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Abstract The underlying evolutionary mechanisms driving global expansions of pathogen strains are poorly understood. Vibrio parahaemolyticus is one of only two marine pathogens where variants have emerged in distinct climates globally. The success of a Vibrio parahaemolyticus clone (VpST3) in Latin America- the first spread identified outside its endemic region of tropical Asia- provided an invaluable opportunity to investigate mechanisms of VpST3 expansion into a distinct marine climate. A global collection of VpST3 isolates and novel Latin American isolates were used for evolutionary population genomics, pangenome analysis and combined with oceanic climate data. We found a VpST3 population (LatAm-VpST3) introduced in Latin America well before the emergence of this clone in India, previously considered the onset of the VpST3 epidemic. LatAm-VpST3 underwent successful adaptation to local conditions over its evolutionary divergence from Asian VpST3 isolates, to become dominant in Latin America. Selection signatures were found in genes providing resilience to the distinct marine climate. Core genome mutations and accessory gene presences that promoted survival over long dispersals or increased environmental fitness were associated with environmental conditions. These results provide novel insights into the global expansion of this successful V. parahaemolyticus clone into regions with different climate scenarios.

Abstract One Health is a recognition of the shared environment inhabited by humans, animals and plants, and the impact of their interactions on the health of all organisms. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for a framework of pathogen surveillance in a tractable One Health paradigm to allow timely detection and response to threats to human and animal health. We present case studies centered around the recent global approach to tackle antimicrobial resistance and the current interest in wastewater testing, with the concept of “one sample many analyses” to be further explored as the most appropriate means of initiating this endeavor.

Abstract Background Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) is an economically and ecologically important fish species in the family Nototheniidae. Juveniles occupy progressively deeper waters as they mature and grow, and adults have been caught as deep as 2500 m, living on or in just above the southern shelves and slopes around the sub-Antarctic islands of the Southern Ocean. As apex predators, they are a key part of the food web, feeding on a variety of prey, including krill, squid, and other fish. Despite its importance, genomic sequence data, which could be used for more accurate dating of the divergence between Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish, or establish whether it shares adaptations to temperature with fish living in more polar or equatorial climes, has so far been limited. Results A high-quality D. eleginoides genome was generated using a combination of Illumina, PacBio and Omni-C sequencing technologies. To aid the genome annotation, the transcriptome derived from a variety of toothfish tissues was also generated using both short and long read sequencing methods. The final genome assembly was 797.8 Mb with a N50 scaffold length of 3.5 Mb. Approximately 31.7% of the genome consisted of repetitive elements. A total of 35,543 putative protein-coding regions were identified, of which 50% have been functionally annotated. Transcriptomics analysis showed that approximately 64% of the predicted genes (22,617 genes) were found to be expressed in the tissues sampled. Comparative genomics analysis revealed that the anti-freeze glycoprotein (AFGP) locus of D. eleginoides does not contain any AFGP proteins compared to the same locus in the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni). This is in agreement with previously published results looking at hybridization signals and confirms that Patagonian toothfish do not possess AFGP coding sequences in their genome. Conclusions We have assembled and annotated the Patagonian toothfish genome, which will provide a valuable genetic resource for ecological and evolutionary studies on this and other closely related species.

Scale drop disease virus (SDDV), a double-stranded DNA virus in the family Iridoviridae, has been reported widely in southeast Asian countries as a causative agent of scale drop syndrome (SDS) in Asian seabass. SDS has resulted in high mortality and significant economic losses to the aquaculture industry. This study demonstrated the use of metagenomic methods to investigate bacterial and viral communities present in infected fish tissues and recover a complete genome of the causative agent named SDDV TH7_2019. Characterization of the TH7_2019 genome revealed a genome size of 131 kb with 134 putative ORFs encoding viral proteins potentially associated with host apoptosis manipulation. A comparative genome analysis showed a high degree of amino acid identity across SDDV strains, with variations in number of repeat sequences and mutations within core genes. Phylogenetic analyses indicate a close relationship among SDDV genomes. This research enhances our understanding of the genetic diversity and evolutionary relationship of SDDV, contributing valuable insights for further development of effective control strategies of SDDV.

ABSTRACTWastewater-based epidemiology is a powerful tool for monitoring the emergence and spread of viral pathogens at the population scale. Typical polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods of quantitative and genomic monitoring of viruses in wastewater provide high sensitivity and specificity. However, these methods are limited to the surveillance of target viruses in a single assay and require prior knowledge of the target genome(s). Metagenomic sequencing methods may represent a target-agnostic approach to viral wastewater monitoring, allowing for the detection of a broad range of target viruses, including potentially novel and emerging pathogens. In this study, targeted and untargeted metagenomic sequencing methods were compared with tiled-PCR sequencing for the detection and genotyping of viral pathogens in wastewater samples. Deep shotgun metagenomic sequencing was unable to generate sufficient genome coverage of human pathogenic viruses for robust genomic epidemiology, with samples dominated by bacteria. Hybrid-capture enrichment of shotgun libraries for respiratory viruses led to significant increases in genome coverage for a range of targets. Tiled-PCR sequencing led to further improvements in genome coverage compared to hybrid capture for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, enterovirus D68, norovirus GII, and human adenovirus F41 in wastewater samples. In conclusion, untargeted shotgun sequencing was unsuitable for genomic monitoring of the low virus concentrations in wastewater samples analyzed in this study. Hybrid-capture enrichment represented a viable method for simultaneous genomic epidemiology of a range of viral pathogens, while tiled-PCR sequencing provided the optimal genome coverage for individual viruses with the minimum sequencing depth.IMPORTANCEMost public health initiatives that monitor viruses in wastewater have utilized quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and whole genome PCR sequencing, mirroring techniques used for viral epidemiology in individuals. These techniques require prior knowledge of the target viral genome and are limited to monitoring individual or small groups of viruses. Metagenomic sequencing may offer an alternative strategy for monitoring a broad spectrum of viruses in wastewater, including novel and emerging pathogens. In this study, while amplicon sequencing gave high viral genome coverage, untargeted shotgun sequencing of total nucleic acid samples was unable to detect human pathogenic viruses with enough sensitivity for use in genomic epidemiology. Enrichment of shotgun libraries for respiratory viruses using hybrid-capture technology provided genotypic information on a range of viruses simultaneously, indicating strong potential for wastewater surveillance. This type of targeted metagenomics could be used for monitoring diverse targets, such as pathogens or antimicrobial resistance genes, in environmental samples.

Koi herpesvirus (KHV, CyHV-3) causes severe economic losses in carp farms. Its eradication is challenging due to the establishment of latency in blood leukocytes and other tissues. To understand the molecular mechanisms leading to KHV infection in leukocytes, common carp were bath-exposed to KHV at 17 °C. After confirming the presence of viral transcripts in blood leukocytes at ten days post infection, RNA-Seq was performed on peripheral blood leukocytes on the Illumina NovaSeq. KHV infection triggered a robust immune response mediated by pattern recognition receptors, mainly toll-like receptors (tlr2, tlr5, tlr7, and tlr13), urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor-like, galectin proteins, and lipid mediators such as leukotriene B4 receptor 1. Enriched pathways showed increased mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation and the activation of signalling pathways such as mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). KHV-infected leukocytes showed low production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutathione metabolism, high iron export and phagocytosis activity, and low autophagy. Macrophage polarization was deduced from the up-regulation of genes such as arginase non-hepatic 1-like, macrophage mannose receptor-1, crem, il-10, and il-13 receptors, while markers for cytotoxic T cells were observed to be down-regulated. Further work is required to characterise these leukocyte subsets and the molecular events leading to KHV latency in blood leukocytes.

Monitoring the spread of viral pathogens in the population during epidemics is crucial for mounting an effective public health response. Understanding the viral lineages that constitute the infections in a population can uncover the origins and transmission patterns of outbreaks and detect the emergence of novel variants that may impact the course of an epidemic. Population-level surveillance of viruses through genomic sequencing of wastewater captures unbiased lineage data, including cryptic asymptomatic and undiagnosed infections, and has been shown to detect infection outbreaks and novel variant emergence before detection in clinical samples. Here, we present an optimised protocol for quantification and sequencing of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in influent wastewater, used for high-throughput genomic surveillance in England during the COVID-19 pandemic. This protocol utilises reverse compliment PCR for library preparation, enabling tiled amplification across the whole viral genome and sequencing adapter addition in a single step to enhance efficiency. Sequencing of synthetic SARS-CoV-2 RNA provided evidence validating the efficacy of this protocol, while data from high-throughput sequencing of wastewater samples demonstrated the sensitivity of this method. We also provided guidance on the quality control steps required during library preparation and data analysis. Overall, this represents an effective method for high-throughput sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater which can be applied to other viruses and pathogens of humans and animals.

IntroductionAll decapod crustaceans are considered potentially susceptible to White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) infection, but the degree of White Spot Disease (WSD) susceptibility varies widely between species. The European shore crab Carcinus maenas can be infected with the virus for long periods of time without signs of disease. Given the high mortality rate of susceptible species, the differential susceptibility of these resistant hosts offers an opportunity to investigate mechanisms of disease resistance.MethodsHere, the temporal transcriptional responses (mRNA and miRNA) of C. maenas following WSSV injection were analysed and compared to a previously published dataset for the highly WSSV susceptible Penaeus vannamei to identify key genes, processes and pathways contributing to increased WSD resistance.ResultsWe show that, in contrast to P. vannamei, the transcriptional response during the first 2 days following WSSV injection in C. maenas is limited. During the later time points (7 days onwards), two groups of crabs were identified, a recalcitrant group where no replication of the virus occurred, and a group where significant viral replication occurred, with the transcriptional profiles of the latter group resembling those of WSSV-susceptible species. We identify key differences in the molecular responses of these groups to WSSV injection.DiscussionWe propose that increased WSD resistance in C. maenas may result from impaired WSSV endocytosis due to the inhibition of internal vesicle budding by dynamin-1, and a delay in movement to the nucleus caused by the downregulation of cytoskeletal transcripts required for WSSV cytoskeleton docking, during early stages of the infection. This response allows resistant hosts greater time to fine-tune immune responses associated with miRNA expression, apoptosis and the melanisation cascade to defend against, and clear, invading WSSV. These findings suggest that the initial stages of infection are key to resistance to WSSV in the crab and highlight possible pathways that could be targeted in farmed crustacean to enhance resistance to WSD.

Assessment of bacterial diversity through sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) genes has been an approach widely used in environmental microbiology, particularly since the advent of high-throughput sequencing technologies. An additional innovation introduced by these technologies was the need of developing new strategies to manage and investigate the massive amount of sequencing data generated. This situation stimulated the rapid expansion of the field of bioinformatics with the release of new tools to be applied to the downstream analysis and interpretation of sequencing data mainly generated using Illumina technology. In recent years, a third generation of sequencing technologies has been developed and have been applied in parallel and complementarily to the former sequencing strategies. In particular, Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) introduced nanopore sequencing which has become very popular among molecular ecologists. Nanopore technology offers a low price, portability and fast sequencing throughput. This powerful technology has been recently tested for 16S rRNA analyses showing promising results. However, compared with previous technologies, there is a scarcity of bioinformatic tools and protocols designed specifically for the analysis of Nanopore 16S sequences. Due its notable characteristics, researchers have recently started performing assessments regarding the suitability MinION on 16S rRNA sequencing studies, and have obtained remarkable results. Here we present a review of the state-of-the-art of MinION technology applied to microbiome studies, the current possible application and main challenges for its use on 16S rRNA metabarcoding.

Abstract Viral diseases of crustaceans are increasingly recognised as challenges to shellfish farms and fisheries. Here we describe the first naturally-occurring virus reported in any clawed lobster species. Hypertrophied nuclei with emarginated chromatin, characteristic histopathological lesions of DNA virus infection, were observed within the hepatopancreatic epithelial cells of juvenile European lobsters (Homarus gammarus). Transmission electron microscopy revealed infection with a bacilliform virus containing a rod shaped nucleocapsid enveloped in an elliptical membrane. Assembly of PCR-free shotgun metagenomic sequencing produced a circular genome of 107,063 bp containing 97 open reading frames, the majority of which share sequence similarity with a virus infecting the black tiger shrimp: Penaeus monodon nudivirus (PmNV). Multiple phylogenetic analyses confirm the new virus to be a novel member of the Nudiviridae: Homarus gammarus nudivirus (HgNV). Evidence of occlusion body formation, characteristic of PmNV and its closest relatives, was not observed, questioning the horizontal transmission strategy of HgNV outside of the host. We discuss the potential impacts of HgNV on juvenile lobster growth and mortality and present HgNV-specific primers to serve as a diagnostic tool for monitoring the virus in wild and farmed lobster stocks.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is one of the most common causes of acute viral hepatitis in humans. Although HAV has a relatively small genome, there are several factors limiting whole genome sequencing such as PCR amplification artefacts and ambiguities in de novo assembly. The recently developed Oxford Nanopore technologies (ONT) allows single-molecule sequencing of long-size fragments of DNA or RNA using PCR-free strategies. We have sequenced the whole genome of HAV using a PCR-free approach by direct reverse-transcribed sequencing. We were able to sequence HAV cDNA and obtain reads over 7 kilobases in length containing almost the whole genome of the virus. The comparison of these raw long nanopore reads with the HAV reference wild type revealed a nucleotide sequence identity between 81.1 and 96.6%. By de novo assembly of all HAV reads we obtained a consensus sequence of 7362 bases, with a nucleotide sequence identity of 99.0% with the genome of the HAV strain pHM175/18f. When the assembly was performed using as reference the HAV strain pHM175/18f a consensus with a sequence similarity of 99.8 % was obtained. We have also used an ONT amplicon-based assay to sequence two fragments of the VP3 and VP1 regions which showed a sequence similarity of 100% with matching regions of the consensus sequence obtained using the direct cDNA sequencing approach. This study showed the applicability of ONT sequencing technologies to obtain the whole genome of HAV by direct cDNA nanopore sequencing, highlighting the utility of this PCR-free approach for HAV characterization and potentially other viruses of the Picornaviridae family.

ABSTRACT Panulirus argus virus 1 (PaV1) is the only known virus infecting the Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) from the Caribbean Sea. Recently, related viruses, Dikerogammarus haemobaphes virus 1 (DhV1) and Carcinus maenas virus 1 (CmV1), have been detected in the demon shrimp (Dikerogammarus haemobaphes) and the European shore crab (Carcinus maenas), respectively, from sites in the United Kingdom. The virion morphology of these crustacean viruses is similar to that of iridoviruses. However, unlike iridoviruses and other nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDVs), these viruses complete their morphogenesis in the host cell nucleus rather than in the cytoplasm. To date, these crustacean viruses have remained unclassified due to a lack of genomic data. Using an Illumina MiSeq sequencer, we sequenced the complete genomes of PaV1, CmV1, and DhV1. Comparative genome analysis shows that these crustacean virus genomes encode the 10 hallmark proteins previously described for the NCLDVs of eukaryotes, strongly suggesting that they are members of this group. With a size range of 70 to 74 kb, these are the smallest NCLDV genomes identified to date. Extensive gene loss, divergence of gene sequences, and the accumulation of low-complexity sequences reflect the extreme degradation of the genomes of these “minimal” NCLDVs rather than any direct relationship with the NCLDV ancestor. Phylogenomic analysis supports the classification of these crustacean viruses as a distinct family, “Mininucleoviridae,” within the pitho-irido-Marseille branch of the NCLDVs. IMPORTANCE Recent genomic and metagenomic studies have led to a dramatic expansion of the known diversity of nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDVs) of eukaryotes, which include giant viruses of protists and important pathogens of vertebrates, such as poxviruses. However, the characterization of viruses from nonmodel hosts still lags behind. We sequenced the complete genomes of three viruses infecting crustaceans, the Caribbean spiny lobster, demon shrimp, and European shore crab. These viruses have the smallest genomes among the known NCLDVs, with losses of many core genes, some of which are shared with iridoviruses. The deterioration of the transcription apparatus is compatible with microscopic and ultrastructural observations indicating that these viruses replicate in the nucleus of infected cells rather than in the cytoplasm. Phylogenomic analysis indicates that these viruses are sufficiently distinct from all other NCLDVs to justify the creation of a separate family, for which we propose the name “Mininucleoviridae” (i.e., small viruses reproducing in the cell nucleus).

Multiple enveloped viruses with rod-shaped nucleocapsids have been described, infecting the epithelial cell nuclei within the hepatopancreas tubules of crustaceans. These bacilliform viruses share the ultrastructural characteristics of nudiviruses, a specific clade of viruses infecting arthropods. Using histology, electron microscopy and high throughput sequencing, we characterise two further bacilliform viruses from aquatic hosts, the brown shrimp (Crangon crangon) and the European shore crab (Carcinus maenas). We assembled the full double stranded, circular DNA genome sequences of these viruses (~113 and 132 kbp, respectively). Comparative genomics and phylogenetic analyses confirm that both belong within the family Nudiviridae but in separate clades representing nudiviruses found in freshwater and marine environments. We show that the three thymidine kinase (tk) genes present in all sequenced nudivirus genomes, thus far, were absent in the Crangon crangon nudivirus, suggesting there are twenty-eight core genes shared by all nudiviruses. Furthermore, the phylogenetic data no longer support the subdivision of the family Nudiviridae into four genera (Alphanudivirus to Deltanudivirus), as recently adopted by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), but rather shows two main branches of the family that are further subdivided. Our data support a recent proposal to create two subfamilies within the family Nudiviridae, each subdivided into several genera.

The basis of pathogenicity of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) was analysed in the transcriptome of a rainbow trout cell line inoculated with pathogenic and non-pathogenic VHSV isolates. Although both VHSV isolates showed similar viral replication patterns, the number of differentially expressed genes was 42-fold higher in cells inoculated with the non-pathogenic VHSV at 3 h post inoculation (hpi). Infection with the non-pathogenic isolate resulted in Gene Ontologies (GO) enrichment of terms such as immune response, cytokine-mediated signalling pathway, regulation of translational initiation, unfolded protein binding, and protein folding, and induced an over-representation of the p53, PPAR, and TGF-β signalling pathways. Inoculation with the pathogenic isolate resulted in the GO enrichment of terms related to lipid metabolism and the salmonella infection KEGG pathway involved in the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton. Antiviral response was evident at 12hpi in cells infected with the pathogenic isolate. Overall, the data showed a delay in the response of genes involved in immune responses and viral sensing in cells inoculated with the pathogenic isolate and suggest transcriptional shutoff and immune avoidance as a critical mechanism of pathogenicity in VHSV. These pathways offer opportunities to further understand and manage VHSV pathogenicity in rainbow trout.

White Spot Disease (WSD) presents a major barrier to penaeid shrimp production. Mechanisms underlying White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) susceptibility in penaeids are poorly understood due to limited information related to early infection. We investigated mRNA and miRNA transcription in Penaeus vannamei over 36 h following infection. Over this time course, 6192 transcripts and 27 miRNAs were differentially expressed—with limited differential expression from 3–12 h post injection (hpi) and a more significant transcriptional response associated with the onset of disease symptoms (24 hpi). During early infection, regulated processes included cytoskeletal remodelling and alterations in phagocytic activity that may assist WSSV entry and translocation, novel miRNA-induced metabolic shifts, and the downregulation of ATP-dependent proton transporter subunits that may impair cellular recycling. During later infection, uncoupling of the electron transport chain may drive cellular dysfunction and lead to high mortalities in infected penaeids. We propose that post-transcriptional silencing of the immune priming gene Dscam (downregulated following infections) by a novel shrimp miRNA (Pva-pmiR-78; upregulated) as a potential mechanism preventing future recognition of WSSV that may be suppressed in surviving shrimp. Our findings improve our understanding of WSD pathogenesis in P. vannamei and provide potential avenues for future development of prophylactics and treatments.

Mass mortalities of the larval stage of the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, have been occurring in Bangladesh since 2011. Mortalities can reach 100% and have resulted in an 80% decline in the number of hatcheries actively producing M. rosenbergii. To investigate a causative agent for the mortalities, a disease challenge was carried out using infected material from a hatchery experiencing mortalities. Moribund larvae from the challenge were prepared for metatranscriptomic sequencing. De novo virus assembly revealed a 29 kb single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus with similarities in key protein motif sequences to yellow head virus (YHV), an RNA virus that causes mass mortalities in marine shrimp aquaculture, and other viruses in the Nidovirales order. Primers were designed against the novel virus and used to screen cDNA from larvae sampled from hatcheries in the South of Bangladesh from two consecutive years. Larvae from all hatcheries screened from both years were positive by PCR for the novel virus, including larvae from a hatchery that at the point of sampling appeared healthy, but later experienced mortalities. These screens suggest that the virus is widespread in M. rosenbergii hatchery culture in southern Bangladesh, and that early detection of the virus can be achieved by PCR. The hypothesised protein motifs of Macrobrachium rosenbergii golda virus (MrGV) suggest that it is likely to be a new species within the Nidovirales order. Biosecurity measures should be taken in order to mitigate global spread through the movement of post-larvae within and between countries, which has previously been linked to other virus outbreaks in crustacean aquaculture.

Tilapia lake virus (TiLV), a negative sense RNA virus with a 10 segment genome, is an emerging threat to tilapia aquaculture worldwide, with outbreaks causing over 90% mortality reported on several continents since 2014. Following a severe tilapia mortality event in July 2017, we confirmed the presence of TiLV in Bangladesh and obtained the near-complete genome of this isolate, BD-2017. Phylogenetic analysis of the concatenated 10 segment coding regions placed BD-2017 in a clade with the two isolates from Thailand, separate from the Israeli and South American isolates. However, phylogenetic analysis of individual segments gave conflicting results, sometimes clustering BD-2017 with one of the Israeli isolates, and splitting pairs of isolates from the same region. By comparing patterns of topological difference among segments of quartets of isolates, we showed that TiLV likely has a history of reassortment. Segments 5 and 6, in particular, appear to have undergone a relatively recent reassortment event involving Ecuador isolate EC-2012 and Israel isolate Til-4-2011. The phylogeny of TiLV isolates therefore depends on the segment sequenced. Our findings illustrate the need to exercise caution when using phylogenetic analysis to infer geographic origin and track the movement of TiLV, and we recommend using whole genomes wherever possible.

Summary: Although Astyanax mexicanus surface fish regenerate their hearts after injury, their Pachón cave-dwelling counterparts cannot and, instead, form a permanent fibrotic scar, similar to the human heart. Myocardial proliferation peaks at similar levels in both surface fish and Pachón 1 week after injury. However, in Pachón, this peak coincides with a strong scarring and immune response, and ultimately, cavefish cardiomyocytes fail to replace the scar. We identified lrrc10 to be upregulated in surface fish compared with Pachón after injury. Similar to cavefish, knockout of lrrc10 in zebrafish impairs heart regeneration without affecting wound cardiomyocyte proliferation. Furthermore, using quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis, we have linked the degree of heart regeneration to three loci in the genome, identifying candidate genes fundamental to the difference between scarring and regeneration. Our study provides evidence that successful heart regeneration entails a delicate interplay between cardiomyocyte proliferation and scarring. : Stockdale et al. identify the Mexican cavefish as a model for heart regeneration research. This model provides an opportunity for direct comparison of natural regeneration versus scarring within a single species. Furthermore, they have identified key genomic regions regulating heart regeneration using an unbiased quantitative trait loci analysis approach. Keywords: Mexican cavefish, heart regeneration, fibrotic scar, QTL, myocardial proliferation, lrrc10

ABSTRACT Vibrio parahaemolyticus is the leading cause of seafood-related infections with illnesses undergoing a geographic expansion. In this process of expansion, the most fundamental change has been the transition from infections caused by local strains to the surge of pandemic clonal types. Pandemic clone sequence type 3 (ST3) was the only example of transcontinental spreading until 2012, when ST36 was detected outside the region where it is endemic in the U.S. Pacific Northwest causing infections along the U.S. northeast coast and Spain. Here, we used genome-wide analyses to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the V. parahaemolyticus ST36 clone over the course of its geographic expansion during the previous 25 years. The origin of this lineage was estimated to be in ~1985. By 1995, a new variant emerged in the region and quickly replaced the old clone, which has not been detected since 2000. The new Pacific Northwest (PNW) lineage was responsible for the first cases associated with this clone outside the Pacific Northwest region. After several introductions into the northeast coast, the new PNW clone differentiated into a highly dynamic group that continues to cause illness on the northeast coast of the United States. Surprisingly, the strains detected in Europe in 2012 diverged from this ancestral group around 2000 and have conserved genetic features present only in the old PNW lineage. Recombination was identified as the major driver of diversification, with some preliminary observations suggesting a trend toward a more specialized lifestyle, which may represent a critical element in the expansion of epidemics under scenarios of coastal warming. IMPORTANCE Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio cholerae represent the only two instances of pandemic expansions of human pathogens originating in the marine environment. However, while the current pandemic of V. cholerae emerged more than 50 years ago, the global expansion of V. parahaemolyticus is a recent phenomenon. These modern expansions provide an exceptional opportunity to study the evolutionary process of these pathogens at first hand and gain an understanding of the mechanisms shaping the epidemic dynamics of these diseases, in particular, the emergence, dispersal, and successful introduction in new regions facilitating global spreading of infections. In this study, we used genomic analysis to examine the evolutionary divergence that has occurred over the course of the most recent transcontinental expansion of a pathogenic Vibrio, the spreading of the V. parahaemolyticus sequence type 36 clone from the region where it is endemic on the Pacific coast of North America to the east coast of the United States and finally to the west coast of Europe.

The transmission of puffy skin disease (PSD) to rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum was tested in the laboratory by conducting co-habitation challenges with puffy skin (PS)-affected fish (Trojans) collected from the field. Two separate challenges were conducted using Trojans sourced from two different sites and diploid (first trial) or triploid (second trial) naïve fish. PSD-specific clinical signs were observed in both groups of naïve fish, with 66% of the fish sampled during the challenges showing signs of varying severity. The first clinical features of PSD were presented as white oval skin patches on one or both flanks 15-21 days post-challenge (dpc). The extent of the lesions ranged from 10 to 90% of the body surface, depending on the severity of the lesion. Both the severity and number of affected fish increased during the challenge. Macroscopically, oedema of the skin and multifocal petechial haemorrhaging were observed towards the end of the trials. Abnormal fish behaviour consisting of "flashing" and excessive mucous production was noted from 15 dpc onwards. Fish with severe PSD lesions also displayed inappetence and associated emaciation. Rodlet cells were observed in 41% of the fresh skin scrapes analysed from the second trial. Histologically epidermal oedema was observed in 31% of the naive fish showing gross pathology, with additional 12% displaying epidermal hyperplasia, mostly observed at the end of the challenge. Other concomitant features of the PSD lesions in challenged fish were epithelial erosion and sloughing, and occasionally mild or focal inflammation. No consistent pathology of internal organs was observed. The parasites Ichthyophthirius multifiliis and Ichthyobodo necator were observed in skin samples of a proportion of naïve challenged fish and in Trojans but not in control fish. The presence of these and other known fish pathogens in the skin of PSD-fish was confirmed by high-throughput sequencing analysis. In summary, we have demonstrated that PSD is a transmissible condition. However, even though a number of known fish pathogens were identified in the skin tissues of PSD-fish, the actual causative infectious agent(s) remain(s) unknown.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (Bmp) are major players in the formation of the vertebrate body plan due to their crucial role in patterning of the dorsal-ventral (DV) axis. Despite the highly conserved nature of Bmp signalling in vertebrates, the consequences of changing this pathway can be species-specific. Here, we report that Bmp plays an important role in epiboly, yolk syncytial layer (YSL) movements, and anterior-posterior (AP) axis formation in embryos of the self-fertilizing mangrove killifish, Kryptolebias marmoratus. Stage and dose specific exposures of embryos to the Bmp inhibitor dorsomorphin (DM) produced three distinctive morphologies, with the most extreme condition creating the splitbody phenotype, characterised by an extremely short AP axis where the neural tube, somites, and notochord were bilaterally split. In addition, parts of caudal neural tissues were separated from the main body and formed cell islands in the posterior region of the embryo. This splitbody phenotype, which has not been reported in other animals, shows that modification of Bmp may lead to significantly different consequences during development in other vertebrate species.

Since its emergence in the 1990s, White Spot Disease (WSD) has had major economic and societal impact in the crustacean aquaculture sector. Over the years shrimp farming alone has experienced billion dollar losses through WSD. The disease is caused by the White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), a large dsDNA virus and the only member of the Nimaviridae family. Susceptibility to WSSV in a wide range of crustacean hosts makes it a major risk factor in the translocation of live animals and in commodity products. Currently there are no effective treatments for this disease. Understanding the molecular basis of disease processes has contributed significantly to the treatment of many human and animal pathogens, and with a similar aim considerable efforts have been directed towards understanding host–pathogen molecular interactions for WSD. Work on the molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis in aquatic crustaceans has been restricted by a lack of sequenced and annotated genomes for host species. Nevertheless, some of the key host–pathogen interactions have been established: between viral envelope proteins and host cell receptors at initiation of infection, involvement of various immune system pathways in response to WSSV, and the roles of various host and virus miRNAs in mitigation or progression of disease. Despite these advances, many fundamental knowledge gaps remain; for example, the roles of the majority of WSSV proteins are still unknown. In this review we assess current knowledge of how WSSV infects and replicates in its host, and critique strategies for WSD treatment.

Our recent work suggests limited uptake of unstabilized metal oxide nanoparticles via water into fish, however, some other studies have indicated such exposures can induce oxidative stress. To investigate tissue distribution and toxicity of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles that may enter into fish, we conducted a series of injection studies. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were intravenously injected with 100 μg TiO2 nanoparticles and the content of titanium in blood, brain, gills, liver, and kidney quantified at time points between 6 h and 90 days using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. Injected Ti was concentrated in the kidneys and remained there up to 21 days, however, there was evidence of clearance of TiO2 at 90 days. Ti accumulation in the liver was 15 times lower than in the kidney with no apparent clearance. Using TEM we showed nanoparticles were localized in tissue vesicles surrounding the kidney tubules. In a second injection study, rainbow trout were injected with 100 μg TiO2 and plasma samples from individual fish analyzed for total protein and creatinine content at time points between 6 h and 21 days to assess for possible effects on kidney function. No effect of TiO2 on total plasma protein content or creatinine concentrations were found indicating that neither urine production nor glomerular filtration rate were affected. We conclude that in trout upon a single high dose exposure of TiO2 nanoparticles via the bloodstream, TiO2 accumulates in the kidneys but has minimal effect on kidney function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]