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International audience; Robespierre et Louis Blanc ont tous deux théorisé, à un demi-siècle de distance, le pouvoir de révocation populaire comme le moyen par excellence de lutter contre le risque d'usurpation de la souveraineté par les représentants. Pourtant, l'étude des discours de Robespierre et des textes de Louis Blanc révèle qu'au-delà des formules emphatiques ni l'un ni l'autre n'a fourni la moindre piste quant aux modalités concrètes de mise en oeuvre d'une telle révocation. Se révèle ainsi une difficulté nodale de la théorie constitutionnelle jacobine: la révocation populaire des élus ne vaudrait en réalité, chez Robespierre comme chez Louis Blanc, que dans une société déjà révolutionnée par les principes jacobins, d'où toute conflictualité fondamentale aurait disparu. Mais dans les conditions sociales réelles, la révocation populaire des élus constituerait une menace pour le parti révolutionnaire. Cette procédure demeure ainsi introuvable chez ces deux figures du jacobinisme.

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to implement intended actions in the future. PM is particularly affected in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The main objective of this study was to examine the links between PM and emotions in AD, since it has been shown that AD patients generally better memorise information with a positive emotional valence ("age-related positive effect"). Our hypothesis was that prior presentation of cue-action pairs would help subjects recall the prospective tasks to be performed, if these actions were associated with emotional valences. Twenty patients with mild AD and 20 healthy participants were included in this study. The experimental protocol consisted of viewing a video simulating a visit to a shopping centre. After receiving a shopping list, participants had to recall these actions after a given time (time-based) or when passing in front of particular stores (event-based). During the learning phase, actions were associated with positive, negative or neutral cues. We also manipulated the task difficulty by giving weak or strong cue-action links, and by introducing distractors. The results showed that the patients' performance was significantly lower than that of the healthy elderly participants both in event-based and time-based task conditions. However, patients obtained scores similar to those obtained by elderly healthy subjects in "event-based" tasks associated with a positive valence, although only when the link between the cues and the actions was strong. Associating positive stimuli with strongly linked cue-action pairs seems to allow AD patients to compensate for their difficulties in prospective memory. These results open avenues for future research into the rehabilitation of PM disorders in Alzheimer's disease.

Background Schizophrenia is associated with severe cognitive deficits, particularly episodic memory deficits, that interfere with patients’ socio-professional functioning. Retrieval practice (also known as testing effect) is a well-established episodic memory strategy that involves taking an initial memory test on a previously learned material. Testing later produces robust long-term memory improvements in comparison to the restudy of the same material both in healthy subjects and in some clinical populations with memory deficits. While retrieval practice might represent a relevant cognitive remediation strategy in patients with schizophrenia, studies using optimal procedures to explore the benefits of retrieval practice in this population are still lacking. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to investigate the benefits of retrieval practice in patients with schizophrenia. Methods Nineteen stabilised outpatients with schizophrenia (DSM-5 criteria) and 20 healthy controls first studied a list of 60 word-pairs (30 pairs with weak semantic association and 30 non associated pairs). Half the pairs were studied again (restudy condition), while only the first word of the pair was presented and the subject had to recall the second word for the other half (retrieval practice condition). The final memory test consisted in a cued-recall which took place 2 days later. Statistical analyses were performed using Bayesian methods. Results Cognitive performances were globally altered in patients. However, in both groups, memory performances for word-pairs were significantly better after retrieval practice than after restudy (56.1% vs 35.7%, respectively, Pr(RP > RS) > 0.999), and when a weak semantic association was present (64.7% vs 27.1%, respectively; Pr(weak > no) > 0.999). Moreover, the positive effect of RP was observed in all patients but one. Conclusions Our study is the first to demonstrate that retrieval practice efficiently improves episodic memory in comparison to restudy in patients with schizophrenia. This learning strategy should therefore be considered as a useful tool for cognitive remediation programs. In this perspective, future studies might explore retrieval practice using more ecological material.

International audience; Current models of long-term memory and semantic memory assume that abstract representations (concepts, schemas, knowledge) are stored and developed from singular experiments according to an “abstract” principle of generalization of information that can produce semantic spaces from large corpus texts. We show how Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) simulates verbal associations, lexical meanings, recall and summary of narratives, Judgment of Relative Importance and vocabulary acquisition in younger children.; Les modèles actuels de la mémoire à long terme et de la mémoire sémantique supposent que des représentations abstraites (concept, schémas, connaissances) sont stockées et élaborées à partir d’expériences singulières selon un principe « abstractif » de généralisation des informations pouvant produire des espaces sémantiques à partir de larges corpus de textes. Nous montrons comment l’Analyse de la Sémantique Latente (LSA) permet de modéliser et simuler chez les enfants : les associations verbales, les significations lexicales, le rappel et le résumé de récits, les Jugements d’Importance Relative et l’acquisition du vocabulaire.

International audience; This communication gives a reflexive look at the use of audiovisual tracks when conducting research. This approach is part of a project funded by the Région des Pays de la Loire which aims at proposing a protocol to evaluate the visitor experience with digital devices in regional heritage sites. To this end, this research focuses on the comparison of the implementation of three evaluation methods relying on distinct audiovisual materials. It discusses their recall capacity and how they can be handled by our partners.; La présente communication propose un regard réflexif sur l'utilisation de traces audiovisuelles en contexte d'enquête. Cette démarche s'inscrit dans le cadre d'un projet régional financé par la Région des Pays de la Loire qui vise à proposer un protocole d'évaluation de l'expérience procurée par les dispositifs numériques dans des lieux patrimoniaux. Pour mener à bien cette mission, la recherche s'est orientée vers la comparaison des modalités de mise en oeuvre de trois méthodes d'évaluation basées sur des supports audiovisuels distincts. Elle les met en perspective avec les régimes de souvenances qu'elles induisent et se penche sur leurs possibilités de transférabilité aux structures partenaires.

International audience; This communication gives a reflexive look at the use of audiovisual tracks when conducting research. This approach is part of a project funded by the Région des Pays de la Loire which aims at proposing a protocol to evaluate Comunicación y música: mensajes, manifestaciones y negocios Universidad de La Laguna, diciembre de 2018 the visitor experience with digital devices in regional heritage sites. To this end, this research focuses on the comparison of the implementation of three evaluation methods relying on distinct audiovisual materials. It discusses their recall capacity and how they can be handled by our partners.; : La présente communication propose un regard réflexif sur l'utilisation de traces audiovisuelles en contexte d'enquête. Cette démarche s'inscrit dans le cadre d'un projet régional financé par la Région des Pays de la Loire qui vise à proposer un protocole d'évaluation de l'expérience procurée par les dispositifs numériques dans des lieux patrimoniaux. Pour mener à bien cette mission, la recherche s'est orientée vers la comparaison des modalités de mise en oeuvre de trois méthodes d'évaluation basées sur des supports audiovisuels distincts. Elle les met en perspective avec les régimes de souvenances qu'elles induisent et se penche sur leurs possibilités de transférabilité aux structures partenaires.

International audience; To execute a command, a user can make a selection in a menu using pointing actions, or, for example, use shortcuts such as gestures. To go faster, she can learn the positions to point or gestures to perform. In this paper, we present a study comparing learning of positions or directions to select commands. The results obtained reveal similar recall rates, with a slight advantage for positions. The qualitative results suggest an advantage of positions over directions for physical and mental demands. Finally, the study of memorization strategies developed by the subjects provides mnemonic methods that can be useful for designers and users.; Pour exécuter une commande, l’utilisateur peut effectuer une sélection dans un menu à l’aide d’actions de pointage, ou bien, par exemple, utiliser des raccourcis tels que des gestes. Pour aller plus vite, il peut apprendre les positions à pointer ou les gestes à exécuter. Nous présentons dans cet article une étude comparant l’apprentissage de positions et de directions pour sélectionner des commandes. Les résultats obtenus révèlent des taux de rappel sim- ilaires, avec un léger avantage pour les positions. Les résultats qualitatifs suggèrent un avantage des positions sur les gestes en ce qui concerne l’effort physique et cognitif. Finalement, l’étude des stratégies de mémorisation élaborées par les sujets fournit des méthodes mnémoniques pouvant être utiles aux designers et aux utilisateurs.

Our working hypothesis is that the digital culture is remodeling a temporal affect of existence. We attempt to describe how our experience of present time is altered by the increase of digital memory, together with the progressive disappearance of « memory recall » and expectation. This altered presence opens up loopholes which could be called dreams, desire, promise, latency or God. Thus anticipatory algorithm and data translation of present actions of the subject are not a definitive tragedy of our time. 8 1 75 88 5 Ethics in Progress

Recommender systems are now popular both commercially as well as within the research community, where many approaches have been suggested for providing recommendations. Folksonomies' users are sharing items (e.g., movies, books, bookmarks, etc.) by annotating them with freely chosen tags. Within the Web 2.0 age, users become the core of the system since they are both the contributors and the creators of the information. In this respect, it is of paramount importance to match their needs for providing a more targeted recommendation. For such purpose, we consider a new dimension in a folksonomy classically composed of three dimensions and propose an approach to group users with close interests through quadratic concepts. Then, we use such structures in order to propose our personalized recommendation system of users, tags and resources. We carried out extensive experiments on two real-life datasets, i.e., MovieLens and BookCrossing which highlight good results in terms of precision and recall as well as a promising social evaluation. Moreover, we study some of the key assessment metrics namely coverage, diversity, adaptivity, serendipity and scalability. In addition, we conduct a user study as a valuable complement to our evaluation in order to get further insights. Finally, we propose a new algorithm that aims to maintain a set of triadic concepts without the re-scan of the whole folksonomy. The first results comparing the performances of our proposition andthe running from scratch the whole process over four real-life datasets show its efficiency., Les systèmes de recommandation ont acquis une certaine popularité parmi les chercheurs, où de nombreuses approches ont été proposées dans la littérature. Les utilisateurs des folksonomies partagent des items (e.g., livres, films, sites web, etc.) en les annotant avec des tags librement choisis. Avec l'essor du Web 2.0, les utilisateurs sont devenus les principaux acteurs du système étant donné qu'ils sont à la fois les contributeurs et créateurs de l'information. Ainsi, il est important de répondre à leurs besoins en leur proposant une recommandation plus ciblée. Pour ce faire, nous considérons une nouvelle dimension dans une folksonomie classiquement composée de trois dimensions et nous proposons une approche afin de regrouper les utilisateurs ayant des intérêts proches à travers des structures appelées concepts quadratiques. Ensuite, nous utilisons ces structures afin de proposer un nouveau système personnalisé de recommandation. Nous évaluons nos approches sur divers jeux de données du monde réel. Ces expérimentations ont démontré de bons résultats en termes de précision et de rappel ainsi qu'une bonne évaluation sociale. De plus, nous étudions quelques unes des métriques utilisées pour évaluer le systèmes de recommandations, comme la couverture, la diversité, l'adaptivité, la sérendipité ou encore la scalabilité. Par ailleurs, nous menons une étude de cas sur quelques utilisateurs comme complément à notre évaluation afin d'avoir l'avis des utilisateurs sur notre système. Enfin, nous proposons un nouvel algorithme qui permet de mettre à jour un ensemble de concepts triadiques sans avoir à re-scanner l'entière folksonomie. Les premiers résultats comparant les performances de notre proposition par rapport au redémarrage du processus d'extraction des concepts triadiques sur quatre jeux de données du monde réel a démontré son efficacité.

International audience; Until recently, little was known about destination memory, or memory for the destination of outputted information. In the present work, this memory was evaluated in 32 older adults and 36 younger adults, who had to associate proverbs to pictures of famous people and decide, on a subsequent recognition task, whether they had previously told that proverb to that face or not. When deciding about the destination, participants had to provide contextual judgment, that is, whether each picture had been previously exposed in color or in black and white. Participants also performed a neuropsychological battery tapping episodic memory and executive functions. Findings showed poor destination recall in older participants. Destination recall in older adults was reliably predicted by with their context recall. Destination memory seems to be particularly affected by aging, a deterioration that can be related to deficits in processing contextual features during encoding.

In a 1997 paper, I posited the existence, in the English lexicon, of a word-initial consonant segment which I call a ‘sub-lexical marker’, defined as a submorphemic unit displaying both phonological and notional invariance within the class of words of which it is a formative. Here, I revisit certain aspects of the logic underlying the formulation of this concept (core invariance, variability, embodiment, meaning potential, etc.), and its links, both synchronic and diachronic, with the longer-established concept of ‘phonaestheme’. I go on to show how the discovery of the fundamental role played by analogy in the formation of English ‘sn- words’ led me to reformulate this concept partially, and to reason in terms of subsets. Lastly, I recall the Semiogenetic Theory of the Emergence and Evolution of the Linguistic Sign (STEELS) that evolved from my research into the diachronic dimension of sub-lexical markers.

UNLABELLED The DMS 48 is a visual recognition memory test designed to detect memory changes in early Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aim of this study was to produce normative scores for this test and to assess its psychometric properties in the detection of AD by comparison with a widely used test of verbal episodic memory: the story recall task of the Wechsler memory scale. Methods. Data were collected in a sample of 1002 agricultural retirees, aged 65 years and over, included in the AMI study, a population-based cohort conducted in Southwestern France. The sample used to establish normative data included 750 non-demented elderly while the sample used to study the properties of the test to detect AD included 751 participants whose 34 with AD. To assess AD detection accuracy, DMS 48 was compared to the Wechsler story recall task. Results. Age, sex, and education were significantly associated with DMS 48 performances. Therefore, normative scores were calculated according to sex, age, and educational level, and described by percentiles. Regarding the test properties for AD detection, DMS 48 presented a good balance between sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) both for immediate (Se=70.6%; Sp=79.6%) and delayed recall (Se=79.4%; Sp=72.9%). It also showed high negative predictive values, around 98.5% for both recalls. Detection values were roughly similar to that of Wechsler story recall task. CONCLUSION The DMS 48 seems to be as reliable as the Wechsler story recall task with similar detection properties. The DMS 48 is a test easy to administer in clinical situations and could be a helpful tool for AD screening.

C’est à partir de l’expérience de la non-compréhension que nous développerons les grandes lignes d’une réflexion sur ce que c’est que comprendre. Cette expérience nous découvre le désir de comprendre qui se prolonge dans la dialectique entre la volonté de comprendre et la volonté d’être compris. Dans la mesure où parler est essentiellement communiquer avec d’autres, le dialogue nous servira ici de fil conducteur : il nous permettra non seulement de rappeler les conditions de possibilité de la compréhension, mais encore de mettre en lumière la nature du devoir de comprendre. Dans un second temps, nous partirons de cette dimension pragmatique et éthique de l’acte de comprendre et de ses implications pour montrer que la ré exion sur le caractère intersubjectif de la compréhension, où l’on se laisse dire quelque chose par quelqu’un d’autre, ne trouve son sens que dans une réflexion politique. En effet, s’il est vrai que le langage ne se comprend pour l’essentiel qu’à partir de connaissances d’arrière-plan partagées par des individus, des groupes ou des communautés d’interprétation dans une société, alors la simple coexistence d’une pluralité de ces communautés d’interprétation exige que soit pensée la reconnaissance que peut revendiquer chacune d’entre elles dans un espace politiquement structuré. Là aussi le dialogue s’avèrera central dans l’expérience de la négativité qui habite l’acte de comprendre.

To assess and manage pain, caregivers need tools and updated knowledge about children and adolescents with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities. Recent works show that children are able to verbalize pain and they can accurately use self-assessment tools. Moreover, they know strategies to cope withpain and seem tofavor the use of social support. Finally, they show mental imagery abilities and are able to recall autobiographical memories. These new data suggest that children and adolescents in this population may be included in hypno-analgesia and relaxation programs.

According to Tulving, episodic memory allows humans to travel mentally through subjective time into either the past or the future, this ability being at the origin of adaptation, organization and planning of future behavior. The main aim of this review is to present a state of art of episodic mental time travel and a lifespan perspective from children to elderly people. We examine the numerous similarities between remembering the past and envisioning the future which have been highlighted in cognitive, neuroimaging, and neuropsychological studies. We also present studies that have given evidence that remembering the past and imagining the future differ somewhat. We focus on demonstrating that hippocampal dysfunction is associated with disturbances in the recall of episodic autobiographical details in past memories, but also in the imagining of episodic detailed future events. More specifically, we discuss that the future seems to involve higher semantic processes mediated by the inferior frontal and lateral temporal gyri. We propose that the study of mental travel in personal time could be undertaken in line with the distinction between the memory of (episodic) experiences and (semantic) personal knowledge of one's life, which constitutes a major part of the self and constraints what we have been, what we are now, and what we might yet become.

Background Health professionals play an important role in providing health information to patients. The objectives of this study were to examine the type of advice that Canadians with hypertension recall receiving from health professionals to manage their condition, and to assess if there is an association between health behaviour advice provided by health professionals and self-reported engagement in health behaviour modification. Methods Respondents of the 2009 Survey on Living with Chronic Diseases in Canada ( N = 6142) were asked about sociodemographic characteristics, health care utilization, and health behaviour modification to control hypertension. Association between receipt of advice from health professional and ever engaging, continuing to engage, and not engaging in health behaviour modification was quantified by prevalence rate ratios. Results Most participants (90.9%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 89.6-92.2) reported that the health professional most responsible for treating their high blood pressure was their general practitioner. Approximately 9% reported that they had not received or do not recall receiving any advice for blood pressure control. The most commonly reported advice received from a health professional was to participate in physical activity or exercise (70.0%). Respondents who had received advice on health behaviour change to manage their high blood pressure were more likely to report engaging in the behaviour compared with those who did not receive such advice. Conclusions Many Canadians with hypertension receive health behaviour change advice from their health professionals. Receiving this advice was associated with a greater likelihood of attempting health behaviour change and attempting to sustain that change.

Il est ici question du caractère limité de la réflexivité des acteurs telle que développée par Anthony Giddens dans sa théorie de la structuration du social. Il s’agit de penser dans un même cadre (à l’instar de François Cooren) ce qui « anime » les acteurs et ce qu’ils animent. Nous envisagerons l’interaction comme un lieu/moment d’expression et d’actualisation des « allant de soi » plus ou moins conventionnels. Nous analyserons alors l’interaction comme un travail de présentification, de mobilisation de conventions, mais aussi comme un travail de conventionnalisation, de routinisation. Enfin, nous explorerons le lien entre limite réflexive et langage en considérant la réification comme un mode d’expression de l’acteur dans la façon dont il peut avoir recours à des « boîtes plus ou moins noires » en donnant corps à des idées, des principes, des règles et participer à leur diffusion. In this text, we aim at considering in a same analytical framework (following François Cooren’s perspective) what motivates actors and what do they motivate. Besides, we specify Anthony Giddens’ concept of reflexivity in his social structuration theory as a limited process. And we consider interaction as a place/moment of expression and actualisation more or less conventional of «taken for granted». Thus we will question interaction as a work of presentification and mobilization of conventions, and as a conventionalisation and routinisation process. To cap it all, we will characterize the link between reflexive limitation and language, and emphasize the fact that actors using «more or less taken for granted» tend to employ reification as a way to express themselves, while embodying thoughts, principles, rules… and thus contributing to their circulation.

International audience; Concordancers et automatic inflection. More and more linguists use concordancers to extract words or phrases in context from pre-existing texts. We make a survey on how concordances are used. We discuss the main criteria of quality for choosing a concordancer for a particular use. The goal of this paper is to examine in more detail those that generate lemmatised concordances, i.e. concordances gathering the various inflected forms of a word. This technical feature is in practice specific to concordancers containing a dictionary. An automatic operation on dictionaries, inflection, is indispensable to maintain, and sometimes to operate, this type of concordancer. We explain the basics about automatic inflection and what it implies for a lexicologist. We describe a tried and tested method of automatic inflection.. This type of concordancer, in turn, is useful to lexicologists, among others.; Des linguistes de plus en plus nombreux utilisent des concordanciers pour extraire de textes préexistants des mots ou expressions en contexte. Nous passons en revue les utilisations des concordances. Nous nous intéressons aux principaux critères de qualité qui permettent de choisir un concordancier satisfaisant pour un usage donné. L'objectif de cet article est d'examiner plus particulièrement ceux qui produisent des concordances lemmatisées, c'est-à-dire qui regroupent les différentes formes fléchies d'un même mot. Cette caractéristique technique est pratiquement réservée aux concordanciers avec dictionnaire. Un traitement sur les dictionnaires, la flexion automatique, est indispensable à la maintenance, et parfois au fonctionnement, des concordanciers de ce type. Nous expliquons en quoi consiste ce traitement et ce qu'il implique pour le lexicologue. Nous présentons une méthode éprouvée de flexion automatique. Un tel concordancier, à son tour, est utile, entre autres, aux lexicologues.

The aim of this study is to explore cognitive complaint by investigating the influence of memory controlled processes (recollection) and metacognitive beliefs. Several methodological precautions were taken in order to control neuropsychological and psychopathological criteria, like anxiety, depression or objective memory trouble. The "habit paradigm" (Hay & Jacoby, 1999) was used to create a "memory slips" task, and to estimate the contributions of recollection and habit to performance. Besides, participants were asked to complete questionnaires in order to assess cognitive complaint (CDS) and metacognitive beliefs (MCQ). Results showed that neither cognitive complaint nor metacognitive beliefs differed significantly between young and older persons. However, statistical analysis did show cognitive dissociations in function of cognitive complaint. Finally, depressive affects, memory controlled processes and metacognitive beliefs about the controllability of thoughts appeared as good predictors of memory complaint. In spite of our study limitations, we discuss our results in terms of clinical implications.

This dissertation deals with the characteristic variation found in adult French L2 oral production. In their production of regular verbs, beginners use a short form, like parle, and a long form, like parlE, in contexts of both the present (je parl/*je parlE) and the infinitive (je veux parlE/*je veux parl). This sometimes results in target-like uses and sometimes not. The question addressed in the thesis is if there is any systematicity in learners’ use of the verb forms. In attempting to account for the variation, some previous studies have pointed at specific linguistic factors while others have suggested that the observed variation can be more or less arbitrary. One kind of systematicity has been found in earlier studies focusing on the development of past tense morphology. These studies showed that production of the forms could be predicted from the prototypical lexical aspect of the verbs. Based on French L2 studies of this kind, I present a first hypothesis stating that, also when referring to non-past contexts, i.e. present and infinitive contexts, learners use the short form with static verbs and the long form with dynamic verbs. I further propose a second, contrasting hypothesis, namely that learners are influenced by the frequency of surface forms in the input. This hypothesis emerges from a usage-based perspective (Bybee, 2008) where input frequency is a key factor (Ellis, 2002). A first investigation of 16 regular verbs in different input sources (for example, corpora of spoken French and teacher talk) is conducted in order to obtain specific data for the second hypothesis. Firstly, this examination shows that the distribution of verb forms in the input is uneven: some verbs occur more often in the short form and others more often in the long form. A gradual scale can thus be established for how frequent each of the studied verbs is in the short and the long form respectively. Secondly, I found that lexical aspect and frequency are closely related. The verbs more frequent in the short form turned out to be static verbs while the verbs more frequent in the long form turned out to be dynamic verbs. The analysis of the same verbs in learner data from a corpus of oral production shows tendencies in favour of the influence of input frequency. This investigation is completed by using experimental data for 12 regular verbs from a free production task, an elicited imitation task and a (serial) recall task. The results of the imitation task, where the verbs are presented in sentences, showed a possible influence of input frequency from the beginning stages. An influence of lexical aspect could only be detected in the production by learners having passed the beginning stages. The recall task, where the verbs are presented in series of five at a time, reveals a weaker correlation with input frequency and no significant differences between the verbs with respect to the lexical aspect. In conclusion, the data show that lexical aspect and input frequency are closely related in input as well as in learner data and the results speak in favour of input frequency for the verbs where the two hypotheses can be distinguished.

Previous studies have shown that patients with schizophrenia are impaired in recalling specific events from their personal past. However, the relationship between autobiographical memory impairments and disturbance of the sense of identity in schizophrenia has not been investigated in detail. In this study the authors investigated schizophrenic patients' ability to recall self-defining memories; that is, memories that play an important role in building and maintaining the self-concept. Results showed that patients recalled as many specific self-defining memories as healthy participants. However, patients with schizophrenia exhibited an abnormal reminiscence bump and reported different types of thematic content (i.e., they recalled less memories about past achievements and more memories regarding hospitalisation and stigmatisation of illness). Furthermore, the findings suggest that impairments in extracting meaning from personal memories could represent a core disturbance of autobiographical memory in patients with schizophrenia.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

For a long period in the history of psychological research, emotion and cognition have been studied independently, as if one were irrelevant to the other. The renewed interest of researchers for the study of the relations between cognition and emotion has led to the development of a range of laboratory methods for inducing temporary mood states. This paper aims to review the main mood induction procedures allowing the induction of a negative mood as well as a positive mood, developed since the pioneer study of Schachter and Singer [Psychol Rev 69 (1962) 379-399] and to account for the usefulness and problems related to the use of such techniques. The first part of this paper deals with the detailed presentation of some of the most popular mood induction procedures according to their type: simple (use of only one mood induction technique) or combined (association of two or more techniques at once). The earliest of the modern techniques is the Velten Mood Induction Procedure [Behav Res Ther 6 (1968) 473-482], which involves reading aloud sixty self-referent statements progressing from relative neutral mood to negative mood or dysphoria. Some researchers have varied the procedure slightly by changing the number of the statements [Behav Res Ther 21 (1983) 233-239, Br J Clin Psychol 21 (1982) 111-117, J Pers Soc Psychol 35 (1977) 625-636]. Various other mood induction procedures have been developed including music induction [Cogn Emotion 11 (1997) 403-432, Br J Med Psychol 55 (1982) 127-138], film clip induction [J Pers Soc Psychol 20 (1971) 37-43, Cogn Emotion 7 (1993) 171-193, Rottenberg J, Ray RR, Gross JJ. Emotion elicitation using films. In: Coan JA, Allen JJB, editors. The handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007], autobiographical recall [J Clin Psychol 36 (1980) 215-226, Jallais C. Effets des humeurs positives et negatives sur les structures de connaissances de type script. These de doctorat non publiee. Universite de Nantes, Nantes] or combined inductions [Gilet AL. Etude des effets des humeurs positives et negatives sur l'organisation des connaissances en memoire semantique. These de doctorat non publiee, Universite de Nantes, Nantes, J Ment Imagery 19 (1995) 133-150]. In music or film clip inductions, subjects are asked to listen or view some mood-suggestive pieces of material determined by the experimenter according to standardized music or film sets [J Ment Imagery 19 (1995) 133-150, Cogn Emotion 7 (1993) 171-193] and selected to elicit target moods. According to many authors, these two mood induction procedures seem to be among the most effective manners to induce moods [Br J Psychol 85 (1994) 55-78, Eur J Soc Psychol 26 (1996) 557-580] in an individual or in a group setting [Jallais C. Effets des humeurs positives et negatives sur les structures de connaissances de type script. These de doctorat non publiee. Universite de Nantes, Nantes]. As it is believed that multiple inductions contribute additively to a mood [Am Psychol 36 (1981) 129-148], researchers proposed to combine two or more techniques at the same time. Thus, the Velten Mood Induction Procedure has been successively associated with the hypnosis mood induction procedure [J Pers Soc Psychol 42 (1982) 927-934], the music mood induction procedure [Behav Res Ther 21 (1983) 233-239, J Exp Soc Psychol 26 (1990) 465-480] or the imagination mood induction procedure [Br J Clin Psychol 21 (1982) 111-117]. Successful combinations of inductions usually use a first induction that occupies foreground attention and a second one that contributes to congruent background atmosphere. One of the most successful combined mood induction procedures has been developed by Mayer, Allen and Beauregard [J Ment Imagery 19 (1995) 133-150]. This technique associates guided imagery with music and is supposed to increase effectiveness of the induction. In the second part of this paper the aim is to present the usefulness of mood induction procedures in the study of cognitive processes in depression [Clin Psychol Rev 25 (2005) 487-510], borderline personality disorder [J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 36 (2005) 226-239] or associated with brain imaging [Am J Psychiatry 161 (2004) 2245-2256]. Then the inherent problems to the use of experimental mood induction procedures are reconsidered. Doubts have effectively arisen about the effectiveness and validity of the mood induction procedures usually used in research. Some authors questioned whether a sufficient intensity of mood is produced or the possibility that the effects observed are due mainly to demand effects [Br J Psychol 85 (1994) 55-78, Clin Psychol Rev 10 (1990) 669-697, Eur J Soc Psychol 26 (1996) 557-580]. In fact, the various mood induction procedures are not equal with regard to the demand effects observed. The question of demand characteristics with respect to mood induction procedures is still under debate, even if demand effects are supposed to be most likely to occur with self-statement techniques (especially with the Velten mood induction procedure) or when subjects are explicitly instructed to try to enter a specific mood state [Eur J Soc Psychol 26 (1996) 557-580]. Another interrogation relates to the effectiveness of these various procedures of induction and the duration of induced moods. Generally, the various techniques used produce true changes of moods in the majority if not the whole of the subjects. However, certain procedures seem more effective in inducing a mood in particular [Br J Psychol 85 (1994) 55-78, Clin Psychol Rev 10 (1990) 669-697, Eur J Soc Psychol 26 (1996) 557-580]. As for the duration of induced moods this depends at the same time on the procedure used and the mood induced. Nevertheless, mood induction remains fundamental in the study of the effects of mood on the cognitive activities, insofar as it makes it possible to study the effects of negative as well as positive moods.

Summary : Contribution of word generation paradigm to the study of dissociation between memory measures The generation effect indicates that self-generated stimuli are recalled and recognized better than read stimuli. A positive generation effect is generally observed on generated items, but a negative generation effect can also occur, resulting in a reduction in the recall of information related to the context of encoding. These effects are proposed to be mainly due to the reinforcement ofthe semantic processing implemented at the moment of the production as well as increased of mobilization ofthe attentional resources. The negative generation effect often observed on memory source supports an item-source tradeoff hypothesis in which the encoding of an item and source information are dissociable from one another. However, the generation of information is likely to increase awareness in the recognition memory. Thus, the study of the cognitive mechanisms that underlie the generation effect could corroborate the dissociation already observed in episodic memory, but also dissociation between implicit and explicit memory. Key words : generation effect, elaboration of processes, episodic memory, source memory, item memory, implicit memory., Résumé L'effet production correspond à la modification de la mémorisation des items produits par le sujet, en comparaison avec celle des items lus. On observe généralement un effet positif de production sur les items produits, mais il est possible également d'observer un effet négatif de production se traduisant par une diminution du rappel des informations liées au contexte d'encodage. Ces effets seraient principalement dus au renforcement du traitement sémantique mis en œuvre au moment de la production ainsi qu'à une mobilisation importante des ressources attentionnelles. Par le biais d'un phénomène de compensation, l'augmentation de l'encodage des items produits se ferait au détriment de l'encodage du contexte, entraînant par exemple un effet production négatif sur le rappel de source. Cependant, la production d'informations est susceptible d'améliorer la récupération d'informations liée au souvenir du contexte d'encodage. Ainsi, l'étude des mécanismes cognitifs qui sous-tendent l'effet production a pu corroborer les dissociations déjà observées en mémoire épisodique, mais également les dissociations entre effets implicite et explicite de mémoire. Mots clés : effet production, mémoire, élaboration du traitement, mémoire épisodique, mémoire de source, mémoire d'item, mémoire implicite., Taconnat Laurence. Apport du paradigme de production d'informations dans l'étude des dissociations entre les mesures de mémoire. In: L'année psychologique. 2005 vol. 105, n°3. pp. 521-537.

The experimental study has been conducted with children 9 years old, 12 years old and adults about comprehension of rules of games. The study tries to answer to different questions. How does text architecture influence text comprehension and recall? Which formatting is most efficient in terms of comprehension? in terms of recall? in terms of selective retrieval? From the ontogenetic point of view, when do children become capable of identifying markers of text constituents such as titles or enumerations? The data collected confirm the hypothesis that layout influences comprehension and recall for all groups.Visuo-spatial formatting is better for selective retrieval while discursive formatting is better for recall., Garcia-Debanc Claudine, Grandaty Michel. Incidence des variations de la mise en forme textuelle sur la compréhension et la mémorisation de textes procéduraux (règles de jeux) par des enfants de 8 à 12 ans. In: Langages, 35ᵉ année, n°141, 2001. Les discours procéduraux, sous la direction de Claudine Garcia-Debanc. pp. 92-104.

Summary: Text structures and prior knowledge The purpose of this experiment was to show a differential effect of two types of textual structures (causal and teleological) on text comprehension with subjects of different levels of expertise (novices, intermediates and experts) in a domain describing three functions of the text-editor «Microsoft Word». We assumed an interaction between text structure and prior knowledge. Experts performed better than the two other levels of expertise, with the exception of cued recall, and this effect depended on the semantic text structure. Additionally, the results showed the existence of an intermediate effect in the recall of the causal text and emphazised the necessity to study the representation elaborated in relation with learners' prior knowledge. Key word: learning, prior knowledge, intermediate effect, text structures., Résumé Le but de cette expérience est de montrer qu'il existe un effet différentiel de deux types de structures textuelles (causale et téléologique) sur la mémorisation et la compréhension de textes par des sujets novices, intermédiaires et experts dans un domaine décrivant trois procédures du logiciel de traitement de texte Microsoft Word. Les résultats indiquent que les performances des experts sont supérieures à celles des intermédiaires et des novices sauf dans l'épreuve de rappel indicé et que cet effet dépend de la structure sémantique des textes. Ils montrent l'existence d'un effet intermédiaire dans le rappel du texte causal et renforcent la nécessité d'étudier la représentation construite en interaction avec les connaissances initiales. Mots-clés : apprentissage, connaissance initiale, effet intermédiaire, structures textuelles., Caillies S., Tapiero Isabelle. Structures textuelles et niveaux d'expertise. In: L'année psychologique. 1997 vol. 97, n°4. pp. 611-639.

Summary: Effect of aging on familiarity-based and retrieval-based recognition. A recognition and a recall task, dealing with the same items, were administered successively to a group of young subjects (age : 25-35) and to two groups of elderly subjects (age: 62-70 and 71-87). With regard to the recognition task, two types of response were distinguished, using the paradigm suggested by Horton et al. (1993) : the familiarity-based and retrieval-based recognition. The results indicate that the performance on recall and recognition was modified by aging. However, the age effect on recall appeared also with a group of older subjects matched on overall recognition accuracy with the group ofyounger subjects, showing that the aging effect was more important for recall thanfor recognition. With the paradigm proposed by Horton et al., the results indicate that only the retrieval-based recognition were affected by aging. This pattern of results was still present when recognition accuracy per se was equated between young and old subjects. Key words : aging, memory, recognition, recall, familiarity-based recognition, retrieval-based recognition., Un groupe de sujets jeunes (25-35 ans) et deux groupes de sujets âgés (62-70 ans et 71-87 ans) ont été soumis successivement à une tâche de reconnaissance et à une tâche de rappel, portant sur les mêmes items. Deux types de réponses, à l'aide du paradigme proposé par Horton et al. (1993), ont été opérationnalisés dans la tâche de reconnaissance : les réponses basées sur un jugement de familiarité et celles basées sur un processus de recherche en mémoire. Les résultats montrent que la performance en rappel et en reconnaissance est affectée par le vieillissement. Cependant, l'effet significatif de l'âge sur le rappel persiste pour un groupe de sujets âgés présentant une performance moyenne en reconnaissance équivalente à celle des sujets jeunes. Cette observation confirme que le vieillissement normal affecte davantage le rappel que la reconnaissance. Avec le paradigme de Horion et al. on observe que seules les réponses en reconnaissance faisant intervenir un processus de recherche en mémoire sont affectées par le vieillissement. Ce résultat apparaît également lorsque les sujets jeunes et âgés sont rendus équivalents sur leur performance en reconnaissance. Mots-clés : vieillissement, mémoire, reconnaissance, rappel, jugement de familiarité, processus de recherche., Isingrini Michel, Hauer Karine, Fontaine Roger. Effet du vieillissement sur les réponses basées sur la familiarité et sur la recherche en situation de reconnaissance. In: L'année psychologique. 1996 vol. 96, n°2. pp. 255-273.

Some models of working memory are often used as a theoretical framework for empirical studies. We present a french version of the Reading Span Test (RST) that Daneman and Carpenter (1980) proposed as a measure of working memory involved in language use. The french version meets the following criteria : (a) the procedure is essentially the same that the one originally used by Daneman and Carpenter ; (b) the length of the sentences is controlled, ranging from 22 to 26 syllables ; (c) the length, the frequency and the mental imagery value of the ending words to be memorised are also controlled ; and (d) the distribution of these words throughout the series is counterbalanced to avoid any bias on recall performance. The Reading Span Test is proposed in a long version of 5 series of 20 sentences each, from which a shorter version of 3 series can be derived.

Repetition Blindness (RB) is the failure to recall the 2nd instance of a rapidly presented word. Five experiments investigated the orthographic and phonological representations involved in RB. Exps 1 and 2 found that the RB effect between orthographic neighbors is modulated by the relative frequency of the words, but not their absolute frequency. Exp 3 showed that the reduced RB effect between neighbors as compared with identical words is due to the reduced orthographic overlap, not to a lack of morphological or semantic overlap. Exps 4 and 5 showed that the RB effect occurs between phonologically related items, and that phonological and frequency properties of the target's orthographic neighbors affect the size of the effect. It is concluded that orthographic RB and phonological RB are sensitive to the target's neighborhood organization and arise from similar mechanisms, but at different stages of processing.

In 12 patients with a surgical resection of the right (n = 6) or left (n = 6) temporal structures, the REY word test confirm the involvement of the left temporal cortex in the control of interfering information and in the implementation of information retrieval processes when the material is verbal., Chez des patients ayant subi une résection chirurgicale des structures temporales droites (n=6) ou gauches (n=6), les résultats à l'épreuve des mots de REY confirment l'implication des structures temporales gauches dans le contrôle des informations interférentes et dans la mise en jeu des processus de récupération d'une information lorsque le matériel est de nature verbale.

24 five and seven-year old children from two social milieus (working and middle class) were told stories at home by their respective mothers and an unrelated adult. In the first session of the experiment, the mother successively told three stories to her child : Free, Elicited (by a series of drawings), and Reformulated. In the second session, an experimenter told two standard stories : Verbal and Verbal + Drawings. Mothers' stories and children 's recalls were analyzed in their lexical-syntactical and semantical aspects. Stories produced by working-class mothers contained fewer words, utterances, characters, episodes and semantical propositions than stories produced by middle- class mothers. No other formal or semantical difference between the two groups of mothers proved significant. There was no evidence of a differential adaptation of the mothers to the age of the children or to the nature of the adjunct material in the two social classes. Three factors : Social milieu, Age, and Story significantly influenced children's recall. The significant interactions Social milieu * Story and Age * Story showed that the difference between the children were greater for the Verbal + Drawings story than for the Verbal one. Finally, contrary to our expectation, the differences between the working and middle-class children did not vary as a function of age., 24 enfants de 5 et 7 ans, appartenant à deux milieux socio-culturels contrastés, participèrent à cette expérience qui se déroulait à leur domicile. La première phase se caractérisait par le rôle actif de la mère qui racontait successivement trois récits à son enfant : Spontané, Suscité (à partir de dessins), Reformulé. La deuxième phase voyait un expérimentateur raconter deux récits à l'enfant en présence de la mère : un récit Verbal et un récit Verbal + Dessiné. La présentation de chaque récit était suivie d'un rappel oral immédiat. Les performances des mères et des enfants étaient analysées sur les plans lexico-syntaxique et sémantique. Les mères de milieu ouvrier produisent moins de mots, d'énoncés, de propositions sémantiques, de personnages et d'épisodes dans leurs récits que les mères de milieu bourgeois. On ne constate pas d'adaptation différentielle des mères des deux groupes sociaux à l'âge des enfants et à la nature du matériel, verbal ou dessiné. L 'analyse des propositions rappelées par les enfants indique un effet des facteurs Milieu, Age et Récit et deux interactions significatives ; Milieu * Récit et Age * Récit : la différence entre les enfants des deux milieux et des deux groupes d'âge est plus importante pour le récit Verbal + Dessiné que pour le récit Verbal. Enfin, contrairement à ce que nous supposions, les différences entre les enfants des deux milieux sociaux n 'évoluent pas de 5 à 7 ans., Cession Anne, Kilen Anne, Denhière Guy, Rondal Jean A. Maman... Une histoire !. In: Enfance, tome 40, n°4, 1987. pp. 335-352.

Learning Anglo-American Idioms through CAI : the IDIOMS program The choice of English-American idioms as the content of a CAI (computer-assisted instruction program) is explained, as well as the population it is aimed at, and the type of idioms selected for study (there are 60 idioms in the program). Then the structure of the program is described : the acquisition phase by means of Multiple Choice Questions and use of the idioms in context, followed by the recall phase, which is a game. The learner is required to answer in a variety of ways : filin, free answer, true-false, pick-out answer, watching sentence combining. Emphasis is laid on the relative freedom and constraints imposed on the learner ; lastly the importance of graphics to "trigger" the understanding of the metaphoric sense of the idioms is stressed, as well as the hope of integrating digitized speech into the program., Les raisons du choix des tournures idiomatiques anglo-américaines comme contenu d'un didacticiel (programme d'enseignement par ordinateur) sont exposées, ainsi que la population-cible de ce programme et le type de tournures idiomatiques sélectionnées (le programme en contient 60). Puis le scénario pédagogique est décrit : la phase d'acquisition par QCM et insertion de l'idiotisme en contexte, suivie de la phase de reconnaissance et rappel à format ludique, appelé GAME. On sollicite l'activité de l'apprenant de la façon la plus diverse : réponse libre, phrases à trous, vrai-faux, génération de phrases, association d'éléments de tableau. Les libertés et les contraintes pour l'apprenant sont mises en lumière ; enfin le rôle du graphique (dessin plus ou moins complexe par ordinateur) comme "déclencheur" de l'appréhension du sens métaphorique est évoqué, ainsi que la possibilité ultérieure d'intégrer le son sous forme de parole numérisée., Montgomery Marie-Pierre de. L'apprentissage des tournures idiomatiques anglo-américaines par l'E.A.O. : le programme IDIOMS. In: Cahiers de l'APLIUT, volume 6, numéro 1, 1986. pp. 42-62.