiwings; historiese perspektief; toekomsperspektief; enigmatiese titel; teikengroepe; konstruksie; voorwoord; voorskriftelike definisies; spelwyse; kollegiale kommunikasie; kommunale kommunikasie; transaksionele kommunikasie; veeltalige woordeboek Paradigm Shifts and the Afrikaans Medical TerminologyThe Paramediese Woordeboek, the first Afrikaans medical dictionary to appear in an age of international shifting paradigms in medicine, is reviewed against that background. An historical perspective on the influence of such shifts and their aims is presented, emphasising their effect on intercollegiate, communal and transactional communication. The enigma of the title concerns the intended target group, and inferred distinct technical terminology. The preface, with its claim to simplicity of definitions, and alleged problems with internationally recognised Afrikaans medical language is discussed. Constructional user-unfriendly aspects and incorrect definitions are pointed out, with a note on Afrikaans spelling. In spite of its title, it is largely a school dictionary. A perspective on the future of medical dictionaries and paradigm shifts is presented; paradigm shifts probably have less terminological than strategic implications. The latter involves reaching and providing for the needs of disadvantaged target groups in accessing a highly specialised intercollegiate technical language.A need for updating and revising the existing standard Afrikaans explanatory medical dictionary is emphasised; from such a revised edition user-defined explanatory wordlists could be abstracted by a panel of professionals from the intended target groups in accessing a highly specialised intercollegiate technical language. A challenging task awaits Afrikaans medical dictionaries.Keywords: medical dictionary; paramedical; paradigm shifts; historic perspective; future perspective; enigmatic title; target groups; construction; preface; prescriptive definitions; spelling; intercollegiate communication; communal communication; transactional communication; multilanguage dictionary

Abstract: The first monolingual Ndebele dictionary, Isichazamazwi SesiNdebele, had a number of effects on Ndebele, some of which with implications for language planning. One such language planning activity was the standardization of Ndebele. The article focuses on the standardization of vocabulary and spelling. Lexicographers and most of those interested in lexicographic issues are familiar with the challenges posed by what constitutes the standard vocabulary or the standard meaning of words. These questions were crucial for a general monolingual dictionary like Isicha-zamazwi SesiNdebele. General dictionaries are the standard dictionaries for particular languages, assumed to be reflective of the 'standard usage' of that given language in terms not only of spelling but also of meaning.The Ndebele dictionary is based on a corpus which means that words perceived by some as foreign or as 'bad' language are considered for lemmatization. Problems were also encountered with the spelling of these loanwords. By making decisions on which words to lemmatize and how to spell loanwords, lexicographers become involved in language planning matters. The article draws from the Ndebele dictionary-making experience to discuss the role of monolingual African language dictionaries in language planning in general.Keywords: STANDARDIZATION, GENERAL MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY, NDEBELE, LOANWORDS, LANGUAGE PLANNING, SPELLING, STANDARD, VOCABULARY, STATUS PLANNING, CORPUS PLANNINGOpsomming: Taalbeplanning en eentalige woordeboeke: Met spesiale ver-wysing na Ndebele. Die eerste eentalige Ndebelewoordeboek, Isichazamazwi SesiNdebele, het 'n aantal gevolge vir Ndebele gehad, sommige waarvan met implikasies vir taalbeplanning. Een so 'n taalbeplanningsaktiwiteit was die standaardisering van Ndebele. Die artikel fokus op die stan-daardisering van woordeskat en spelling. Leksikograwe en meeste van diegene wat hulle in leksi-kografiese kwessies interesseer, is bekend met die uitdagings gestel deur wat die standaardwoor-deskat of die standaardbetekenis van woorde behels. Hierdie vrae is beslissend vir 'n algemene eentalige woordeboek soos Isichazamazwi SesiNdebele. Algemene woordeboeke is standaardwoor-deboeke vir bepaalde tale, wat aanvaar word om die "standaardgebruik" van daardie taal te weer-spieël, nie net wat die spelling nie, maar ook wat die betekenis betref. Die Ndebelewoordeboek is op 'n korpus gebaseer, wat beteken dat woorde wat deur som-mige as vreemde of as "swak" taal beskou word vir lemmatisering oorweeg word. Probleme met die spelling van hierdie leenwoorde is ook teëgekom. Deur besluite te neem oor watter woorde om te lemmatiseer en hoe om leenwoorde te spel, raak leksikograwe betrokke by taalbeplannings-aangeleenthede. Die artikel steun op ervaring verkry uit die maak van 'n Ndebelewoordeboek om die rol van eentalige Afrikataalwoordeboeke in taalbeplanning in die algemeen te bespreek.Sleutelwoorde: STANDAARDISERING, ALGEMENE EENTALIGE WOORDEBOEK, NDEBELE, LEENWOORDE, TAALBEPLANNING, SPELLING, STANDAARD, WOORDESKAT, STATUSBEPLANNING, KORPUSBEPLANNING

Abstract: Conventionally, dictionaries present information about institutionalized words,phrases, and senses of words; more creative formations and usages are generally ignored. Yet textand corpus data provide ample evidence of creativity in language, showing that it is part of ordinarylinguistic behaviour and indeed often systematic.This article looks at four specific types of lexical creativity in English: figurative meaning,word formation, idioms, and spelling. Focusing on selected examples, it discusses corpus evidenceand then treatment in (principally) three recent monolingual dictionaries for learners of English. Itargues that, even taking into account the pedagogical function and limited scope of these dictionaries,more could be said about creative aspects of lexis, and the systematicity of creative usage.This would be of benefit and interest to dictionary users, and empower them.Keywords: AFFIXATION, CORPUS, CREATIVITY, DICTIONARY COVERAGE, ENGLISH,FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, IDIOMS, LEXICOGRAPHY, NEOLOGISM, NORMATIVENESS,SPELLING, WORD FORMATIONOpsomming: Leksikografie en taalkreatiwiteit. Normaalweg verskaf woordeboekeinligting oor geïnstitutionaliseerde woorde, frases en betekenisse van woorde; meer kreatiewe vormingeen gebruike word gewoonlik geïgnoreer. Tog bied teks- en korpusgegewens volop bewysevan kreatiwiteit in taal, wat toon dat dit deel van gewone taalkundige gedrag is en inderdaaddikwels sistematies.Hierdie artikel beskou vier spesifieke soorte leksikale kreatiwiteit in Engels: figuurlike betekenis,woordvorming, idiome, en spelling. Deur op uitgesoekte voorbeelde te fokus, bespreek ditkorpusbewyse en daarna behandeling in (hoofsaaklik) drie resente eentalige woordeboeke viraanleerders van Engels. Dit voer aan dat, selfs al word die opvoedkundige funksie en beperkteomvang van hierdie woordeboeke in ag geneem, meer gesê sou kon word oor die kreatieweaspekte van leksis, en die sistematisiteit van kreatiewe gebruik. Dit sal tot voordeel en belang vanwoordeboekgebruikers wees, en hulle bemagtig.Sleutelwoorde: AFFIGERING, KORPUS, KREATIWITEIT, WOORDEBOEKDEKKING,ENGELS, FIGUURLIKE TAAL, IDIOME, LEKSIKOGRAFIE, NEOLOGISME, NORMATIWITEIT,SPELLING, WOORDVORMING

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The role of morphological awareness in reading and spelling performance Abstract. Although morphological awareness (MA) is known to be important for literacy acquisition, there are few studies - and no tests - to assess it in the German language. This study evaluates the relationship between MA and three different reading measures as well as spelling and phonological awareness (PA) in German children. Objective: To assess MA, we developed an MA screening instrument. We then assessed reading speed, fluency, pseudoword decoding, spelling, MA, and PA of 172 2 Method: To assess MA, we developed an MA screening instrument. We then assessed reading speed, fluency, pseudoword decoding, spelling, MA, and PA of 172 2 nd MA correlated significantly with the three reading measures as well as spelling and PA, and it explained significant variance of reading speed, fluency, and spelling both in addition to PA and on its own. MA did not account for additional variance of pseudoword decoding. The variance explained by MA was significant for reading and for spelling disorders. Results: The results demonstrate that MA is very important also for German literacy acquisition. Including MA is a promising approach not only for spelling, but also for reading interventions.Conclusions: The results demonstrate that MA is very important also for German literacy acquisition. Including MA is a promising approach not only for spelling, but also for reading interventions.