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The traditional vision of genocide is exogenous. In this framework, ethnics have a real sense. The economic approach of conflicts has expressed slight differences in the relation between ethnics and conflicts. However it does not reject this explanation. Here we propose an alternative approach, an endogenous vision of genocide. Genocide appears in society where social capital plays a major role in solidarities. But social capital is a weak asset in the individual portfolio. Economic and social shocks may have impacts on the assets structure and may produce conflicts such as genocide. In this new framework, policy makers may have to adopt prudential rules. .

Les données recueillies au cours d’une enquête menée sur le long terme en France pour le suivi de la qualité des tourteaux d’oléagineux ont montré que l’utilisation de méthodes d’analyse inadaptées pouvait conduire à une sous-estimation des teneurs en huile résiduelle des tourteaux de colza et de tournesol. Dans le but d’évaluer les performances des méthodes d’analyses actuellement utilisées, une étude collaborative a été réalisée dans le cadre de la commission de normalisation française dans le domaine des aliments des animaux (AFNOR V18A) avec la plupart des laboratoires impliqués dans l’analyse des tourteaux d’oléagineux et des aliments pour animaux. Le circuit d’analyse comprenait huit échantillons, dont cinq avaient une teneur en huile résiduelle faible : trois tourteaux de colza fabriqués dans différentes usines, un tourteau de tournesol, un tourteau de soja. Les trois autres échantillons avaient une teneur en huile élevée et étaient constitués par un extrudat de graines de soja non déshuilé, un tourteau de colza et un tourteau de lin issus de pressage à froid. Les méthodes testées étaient basées sur trois principes : (A) extraction par solvant sans hydrolyse, (B) hydrolyse et extraction par solvant, (C) extraction par solvant sans hydrolyse et avec l’utilisation d’un broyeur à billes. L’étude montre que les données de répétabilité et de reproductibilité obtenues sont en accord avec les résultats de circuits d’analyse réalisés antérieurement et avec les données de fidélité mentionnées dans les normes NF V18-117 Partie 1 pour la méthode A, NF V18-117 Partie 2 pour la méthode B et ISO 734-2 pour la méthode C. Des différences ont été observées entre les trois méthodes pour les teneurs en huile mesurées, en particulier avec les échantillons qui ont subi des traitements thermiques pendant leur fabrication. Les méthodes A, C et B appliquées aux tourteaux déshuilés, conduisent, dans cet ordre, à des teneurs croissantes. La différence entre les résultats des méthodes A et B, correspondant à la matière grasse liée, varie de 0,7 (tourteau de soja) à 1,4 g/100g (tourteau de colza) et représente environ la moitié de la matière grasse mesurée par la méthode A. En comparaison avec la méthode A, l’extraction de la matière grasse non liée avec la méthode C est supérieure de 0,6 g/100g, ce qui montre l’aptitude de la méthode C à extraire la matière grasse difficilement accessible. L’étude montre que les trois méthodes donnent, comme prévu, des résultats différents dépendant des principes des méthodes utilisées et des procédés utilisés pour la fabrication des tourteaux. En définitive, le choix de la méthode la plus pertinente pour la détermination de la teneur en huile devrait être fait en fonction de l’utilisation prévue des résultats, pour la formulation des aliments des animaux ou pour l’optimisation du procédé d’extraction dans l’usine de trituration.

The prevalence of crystalline pathologies including urolithiasis, gallstones, vascular calcifications and crystalline arthritis, is very high in the general population beyond 60 years old. Characterization of microcrystals in tissue at the micrometer and at the nanometer scale through physico-chemical techniques constitutes a new opportunity for the physician to decipher the early stage of the pathogenesis of these biological entities. In this review, such description indicates a wide variety of the chemical process associated to the nucleation process directly from supersaturated solution or from organic support such as DNA or elastin. We will also discuss the case of vesicles which play a major role in the case of ectopic calcification situated in kidney tissue, namely the Randall's plaque. All this research focused on the very first steps of the genesis of pathological calcifications constitute a major step to develop specific therapy able to avoid the formation of these abnormal deposits in tissues. As already underlined, crystals may be the consequence of various pathologies, but they are also involved in the dysfunction of the tissues.

Introduction: The presence of pathological calcifications, which can be either concretions or ectopic call for physicochemical characterisation techniques in order to define a significant diagnosis. The aim of this review is to present a set of characterisation techniques able to describe at the micrometer scale their structural and chemical characteristics and show their place at the hospital., Method: Results already published in the last ten years based on characterisation techniques present in laboratories or specific to large-scale instruments are presented. Their usefulness for the clinician is discussed., Results: The presence and role of heavy metals in urinary stones through data collected through μX-ray fluorescence is debated. If these data suggest a simple substitution process of calcium, recent data suggest that weddellite is associated to a Zn-rich environment, partly favoured by an inflammation process. Investigation on the chemistry and the structure of unusual deposits in kidney biopsies show a great chemical diversity of ectopic calcifications. Such diversity shows that staining procedures to characterize such deposits are obsolete. Finally, several diseases which can be assessed through techniques specific to large-scale instruments and defined by the clinician are presented., Conclusion: The chemical and structural complexity of pathological calcifications call for a characterization through physicochemical techniques. Only such approach allows the clinician to define a significant diagnosis and to care the patient., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Aim: To assess the possible nature and role of trace elements in the pathogenesis of urinary stones., Material and Method: A series of 76 calculi from the East-Algerian region has been investigated through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for chemical analysis and X-ray fluorescence for detecting trace elements., Results: Among the detected trace elements, Zn, Sr, Pb, Cu, Rb and Se, only the first three had significant values. Overall, the calcium components, namely calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate, were the most loaded by these elements contrary to organic components such as uric acid and cystine, which had low contents., Conclusion: The correlation of contents of Zn and Sr with the stone components (carbapatite, weddellite and whewellite) suggests an adsorption of these trace elements in the case of calcium stones rather than a catalytic process., Level of Evidence: 3., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

This paper gathers different investigations dedicated to pathological calcifications made of apatite in order to define the structural characteristics, which display a clinical significance. Such approach helps the clinician to define the characterisation tools, which have to be combined to obtain such structural characteristics in order to establish a possible relationship between the structural characteristics of the pathological calcifications and the disease. The fact that it is now possible to perform such experiments at the subcellular scale gives new opportunities for a large number of diseases associated to pathological calcification. Moreover, new diagnostic tools based on these characterisation techniques, quite sensitive to analyze microcrystals, can be defined., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Hypertensive nephrosclerosis is the leading cause of end stage renal disease (ESRD) in France, however, in prospective clinical trials of hypertension, ESRD accounts only for a small fraction of all events (incidence rate 0.2 to 0.4% by year). Hypertensive nephrosclerosis is characterized histologically by a series of vascular injury, none of which is truly specific and that can be observed also in obesity or normal aging. Hypertensive nephrosclerosis is mildly symptomatic, but the prognosis is never benign, due to cardiovascular and renal burden. This unspecific presentation may explain why the diagnosis of hypertensive nephrosclerosis is easily carried by excess, the main differential diagnoses are atherosclerotic ischemic renal disease, poorly symptomatic primitive nephropathies or the sequelae of unnoticed malignant hypertensive nephrosclerosis. The very high prevalence of hypertensive nephrosclerosis in populations from African ancestry has suggested a genetic predisposition. MYH9/APOL1 gene variants have recently been identified and are strongly associated with hypertensive nephrosclerosis, however the pathophysiological link between these variants and renal disease is still unclear. The treatment is mainly based on blocking the renin angiotensin system, especially when proteinuria is present. The target blood pressure is less firmly established, the latest data from the AASK study, however, do suggest a benefit on progression of lower values < 135/80 or even < 130/80 mmHg, especially in patients with proteinuria., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Revisiting the chemical diversity of the crystalline phases of prostatic calculi by means of SEM and FT-IR analysis., Methods: A set of 32 prostatic calculi has been studied by FT-IR and SEM., Results: FT-IR analysis has determined the chemical composition of each prostatic calculus and the SEM observation has described the morphology of the calculi surfaces and layers. Infrared analysis revealed that 90.7% of the stones were mainly composed of calcium phosphates. However, several mineral phases previously not reported in prostatic calculi were observed, as brushite or octocalcium phosphate pentahydrate., Conclusion: Prostatic calculi exhibited a diversity of crystalline composition and morphology. As previously reported for urinary calculi, relationships between composition and morphology of prostatic stones and étiopathogenic conditions could be of interest in clinical practice., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Clinical studies of the last 15 years have shown the benefit of pharmacological interventions on the progression of chronic kidney disease, confirming the concept of nephroprotection. Pharmacological blockade of the renin angiotensin system remains the cornerstone of the nephroprotective treatment but the benefits and limitations are now better defined. The RAS blockers are all the more efficient than the proteinuria is abundant and nephroprotection is obtained in proportion to the reduction in proteinuria. Combinations of ACEI+ARA are not validated and their use should be considered only under the supervision of a specialist when optimal monotherapy has failed. The target blood pressure has been the subject of recent controversies, particularly in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. The target should be individualized based on the main risk, renal or cardiovascular. Recent maneuvers have also shown a nephroprotective effect, including the correction of metabolic acidosis with sodium bicarbonate., (Copyright © 2011. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.)

Acute kidney injury is a common complication after contrast administration in radiology or cardiology. It increases morbidity and in-hospital but also long-term mortality. The pathophysiology is complex, there is an association of direct cellular toxicity of contrast agents and medullary ischemia secondary to alterations in intra-renal hemodynamics and to an increase in metabolic activity. Many risk factors have been identified and should be checked prior to injection, the most important being pre-existing renal failure which might be identified by calculating the estimated glomerular filtration rate with predictive equations such as Cockcroft-Gault or MDRD equations. When risk factors are present and contrast administration is really necessary, the only validated measure to reduce the risk of renal failure is still volume expansion. Other pharmacological interventions have interesting results, but a confirmation on a larger scale is necessary. The volume expansion is best performed intravenously by the isotonic saline or sodium bicarbonate., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Nephron reduction increases the filtration capacity of the remaining nephrons, which is helpful in the short term, but harmful over the long term The increase in glomerular capillary pressure and in hypertrophy of healthy nephrons stimulates the renin-angiotensin system and TGF-beta. Myofibroblastic transdifferentiation follows, with fibrogenesis and glomerulosclerosis. Converting enzyme inhibitors reduce the expression of genes coding for profibrotic molecules. Proteinuria promotes interstitial fibrosis and must be reduced by drugs that block the renin-angiotensin system.

A fraction of the dialyzed patients remains hypertensive despite achievement of the "dry weight" and will eventually require a pharmacological antihypertensive treatment. There is only scarce randomized intervention trials available in those patients so it is difficult to estimate whether the cardiovascular benefit of the treatment is related to blood pressure lowering per se or to class or drug specific properties. This paper reviews the different class of antihypertensive drugs focusing on their advantages and disadvantages in dialysis patients. On a practical ground, prescription will be driven by pharmacokinetics considerations and mostly according to specific indications pertinent to cardiovascular complications associated with hypertension.

This paper describes the opportunities given by the synchrotron radiation techniques regarding the structural characterisation of biological entities. After a short recall on the characteristics of the synchrotron radiation, are described the experimental devices based on fluorescence X, wide angle X-ray scattering and X-ray absorption spectroscopy, which may applied for biological samples, especially in the field of stone analysis. Recent progresses in medical research using synchrotron radiation will be also discussed.