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The gender pay gap is a persistent and pervasive problem. This study systematically reviews the literature on two determinants of the wage gap that have attracted attention more recently: the contribution of personality traits and social norms. Based on 39 studies identified, we discuss how personality traits and social norms are operationalized and how much of the gender wage gap they explain. We find that both are important in understanding the gap and that they are closely related, most notably, as preferences are reflections of personality traits and social norms. However, there is no clear consensus on the constructs, what they precisely capture and how to measure them. Thus, there is a great deal of heterogeneity in the results, with the contribution of personality traits and social norms to the pay gap ranging from a few to more than 20%. The literature is not conclusive on whether these factors rather explain the gap or are a source of discrimination. Key limitations of this literature emanate from concerns about the potential endogeneity of personality traits and social norms, and that studies have largely ignored that we can adapt our personality, preferences, and attitudes in adult life.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a sudden and deep recession contributing, among other things, to a sharp rise in unemployment. The article addresses changes in the labor markets of the Visegrad countries (Czechia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia), covering the period 2018–2021. It attempts to answer the questions: how deep a slump was caused by the pandemic in these markets, how flexible forms of employment responded to it, and whether there were discriminatory phenomena (decline in employment and increase in unemployment in the most vulnerable groups in the labor market). The analysis was based on quarterly data published by Eurostat on the size and structure of the employed and unemployed population. The results of the compilations indicate a relatively small deepening of imbalances in the labor markets of the analyzed countries, a differentiated reaction of flexible forms of employment (depending on the form of employment), which was in line with expectations (they were used as a business cycle buffer). In most of the V4 countries, women were relatively less likely to lose their jobs than men during the pandemic. In a few cases, a relatively stronger decline in employment (increase in unemployment) affected young people, people aged 55–64, and people with the lowest education.

We conduct experiments on an online platform to investigate the causal effect of gender discrimination on labor supply decisions. Controlling for the piece-rate wage, workers who face negative gender-discriminatory wage inequality supply substantially less labor compared to workers who face gender-neutral wage inequality (−0.16 standard deviations) and compared to workers with equal wages (−0.21 standard deviations). We also examine the effect of positive discrimination, differences between men and women, and the role of beliefs about facing discrimination. Our results provide evidence for decreased labor supply in reaction to discrimination being a novel mechanism contributing to the gender gap in earnings.

In a recession, increased competition forces inexperienced job market entrants to accept lower wages than those who start their careers during an economic boom. Yet despite years of improvement in labor market conditions following a recession, a wage disparity, known as scarring, persists between these cohorts. I use Salary History Ban laws (SHBs) to test whether job mobility for scarred workers is constrained because employers screen on prior compensation. For scarred workers who began their careers during a moderate-to-severe recession, or a 5 percentage point higher state unemployment rate, I find SHBs increase job mobility by 0.6%, hourly wages by 3.4%, and weekly earnings by 5.45% relative to workers who graduated in baseline labor market conditions. These estimates represent a substantial reduction in the original scarring effect and provide evidence this effect partially persists due to salary disclosure.

The role of employer discrimination in widening labor market differences between men and women has been hypothesized and investigated in different settings. Using a field experiment, this paper examines the presence and magnitude of gender-based discrimination by employers at the point of screening in Tunisia. The study sent out 1,571 fictitious and substantially identical pairs of male and female resumes in response to online job advertisements. On average, women were 2.4 percentage points more likely than men to receive a callback from an employer. However, this average effect hides substantial heterogeneity across economic sectors. In the information technology sector, women were 15 percentage points less likely to receive a callback than men. No discrimination against or in favor of women is found in engineering, whereas in marketing and finance, women were 19 and 4 percentage points more likely to receive a callback, respectively. The paper also finds that, unlike men, women may suffer from discrimination based on their physical appearance. Veiled women were 8.5 percentage points less likely to receive a callback than non-veiled women. Overall, the findings suggest that, at the point of screening, employer discrimination against women in Tunisia is sector specific, and, on its own, it cannot fully explain the complex challenge of female unemployment in the country.

Labor market opportunities and wages may be unfair for various reasons, and how workers respond to different types of unfairness can have major economic consequences. Using an online labor platform, where workers engage in an individual task for a piece-rate wage, we investigate the causal effect of neutral and gender-discriminatory unfair chances on labor supply. We randomize workers into treatments where we control relative pay and chances to receive a low or a high wage. Chances can be fair, unfair based on an unspecified source, or unfair based on gender discrimination. Unequal pay reduces labor supply of low-wage workers, irrespective of whether the low wage is the result of fair or unfair chances. Importantly, the source of unfair chances matters. When a low wage is the result of gender-discriminatory chances, workers matched with a high-wage worker substantially reduce their labor supply compared to the case of equal low wages (−22%). This decrease is twice as large as those induced by low wages due to fair chances or unfair chances coming from an unspecified source. In addition, exploratory analysis suggests that in response to unequal pay, low-wage male workers reduce labor supply irrespective of the source of inequality, whereas low-wage female workers reduce labor supply only if unequal pay is due to gender-discriminatory chances. Our results concerning gender discrimination indicate a new reason for the lower labor supply of women, which is a prominent explanation for the gender gap in earnings.

Labor market opportunities and wages may be unfair for various reasons, and how workers respond to different types of unfairness can have major economic consequences. Using an online labor platform, where workers engage in an individual task for a piece-rate wage, we investigate the causal effect of neutral and gender-discriminatory unfair chances on labor supply. We randomize workers into treatments where we control relative pay and chances to receive a low or a high wage. Chances can be fair, unfair based on an unspecified source, or unfair based on gender discrimination. Unequal pay reduces labor supply of low-wage workers, irrespective of whether the low wage is the result of fair or unfair chances. Importantly, the source of unfair chances matters. When a low wage is the result of gender-discriminatory chances, workers matched with a high-wage worker substantially reduce their labor supply compared to the case of equal low wages (-22%). This decrease is twice as large as those induced by low wages due to fair chances or unfair chances coming from an unspecified source. An additional experiment confirms the deleterious effect of gender discrimination on labor supply in a work environment devoid of chances, and highlights that workers' beliefs about facing discrimination matter for their responses. Our results concerning gender discrimination indicate a new reason for the lower labor supply of women, which is a prominent explanation for the gender gap in earnings.

Labor market opportunities and wages may be unfair for various reasons, and how workers respond to different types of unfairness can have major economic consequences. Usingan online labor platform, where workers engage in an individual task for a piece-rate wage, we investigate the causal effect of neutral and gender-discriminatory unfair chances on labor supply. We randomize workers into treatments where we control relative pay and chances to receive a low or a high wage. Chances can be fair, unfair based on an unspecified source, or unfair based on gender discrimination. Unequal pay reduces labor supply of low-wage workers, irrespective of whether the low wage is the result of fair or unfair chances. Importantly, the source of unfair chances matters. When a low wage is the result of gender-discriminatory chances, workers matched with a high-wage worker substantially reduce their labor supply compared to the case of equal low wages (–22%). This decrease is twice as large as those induced by low wages due to fair chances or unfairchances coming from an unspecified source. In addition, exploratory analysis suggests that in response to unequal pay, low-wage male workers reduce labor supply irrespectiveof the source of inequality, whereas low-wage female workers reduce labor supply only if unequal pay is due to gender-discriminatory chances. Our results concerning genderdiscrimination indicate a new reason for the lower labor supply of women, which is a prominent explanation for the gender gap in earnings.

Productivity is considered an important factor affecting the wage-setting process. Nevertheless, other factors such as gender and physical form play an essential role. In this dissertation, we adopt an experimental approach to research into the acceptance of a negative return of obesity on wages. Discrimination related to gender and obesity strongly affects salaries and many times acquire a similar impact to other factors as education or training. This research examines how people accept physical-form based differences in wages. The investigation is based on the online delivery of a survey in an experimental setting in which the participants, who act as wage setters, face different situations about salary evaluation. The treatment is the sex on the subject they have to select for a high or low position. Our study shows how there is great acceptance of discrimination regarding the physical form of the worker. Likewise, our estimates show that even without perceiving general differences in the cost of obesity by gender, there exist significant differences in the effect of these factors by job positions. The penalty would be greater for women in high positions such as IBEX35 than for men in these positions. This research contributes to the study of wage discrimination based on the physical form, and their acceptance in the society Enpresen Administrazio eta Zuzendaritzan Nazioarteko Graduatua / Ekonomian Nazioarteko Graduatua Nafarroako Unibertsitate Publikoan Graduado o Graduada Internacional en Administración y Dirección de Empresas / Graduado o Graduada Internacional en Economía por la Universidad Pública de Navarra

Labor market opportunities and wages may be unfair for various reasons, and how workers respond to different types of unfairness can have major economic consequences. Using anonline labor platform, where workers engage in an individual task for a piece-rate wage, we investigate the causal effect of neutral and gender-discriminatory unfair chances on laborsupply. We randomize workers into treatments where we control relative pay and chances to receive a low or a high wage. Chances can be fair, unfair based on an unspecified source, orunfair based on gender discrimination. Unequal pay reduces labor supply of low-wage workers, irrespective of whether the low wage is the result of fair or unfair chances. Importantly, thesource of unfair chances matters. When a low wage is the result of gender-discriminatory chances, workers matched with a high-wage worker substantially reduce their labor supplycompared to the case of equal low wages (-22%). This decrease is twice as large as those induced by low wages due to fair chances or unfair chances coming from an unspecified source.In addition, exploratory analysis suggests that in response to unequal pay, low-wage male workers reduce labor supply irrespective of the source of inequality, whereas low-wage femaleworkers reduce labor supply only if unequal pay is due to gender-discriminatory chances. Our results concerning gender discrimination indicate a new reason for the lower labor supply ofwomen, which is a prominent explanation for the gender gap in earnings.

Due to conventional gender norms, women are more likely to be in charge of childcare than men. From an employer’s perspective, in their fertile age they are also at “risk” of pregnancy. Both factors potentially affect hiring practices of firms. We conduct a large-scale correspondence test in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, sending out approx. 9,000 job applications, varying job candidate’s personal characteristics such as marital status and age of children. We find evidence that, for part-time jobs, married women with older kids, who likely finished their childbearing cycle and have more projectable childcare chores than women with very young kids, are at a significant advantage vis-à-vis other groups of women. At the same time, married, but childless applicants, who havea higher likelihood to become pregnant, are at a disadvantage compared to single, but childless applicants to part-time jobs. Such effects are not present for full-time jobs, presumably, because by applying to these in contrast to part-time jobs, women signal that they have arranged for external childcare.

We examine the introduction of a gender quota law in Germany, mandating a minimum 30% of the underrepresented gender on the supervisory boards of a particular type of firms. We exploit the fact that Germany has a two-tier corporate system consisting of the affected supervisory boards and unaffected management boards within the same firm. We find a positive effect on the female share on supervisory boards of affected firms, but no effect on presidency of the board or its size. We also study whether the increased female representation has had an effect on the financial performance of the firm and conclude that, unlike some previous studies in other countries, there has not been any negative effect on the profitability of the firm, neither at the time when the law was announced nor when it was passed.

The first chapter examines the role of individuals’ culture of origin in explaining the gender gap in youth’s decision to delay moving out from the parental household. I show that in societies with traditional values about gender roles, young have more incentives than young women to live longer with their parents. When women from these cultures live in a more liberal society regarding gender roles, they move out faster from the parental household and also seek to find a husband from a different culture than their own. In the 2nd chapter, we show, based on a correspondence study that low-skilled youth are less likely to be called back by private sector employers when they are North-African rather than French. By contrast, the origin of the fictitious applicants does not impact their callback rate in the public sector, despite the similar negative discriminatory beliefs of recruiters in both sectors. Our model shows that the absence of discrimination at the invitation for an interview stage in the public sector is compatible, in this context, with stronger discrimination in hiring. The third chapter is also based on a correspondence study and investigates the effects of the labor market experience of high school dropouts four years after leaving school. Compared to those who have stayed unemployed since leaving school, the callback rate is not raised for those with employment experience, whether it is subsidized or non-subsidized, in the market or non-market sector, if there is no training accompanied by skill certification. Moreover, training accompanied by skill certification improves callback rates only when the local unemployment rate is low. Le 1er chapitre examine le rôle de la culture d’origine sur la manière dont les jeunes hommes et femmes diffèrent dans leurs choix de retarder le départ du foyer parental. Je montre que dans les cultures caractérisées par des valeurs traditionnelles portant sur les rôles de genre, les jeunes hommes ont plus d’incitations que les jeunes femmes à rester chez leurs parents. Lorsque les femmes de ces cultures vont vivre dans une société plus libérale par rapport aux rôles de genre, elles quittent plus vite le foyer parental et cherchent à trouver un mari d’une culture différente de la leur. Dans le 2e chapitre, nous montrons, à partir d’un testing sur CV, que les jeunes peu qualifiés sont moins rappelés par les employeurs du secteur privé lorsqu’ils sont Maghrébins plutôt que Français. L’origine des candidats n’a pourtant pas d’effet sur le taux de rappel dans le secteur public, même si les recruteurs des deux secteurs ont des préférences discriminatoires similaires. Notre modèle montre que l'absence de discrimination à l’invitation pour un entretien dans le secteur public est compatible, dans ce contexte, avec une discrimination plus forte à l'embauche. Le 3e chapitre s’appuie aussi sur un testing sur CV pour étudier les effets de l’expérience professionnelle des jeunes décrocheurs du secondaire quatre ans après avoir quitté les études. À défaut de formation certifiante, le taux de rappel n’est pas plus élevé pour ceux ayant eu une expérience professionnelle, subventionnée ou non, dans le secteur marchand ou non-marchand par rapport à ceux restés au chômage. De plus, une formation certifiante améliore les taux de rappel uniquement lorsque le taux de chômage local est faible. Programme doctoral en Sciences économiques

Based on a correspondence experiment covering 3,124 fictitious job applications, the paper identifies and quantifies duration dependence in Germany, with a particular emphasis on company and vacancy characteristics as potential determinants. The experiment reveals that duration dependence manifests itself in a sharp decline of 26% to 35% in callbacks when an individual has been unemployed for 10 months, pointing to the existence of an unemployment stigma for Germany. The results are driven by labor market tightness, companies' access to applicants and screening behavior related to company size, with no evidence for an unemployment stigma determined by the contract type. Basierend auf einem Korrespondenz-Experiment, welches 3.124 fiktive Bewerbungen umfasst, wird in dieser Arbeit die Duration dependence für Deutschland identifiziert und quantifiziert, wobei ein besonderes Augenmerk auf die Unternehmens- und Ausschreibungsmerkmale als potentielle Determinanten gelegt wird. Das Experiment zeigt, dass sich Duration dependence in einem Rückgang von 26 % bis 35 % der Einladungen zu einem Vorstellungsgespräch ausdrückt, wenn ein Individuum für 10 Monate arbeitslos ist. Dies deutet auf die Existenz eines Stigmas der Arbeitslosigkeit für Deutschland hin. Die Ergebnisse sind beeinflusst von der Anspannung des Arbeitsmarktes, dem Zulauf an Bewerbern, sowie den Auswahlverfahren, welche in Beziehung zur Unternehmensgröße stehen. Es findet sich keine Evidenz für ein Stigma der Arbeitslosigkeit welches in Verbindung mit der Art des Arbeitsvertrags steht.

Global supply chains in the garment industry are marked by labour standard violations in factories as well as retail stores. Against this background it is important to strengthen the bargaining power of workers along the supply chain. Establishing direct relationships among workers along the supply chain could be one way to achieve this aim. This paper builds on extant literature on transnational solidarity and highlights the specific challenges of understanding solidarity in a transnational social space by looking at the empirical context of global garment supply chains. It hereby seeks to go beyond treating “solidarity” as a mere metaphor for any form of transnational union or worker cooperation, and instead engages with the cultural-normative dimensions of the concept as referring to mutual bonds among groups of workers. By looking at the case of the ExChains network, this paper examines some of the opportunities and challenges involved in establishing and maintaining transnational worker solidarity. The paper concludes by discussing the transformative potential, but also the limits of transnational labour solidarity regarding substandard working conditions in global supply chains. Keywords: Labor, coercive labor markets, labor discrimination, labor standards (JEL: J47, J5, J7, J8) ----- Kann Solidaritat „von unten“ in globalen Zuliefererketten organisiert werden? Der Fall ExChains Zusammenfassung Globale Lieferketten in der Bekleidungsindustrie sind durch Arbeitsstandardverletzungen in ihren Produktionsbetrieben, aber auch zunehmend im Einzelhandel gekennzeichnet. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist es wichtig, die Verhandlungsmacht von Arbeitnehmerinnen und Arbeitnehmern entlang der Lieferkette zu starken. Ein Weg, dies zu erreichen, ist die Schaffung von transnationalen Beziehungen zwischen Arbeiterinnen und Arbeitern. Basierend auf der bestehenden Literatur zu transnationaler Solidaritat hebt dieser Artikel die spezifischen Herausforderungen des Verstandnisses von Solidaritat im transnationalen Raum am Beispiel der globalen Bekleidungskette hervor. Dabei wird versucht, uber „Solidaritat“ als blose Metapher fur jegliche Form der transnationalen Zusammenarbeit zwischen Gewerkschaften und Arbeitnehmerinnen und Arbeitnehmern hinauszugehen und stattdessen die kulturell-normativen Dimensionen des Solidaritatsbegriffs als gegenseitige Bindung von Arbeiterinnen und Arbeitern zu verstehen. Am Fall des ExChains Netzwerks werden die Moglichkeiten und Herausforderungen der Schaffung und Aufrechterhaltung transnationaler Solidaritatsbeziehungen beispielhaft untersucht. Abschliesend werden das transformative Potential, aber auch die Grenzen transnationaler Arbeiterinnen- und Arbeiter-Solidaritat hinsichtlich der Arbeitsbedingungen in globalen Lieferketten diskutiert. Schlagworter: Arbeit, Zwangsarbeit, Arbeitsdiskriminierung, Arbeitsbedingungen ----- Bibliographie: Lohmeyer, Nora/Schusler, Elke/Helfen, Markus: Can solidarity be organized "from below" in global supply chains? The case of ExChains, Industrielle Beziehungen. Zeitschrift fur Arbeit, Organisation und Management, 4-2018, S. 400-424. https://doi.org/10.3224/indbez.v25i4.02

We analyze the effects of persecution and labor market discrimination during the communist regime in the former Czechoslovakia using a representative life history sample from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. We find strong effects of persecution and dispossession on subsequent earnings, with most severe implications of job loss due to persecution on earnings in subsequent jobs and on career degradation. Accumulated long-term effects in the form of initial retirement pensions paid during the communist regime are even greater. These pension penalties disappear by 2006 largely as a result of compensation schemes implemented by democratic governments after 1989. We use unique administrative data on political rehabilitation and prosecution to instrument for the endogenous variables. Finally, we survey transitional justice theory and document reparations programs in other countries.

This paper provides new evidence on gender bias in teaching evaluations. We exploit a quasi-experimental dataset of 19,952 student evaluations of university faculty in a context where students are randomly allocated to female or male instructors. Despite the fact that neither students’ grades nor self-study hours are affected by the instructor’s gender, we find that women receive systematically lower teaching evaluations than their male colleagues. This bias is driven by male students’ evaluations, is larger for mathematical courses and particularly pronounced for junior women. The gender bias in teaching evaluations we document may have direct as well as indirect effects on the career progression of women by affecting junior women’s confidence and through the reallocation of instructor resources away from research and towards teaching.

This paper uses worldwide firm-level data to scrutinize the governance factors that favor gender diversity in leadership positions. Our results reveal that the gender of the dominant shareholder is key. The chief executive of firms with a female dominant shareholder has a significantly higher probability of being a woman than in other firms. The effect is even more pronounced when the female shareholder holds a higher share of the capital and when the firm is foreign-owned. Our results suggest that “old boys’ club” ownership structures are a major impediment to the empowerment of female talent in developing countries., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Using the 2009 data of the China Health and Nutrition Survey from Guizhou province, this paper analyzes whether an official ethnic label can be linked to a lower probability of non-agricultural employment. Results suggest that the Buyi and the Miao are less likely to work in non-agricultural fields than are Han (the majority group); the Tujia are more likely to work in non-agricultural fields than are Han. The predicted probability of non-agricultural employment for the Miao is lower than that of Han at almost all educational and age levels. Alongside the official ethnic label, more years of education and younger age appear to be most crucial for working in non-agricultural employment.

Active ageing strategies have so far strongly focussed on increasing senior workers employment rates through pension reforms to develop incentives to retire later on the one hand, and labour market policies on the other hand. Most measures are based on the dominant male trajectory of work and retirement and they are not explicitly gender mainstreamed. By contrast, a gender approach would prove fundamental to the labour market inclusion of elderly people, because in old age women suffer from the accumulated impact of the barriers to employment they encountered during their lifetime (e.g. repeated career breaks, part-time work, low pay and gender pay gap). Moreover, it appears that some pension reforms, by mandating a higher postponement of retirement and by establishing tighter links between formal employment and pension benefits may negatively affect the already high risk of poverty for elderly women. Active ageing strategies have so far strongly focussed on increasing senior workers employment rates through pension reforms to develop incentives to retire later on the one hand, and labour market policies on the other hand. Most measures are based on the dominant male trajectory of work and retirement and they are not explicitly gender mainstreamed. By contrast, a gender approach would prove fundamental to the labour market inclusion of elderly people, because in old age women suffer from the accumulated impact of the barriers to employment they encountered during their lifetime (e.g. repeated career breaks, part-time work, low pay and gender pay gap). Moreover, it appears that some pension reforms, by mandating a higher postponement of retirement and by establishing tighter links between formal employment and pension benefits may negatively affect the already high risk of poverty for elderly women., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

We examine differences in the intensity of employer priors against men and women with Arabic names in Sweden by testing how much more work experience is needed to eliminate the disadvantage of having an Arabic name on job applications. Employers are first sent CVs of equal merits in a field-experiment setup. Arabic-named CVs are thereafter enhanced with more relevant work experience than Swedishnamed CVs. Results indicate a reverse gender gap in employer priors as initial differences in call-backs disappear for female applicants when CVs for Arabic-named applications are enhanced, but remain strong and significant for male applicants. Thus, contrary to what is often assumed about the interaction of gender and ethnicity, we find that Arabic men face stronger discrimination in the labor market than Arabic women., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

By considering the case of Italy we show that despite much rhetoric and expectations about the fact that women have gradually overcome men in terms of educational attainments, they still lack behind in terms of the main skills and competencies that can profitably be used in the market. On the one hand, women lack both general and specific knowledge related to the labour market, on the other hand the skills and competencies they acquire by carrying on unpaid work do not seem to be positively valued by the market. However, women also appear to exhibit higher returns to knowledge, both in terms of returns to education and of returns to work-related knowledge. Women’s employment is more determined by the joint impact of care burdens and knowledge-determined opportunities, and their wages are more significantly affected by our indicators of knowledge. More than for men, while specialisation improves “insider” women’s wages, it reduces “outsider” women’s ability to obtain a job., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

In the current study, we analyze the effect of having a Roma background on women's wages. By utilizing the Athens Area Study random sample (2007-08) drawn from 16 multiethnic municipalities in which Roma live, we estimate that 66.1% of the wage differential between Roma and non-Roma female workers cannot be explained by differences in observed characteristics. Prejudices against Roma women are discussed and appear to explain the wage gap found here. The occupational segregation of the Roma in low-paid jobs and employers' statistical motivations are also found to influence wages earned by Roma. This study concludes that there is a need for better implementations of existing laws, rules and regulations which would counter the discrimination of minority women in the labor market. In addition, a better means of assessing workers' skill may contribute to the reduction of wage discrimination, as well as, greater educational achievement would significantly boost the economic status of Roma women. In its use of a random Roma sample and multivariate analysis, this study is a methodological advancement over previous studies of Roma employment, and it could inspire new efforts to compare wages by Roma background.