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Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have consistently showed poor performances in reading comprehension. Extending from previous studies that presented pure-text, this study aims to test the performances of graphic novel reading. We tested 24 Chinese children who have been diagnosed as DLD and 24 typical readers matched with age and nonverbal IQ. These children were asked to complete a battery of tests assessing graphic novel reading comprehension and related visual-cognitive skills. The results of group comparison indicated that children with DLD performed similarly to the typical readers in graphic novel comprehension. Moreover, significant links between comic convention understanding and both passage and graphic novel reading were found in both groups. Our results imply the benefits of using graphic novel to facilitate reading to learn in children with DLD.

Learning to read two scripts at a young age is a demanding task. This study aims to develop games for building fundamental code-related emergent literacy skills among biscriptal preschoolers. We developed five games and tested them on a sample of 102 Chinese kindergarteners. The participants were aged 4 to 5 years and were learning English as a second language. The children's reading skills were measured with a battery of literacy tests as well as estimated by their teachers using a literacy-related behavior checklist. Correlational analysis revealed that the performances of the children in the tangram games were significantly correlated with teachers' ratings and children's Raven's IQ. Further regression analysis confirmed that the tangram hand-copying game predicted unique variances for visual-orthographic skills and word identification abilities in Chinese and English. This study provides valuable evidence regarding the application of tangram games for assessing code-related emergent literacy skills in the visual domain.

Despite English being a core and compulsory part of the curriculum for Chinese English-as-a-second-language (ESL) learners, it is nevertheless often highly challenging for them. This is partly due to the discrepancies between English's citation and spoken form and the lack of recognition this pronunciation receives within ESL classrooms. With this in mind, the current study focuses on a highly significant, yet understudied, feature of fluent English speech: connected speech phonological processes (CSPPs). Through analysing the oral recordings of 60 Cantonese ESL university students, the foundation of non-native-like English CSPP productions is examined. Results of error analysis highlight the multitude of interrelated sources of non-native-like productions and provide support for previously stipulated causes of non-native-likeness, e.g. L1/L2 phoneme inventory gaps, as well as previously unidentified influences, e.g. hypercorrection. The study presents invaluable data and implications regarding the successful assessment, teaching, and learning, of English CSPPs and ultimately fluent connected English speech.

Connected speech produced by native speakers poses a challenge to second language learners. Video subtitles have been found to assist the decoding of English connected speech for learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). However, the presence of subtitles may divert the listeners' attention to the visual cues while paying less attention to the speech signals. To test this proposal, we employed a bi-modal audio-visual listening test and examined whether EFL listeners were able to correctly identify the connected speech when misleading subtitles were present. We further tested whether connected speech with words of lower frequency further reduced the accuracy rate. Twenty-eight adolescent EFL learners, all with more than 10 years of experiences in learning English in schools, were tested with three major types of connected speech phonological processes, namely assimilation, elision, and juncture. The results of statistical analyses showed that matched and mismatched subtitles facilitated the comprehension of both familiar and unfamiliar connected speech. Error analyses revealed the degree of item-specific variations across the three types of connected speech processes as well as across the three subtitling conditions. This research provides insights on the immediate and long-term impact of subtitles on the decoding of English connected speech.

Vocabulary knowledge was tested in a native (Cantonese-Chinese) and foreign (English) language in 150 twins and 150 singletons aged 6-11 years, matched on age, gender, grade level, nonverbal intelligence, parents' education, family income, and number of siblings and household members. The singletons clearly outperformed the twins on the native vocabulary, but this "twinning effect" was much less noticeable for the foreign vocabulary. The effect on English vocabulary was further reduced after exposure to English at home was controlled. Given that these participants learned most of their English in school rather than home, the present findings support the notion that the twinning effect is associated with increased competition for family interaction in twins compared with singletons.

Past studies have shown that multimodal presentation of story can improve story-retelling performance in the first language. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether similar multimedia effects can be observed in second language learning and graphic novel reading. A total of 51 Chinese elementary school children, aged 7-8, who were learning English as a second language were recruited. They were randomly assigned to one of the three experimental conditions that differed in the format of story presentation: English text, English text with pictorial illustrations or graphic novel. After reading the same story, the children retold the story in English. The narratives produced were then rated by two independent raters. The results of group comparison showed that children from the three experimental groups had similar performance, indicating that multimedia presentation may not always facilitate narrative production in English as a second language. Within-subject comparison further showed that the children were relatively strong in language skills and capturing the main ideas of the story, while showing weakness in story structure awareness, elaboration, as well as local and global cohesion. Suggestions for the application of multimodal presentation of narrative texts are discussed.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) significantly affects social and motor skills development in early, middle or even late childhood. To promote social and motor skills development among autistic children, an intervention consisting of Taekwondo and elements of music therapy was designed and implemented in Hong Kong. The objective of the current study is to investigate the effectiveness of this training, based on parents' observations of their children who had completed the key stage of the training. Thirteen parents or caregivers (n = 13) whose children with autism participated in our Taekwondo training for two months were interviewed. Three major themes were identified by thematic analysis: (A) social skills-related change after the intervention, (B) motor skills-related change after the intervention, (C) characteristics of the intervention (i.e., session arrangement, tutor/coach attitude). Our findings show that our training was perceived by parents to have a significant impact on the promotion of physical ability and social communication in autistic children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study tested relationships between foreign language (FL) reading and listening anxiety and learner variables in English as a foreign language (EFL). It tested links between foreign language anxiety (FLA) and its cognitive, affective and behavioral correlates in English (i.e. language learning strategies, learning motivation, and performance). Three-hundred-and-six Chinese undergraduates learning EFL were administered the measures via a questionnaire. Regression analyses indicated that EFL performance and EFL motivation were key factors that uniquely predicted EFL reading and listening anxiety. However, the role of EFL learning strategies was not significant after the effects of EFL performance and EFL motivation were controlled for. Despite this, mediation analyses revealed that EFL learning strategies had a significant indirect effect on EFL reading performance and listening anxiety levels with EFL learning motivation as a mediator. This suggests its secondary role in affecting FL anxieties. These findings provide important implications regarding assessment of students' FL anxiety level as well as identification of and intervention for those with FL difficulties. These findings have extended past studies by highlighting the relative importance of these cognitive, affective and behavioral correlates on Chinese undergraduates' EFL anxiety in specific domains.

Social-emotional deficits in school-aged children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) greatly hinder these children from fully participating in various school activities in the inclusive education setting. Previous studies have demonstrated evidence regarding the effectiveness of using virtual reality (VR) for enhancing the children's affective expression and social reciprocity. However, considering the technical and logistical complexity of the enabling hardware and software systems, how such approaches can be effectively and sustainably delivered in the school setting remains underexplored. This paper presents a study that utilised VR headsets to enhance affective expression and social reciprocity for children with ASD and explored how the approach could be effectively and sustainably delivered at schools. A total of eight VR learning scenarios were designed based on Kolb's experiential learning framework. 176 children aged 6–12 with a clinical diagnosis of ASD participated in the study. The statistical analyses showed that the participants who received the intervention significantly improved in affective expression and social reciprocity, compared to those who were in the control group. Moreover, the approaches to enhance long-term sustainability have also been presented and discussed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown that learners of English-as-a-second-language (ESL) have difficulties in understanding connected speech spoken by native English speakers. Extending from past research limited to quiet listening condition, this study examined the perception of English connected speech presented under five adverse conditions, namely multi-talker babble noise, speech-shaped noise, factory noise, whispering and sad emotional tones. We tested a total of 64 Chinese ESL undergraduate students, using a battery of listening tasks. Results confirmed that the recognition of English native speech was more challenging for Chinese ESL learners under unfavorable listening conditions, in comparison to a noise-free listening condition. These findings carry significant implications for the importance of training and assessments on connected speech perception across various listening environments.

Previous research has shown that learners of English as a second language have difficulties in understanding connected speech spoken by native English speakers. This study examines the role of the perception of reduced forms (e.g., contraction, elision, assimilation) of English words in connected speech comprehension and the phonological skills underpinning reduced forms perception. Sixty Chinese-speaking undergraduate students were tested with a battery of listening and phonological tasks in English. Results of regression analyses show that receptive vocabulary and perception of reduced forms contributed unique variance to listening comprehension for native English. Moreover, results further show that part-word recognition in a speech gating task and receptive vocabulary predicted perception of reduced forms via a direct pathway, whereas phonemic awareness and phonological memory predicted perception of reduced forms via an indirect pathway (through part-word recognition). These results have implications for the phonological skills that are fundamental to the acquisition of reduced pronunciation variants and the importance of systematic training of reduced forms perception in second language education.

Learners with poor reading skills are less able to acquire knowledge through text. Graphic novels may enhance reading comprehension skills owing to fewer words, more pictures, and an engaging storyline. This study considered the reading skills of 188 Chinese-English bilingual undergraduates, comparing their reading comprehension performance after reading pure texts and graphic novels. Results showed that students exhibited greater reading comprehension performance after reading graphic novels regardless of their varying cognitive styles and prior English reading abilities. In addition, students who read the graphic novels expressed a greater interest in exploring the topic further, as indicated by the number of further references they selected. Taking all of the findings together, the present study demonstrates that presentation mode plays an important role in 2nd language reading comprehension development. Therefore, educators need a more systematic way of educating preschool through Grade 12 students for visual literacy training.

Previous research has illustrated the unique benefits of three-dimensional (3-D) Virtual Reality (VR) technology in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) children. This study examined the use of 3-D VR technology as an assessment tool in ASD children, and further compared its use to two-dimensional (2-D) tasks. Additionally, we aimed to examine attentional network functioning in ASD children. We administered a battery of visual processing and attentional tests on 18 ASD children and 18 age-matched typically developing counterparts. Results showed that both groups performed comparably on 2-D and 3-D visual processing and attention tasks, although the ASD group was significantly slower in the 3-D task. Intact attentional network functioning was also revealed in the ASD group. These findings have validated the use of VR technology as an assessment of ASD functions, and contributed to the understanding of functions in young ASD children.

This twin study examined the relative contributions of genes and environment on 2nd language reading acquisition of Chinese-speaking children learning English. We examined whether specific skills-visual word recognition, receptive vocabulary, phonological awareness, phonological memory, and speech discrimination-in the 1st and 2nd languages have distinct or overlapping genetic and environmental origins. A sample of 279 Chinese twin pairs with a mean age of 6 years was tested. Univariate twin analyses were used to identify sources of individual variations in reading abilities and related cognitive-linguistic skills in Chinese and English, respectively. They were used to show both similar and distinctive patterns in these skills across Chinese and English. Bivariate Cholesky decomposition analyses indicated genetic overlaps between all parallel Chinese and English variables, as well as shared environmental overlaps in receptive vocabulary and phonological awareness. The phenotypic correlations between 1st and 2nd language skills previously observed in cross-linguistic studies could be explained by the shared genetic and environmental influences found in this twin study.

This study focused on the associations of general auditory processing, speech perception, phonological awareness and word reading in Cantonese-speaking children from Hong Kong learning to read both Chinese (first language [L1]) and English (second language [L2]). Children in Grades 2--4 ("N" = 133) participated and were administered measures of IQ, word reading, phonological awareness, speech perception and auditory processing in both L1 and L2. Auditory processing uniquely explained both L1 and L2 word reading. While L1 speech perception accounted for unique variance in L1 word reading, L2 phonological awareness explained unique variance in L2 word reading. In cross-language comparisons, L1 phonological awareness and speech perception were uniquely associated with L2 word reading, suggesting cross-language transfer from L1 to L2 only. Results underscore the importance of auditory processing for reading across variable learning contexts. (Contains 7 tables.)

This study sought to examine factors that are predictive of future developmental dyslexia among a group of 5-year-old Chinese children at risk for dyslexia, including 62 children with a sibling who had been previously diagnosed with dyslexia and 52 children who manifested clinical at-risk factors in aspects of language according to testing by paediatricians. The age-5 performances on various literacy and cognitive tasks, gender and group status (familial risk or language delayed) were used to predict developmental dyslexia 2 years later using logistic regression analysis. Results showed that greater risk of dyslexia was related to slower rapid automatized naming, lower scores on morphological awareness, Chinese character recognition and English letter naming, and gender (boys had more risk). Three logistic equations were generated for estimating individual risk of dyslexia. The strongest models were those that included all print-related variables (including speeded number naming, character recognition and letter identification) and gender, with about 70% accuracy or above. Early identification of those Chinese children at risk for dyslexia can facilitate better dyslexia risk management. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

Background: This work tested the rates at which Chinese children with either language delay or familial history of dyslexia at age 5 manifested dyslexia at age 7, identified which cognitive skills at age 5 best distinguished children with and without dyslexia at age 7, and examined how these early abilities predicted subsequent literacy skills. Method: Forty-seven at-risk children (21 who were initially language delayed and 26 with familial risk) and 47 control children matched on age, IQ, and mothers' education were tested on syllable awareness, tone detection, rapid automatized naming, visual skill, morphological awareness, and word reading at age 5 and subsequently tested for dyslexia on a standard Hong Kong measure at age 7. Results: Of those with an early language delay, 62% subsequently manifested dyslexia; for those with familial risk, the rate of dyslexia was 50%. Those with dyslexia were best distinguished from those without dyslexia by the age-5 measures of morphological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and word reading itself; other measures did not distinguish the groups. In a combined regression analysis across all participants, morphological awareness uniquely explained word reading accuracy and rapid automatized naming uniquely explained timed word reading at age 7, with all other measures statistically controlled. Separate stepwise regression analyses by group indicated that visual skill uniquely explained subsequent literacy skills in the at-risk group only, whereas tone and syllable awareness were unique predictors of literacy skills in the control group only. Conclusions: Both early language delay and familial risk strongly overlap with subsequent dyslexia in Chinese children. Overall, rapid automatized naming and morphological awareness are relatively strong correlates of developmental dyslexia in Chinese; visual skill and phonological awareness may also be uniquely associated with subsequent literacy development in at-risk and typically developing children, respectively.

Background: Previous research has shown a relationship between speech perception and dyslexia in alphabetic writing. In these studies speech perception was measured using phonemes, a prominent feature of alphabetic languages. Given the primary importance of lexical tone in Chinese language processing, we tested the extent to which lexical tone and aspiration, two fundamental dimensions of Cantonese speech not represented in writing, would distinguish dyslexic from non-dyslexic 8-year-old Chinese children. Tone and aspiration were tested in addition to other phonological processing skills across groups to determine the importance of different aspects of phonological sensitivity in relation to reading disability. Methods: Dyslexic children and age-matched and reading-level controls were tested on their categorical perception of minimal pairs contrasting in tone and aspiration, phonological awareness, rapid digit naming, and Chinese reading abilities. Results: While performing similarly to reading-level controls, dyslexic children perceived tone and aspiration contrasts less categorically and accurately than age-matched controls. They also performed more poorly than the age-matched controls on rapid digit naming and a measure of phonological awareness testing children's sensitivity to different grain size units. Conclusions: Dyslexia in non-alphabetic Chinese correlates with the categorical organization and accuracy of Cantonese speech perception, along the tone and aspiration dimensions. This association with reading is mediated by its association with phonological awareness. Therefore, dyslexia is universally at least partly a function of basic speech and phonological processes independent of whether the speech dimensions in question are coded in writing.

This study examined temporal processing in relation to Chinese reading acquisition and impairment. The performances of 26 Chinese primary school children with developmental dyslexia on tasks of visual and auditory temporal order judgement, rapid naming, visual-orthographic knowledge, morphological, and phonological awareness were compared with those of 26 reading level ability controls (RL) and 26 chronological age controls (CA). Dyslexic children performed worse than the CA group but similar to the RL group on measures of accurate processing of auditory and visual-order stimuli, rapid naming, morphological awareness, and phonological awareness and a minority performed worse on the two temporal processing tasks. However, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that visual but not auditory temporal processing contributed unique variance to Chinese character recognition even with other cognitive measures controlled, suggesting it may be as important a correlate of reading ability in Chinese as in alphabetic scripts.

Background: This study sought to identify cognitive abilities that might distinguish Hong Kong Chinese kindergarten children at risk for dyslexia through either language delay or familial history of dyslexia from children who were not at risk and to examine how these abilities were associated with Chinese word recognition. The cognitive skills of interest were syllable awareness, tone detection, rapid automatised naming, visual skill, and morphological awareness. Method: We recruited 36 children whose sibling had been previously diagnosed with dyslexia (familial risk group) and 36 children who were initially reported to have difficulties in preschool literacy acquisition by either teachers or parents and subsequently found to demonstrate clinical at-risk factors in aspects of language by paediatricians (language delayed group); the mean age of these groups was approximately 61 months. Thirty-six children with no such risk factors were matched by age, IQ, and parents' education to the at-risk groups. All children were tested on cognitive skills and Chinese word recognition. Results: Compared to the controls, children in the language delayed group scored significantly lower on all measures, whereas children in the familial risk group performed significantly worse only on tone detection, morphological awareness, and Chinese word recognition. In regression analyses, word recognition was best explained by morphological awareness, tone detection and visual skill. Conclusions: Language-related measures are strongly associated with early reading development and impairment in Hong Kong Chinese children. Tests of tone detection and morphological awareness may be important clinical tools for diagnosing risk for reading problems in young Chinese children. In contrast, Chinese language delay may be associated with broader cognitive impairments as found previously in various Indo-European languages (e.g., Bishop & Snowling, 2004).

Objective: The aim of the study is to investigate the feasibility of a family-based mindfulness intervention in improving children with inattention and hyperactivity symptoms. Method: A total of 100 children aged 5 to 7 years with ADHD symptoms and their parents were randomly assigned to a family-based mindfulness intervention (n = 50) or a wait-list control group (n = 50). Results: Families from intervention group had greater improvements in children's ADHD symptoms, with medium effect sizes of -0.60 for inattention and -0.59 for hyperactivity; overall behaviors; and parenting stress and well-being than those in wait-list control group. Conclusion: The positive results on the child primary outcome measures have provided initial evidence of the family-based mindfulness intervention as a treatment option to ADHD. The reduction of parental stress and increase in psychological well-being has demonstrated the value of mindfulness in enhancing parent's self-management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate the effects of family-based mindfulness intervention (FBMI) to promote the stress management and early development of economically disadvantaged families. Method: Families receiving social security allowance and full textbook allowance and with children aged 5–7 were recruited. Participants were randomized to an FBMI with parallel programs for parents and children (n = 51) and to a wait-list control condition (n = 51). Results: Intent-to-treat analyses showed more significant improvements in child attention, self-regulation, and in parenting stress, in the intervention group than in the control group. At-risk group analyses showed that the high stress group benefited in small to moderate effect sizes in parenting stress and depression, and in moderate to large effect sizes in child behavioral problem and self-regulation. Conclusions: The results provide preliminary support that FBMI can alleviate the impact of economic disadvantage. FBMI should be applied in social work practice to support disadvantaged families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This twin study examined how family socioeconomic status ( SES) and home literacy environment ( HLE) contributes to Chinese language and reading skills. It included 312 Chinese twin pairs aged 3 to 11. Children were individually administered tasks of Chinese word reading, receptive vocabulary and reading-related cognitive skills, and nonverbal reasoning ability. Information on home environment was collected through parent-reported questionnaires. Results showed that SES and HLE mediated shared environmental influences but did not moderate genetic influences on general language and reading abilities. Also, SES and HLE mediated shared environmental contributions to receptive vocabulary and syllable and rhyme awareness, but not orthographic skills. The findings of this study add to past twin studies that focused on alphabetic languages, suggesting that these links could be universal across languages. They also extend existing findings on SES and HLE's contributions to reading-related cognitive skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One salient characteristic of twin studies and the related behavioral genetics paradigm is the requirement of a large sample size. Countries or regions that are large in size and highly populated are at an advantage when implementing twin studies. However, given the fascinating and promising results obtained from twin studies, many researchers based in smaller countries or regions may still want to conduct twin studies in order to address local and theoretical issues. In this article, we have outlined the development of twin studies in Hong Kong, one of the Special Administrative Regions of China. The historical development and design of the two major twin studies of language and reading development implemented within Hong Kong are discussed, providing insights to researchers who also aspire to conduct twin studies in small regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: About 4 % of children in Hong Kong have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The parents of children with ADHD report higher levels of stress and show more negative parenting behavior. Medication and behavior training are evidence-based treatments, but both show significant limitations. In short, medical treatment is not suitable for preschool children and would suppress growth, whereas parents under stress may not be capable of consistently applying behavior management skills. Mindfulness training can improve attention and facilitate cognitive development and overall functioning. It has been widely adopted as a treatment option in health care, but its application in a family context is limited. In this context, a family-based mindfulness intervention (FBMI) has been developed to promote the attention and mental health of children with attention symptoms and to reduce the stress experienced by their parents. This article describes the design and conduct of the trial. Methods/design: A multicenter, 8-week, waitlist, randomized controlled trial of FBMI is currently being conducted in Hong Kong (from mid-2015 to mid-2016). Its effectiveness will be examined by comparing the participants who receive treatment to those in a waitlist control group. The study population consists of one hundred twenty children with ADHD, or with symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, between 5 and 7 years of age and their parents. To be included in the study, the children are required to meet or exceed the borderline cutoff score of the Chinese version of the Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD Symptoms and Normal Behaviors Rating Scale (SWAN-C). The primary outcome measures are the children's ADHD symptoms and behavior and the parents' stress. The secondary outcome measures include the children's overall behavioral problems and performance on the Attention Network Test, the parents' ADHD symptoms, the parents' mindful parenting scores, and heart rate variability of parents. Discussion: This study is probably the first randomized controlled trial of FBMI for young children and their caregivers. A rigorous design and multiple outcome measures are used to examine the effectiveness of FBMI. If the hypotheses are confirmed, FBMI may serve as an additional treatment option for children with ADHD. Trial registration: This study is registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (reference number: ChiCTR-IOR- 15007292). Registered 28 October 2015. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantitative genetic research has set the stage for the exploration of genetic influences and the underlying mechanisms that undergird language and literacy development. Following this line of enquiry, Verhoef et al. (2020) address a critical issue related to genetic processes by comparing whether the genetic mechanism known as innovation or amplification plays a more pivotal role in literacy development during the period of early childhood to early adolescence, using the cutting-edge technique called the genome-wide complex trait analysis. This commentary reviews and discusses the implications of the provocative findings that stem from their study and offers concrete directions for future research. Embedded in our reflections are discussions related to the generalist genes vs genetic specificity debate, language universality vs specificity, as well as the role of environment in genetic influences. Taken together, the discussions in the commentary have highlighted the need for more in-depth explorations of the interplay between genes and literacy development through a multi-disciplinary approach., (© 2021 Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.)

Objective: To examine the understanding of the concept peak oxygen uptake (peak VO 2 ) among children and adolescents at different ages from a developmental perspective. Methods: A total of 549 children and adolescents aged 8 to 16 were recruited and instructed to fill in a 20-item Peak VO 2 Understanding Inventory developed with reference to the research literature on peak VO 2 . We presented the participants with twenty scenarios and asked them to indicate whether peak VO 2 would "remain unchanged," "increase," or "decrease," or that there was "insufficient information for a definite answer." The cross-sectional data was analyzed by employing a series of ANOVA analyses and chi-square association tests. Additional statistical analyses were performed to examine the error patterns and if there were gender differences. Results: Except for the 8-year-old group, the overall accuracy rate did not improve with age. Age-related differences in the choice of answers ("increase," "decrease," "unchanged," and "uncertain") for determining the resulting peak VO 2 after a change of antecedent were observed. Error analysis by item showed that prefactual thinking that is important to understand the concept was emerging rather than fully developed in our child and adolescent samples. Conclusion: The mastery of peak VO 2 is not subject to age-related maturation but might demand the acquisition of specific logical reasoning skill such as perfactual thinking. Early introduction of peak VO 2 and related concepts is advocated and should be emphasized on the reasoning rather than providing model answers in physical literacy education., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Wong, Yu and Li.)

Clarifying whether automatization deficits constitute the primary causes or symptoms of developmental dyslexia, we focused on three critical issues of the dyslexic automatization deficit, namely universality, domain specificity, and severity. Thirty Chinese dyslexic children (mean age 10 years and 5 months), 30 chronological-age-, and 30 reading-level-matched children were tested in 4 areas of automaticity: motor, visual search, Stroop facilitation effects, and automatic word recognition. The results showed that the dyslexic children performed significantly worse than the CA-controls but not the RL-controls in all the tasks except for Stroop congruent-color words, on which they performed worse than children in both control groups. The deficits reflect a lag in reading experiences rather than a persistent cognitive deficit.