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At the turn of the twentieth century the Norwegian market flourished with milk products intended for infants. But medical doctors argued in favor of “going back to nature”: Women ought to breastfeed their children. This paper explores how a re-naturalization of mother's milk emerged within experimental medicine. The prescribed “natural way” did not develop within medicine alone. The paper demonstrates how the natural developed within a relational space of different versions of milk: the free-market milk, the dirty and decaying milk, and the non-nutritional milk. But why did Norwegian mothers, in contrast to the development in for instance the US, continue to breastfeed their infants? Drawing on the work of the leading pediatrician Theodor Frølich, the paper suggests that this may in part be explained by the development of a distinct version of care: A matter-of-fact, pragmatic and flexible version of care that nevertheless came to enact mother's milk as the supreme form of nutrition to which there was hardly a competing or healthy alternative. “The natural way” became a thought style and was made integral to everyday culture. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

As the Allied and Axis powers manoeuvred in Scandinavia in 1940, Britain embarked on a series of ill-conceived expeditions to secure the port of Narvik and prevent Norway's occupation. First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, overrode military opinion, bullying members of the War Cabinet into a hasty, ad hoc operation that ceded the strategic advantage to the Germans and led to Chamberlain's resignation - and yet, ultimately to his own appointment as prime minister. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Die Institutionalisierung und Entwicklung von Padagogik als professionellem und akademischem Wissensgebiet in Norwegen in der ersten Halfte des 20. Jahrhunderts ist Thema dieses Beitrags. Die Reformpadagogik in Norwegen hatte eine starke Verankerung in Lehrerschaft und Lehrerorganisationen und entwickelte eine offene, korporative Zusammenarbeit mit Politik und Verwaltung. In der Periode von 1931 bis Anfang der zweiten Weltkrieges pragte diese Zusammenarbeit die Entwicklung von Padagogik und Ausbildungspolitik in einem derartigen Umfang, dass man von einer reformpadagogischen Hegemonie in Schulentwicklung, Forschung und Politik reden kann. In diesem Artikel werden Aktivitaten und Wissensprofil von den drei Padagogen Bernhof Ribsskog, Erling Kristvik und Helga Eng als Beispiele fur verschiedene Orientierungen und Beitrage innerhalb der norwegischen Reformpadagogik der betreffenden Periode herangezogen. Eine zentrale Frage im letzten Teil ist, warum diese vitale padagogische Bewegung und dieses System sich so schnell andert und die Hegemonie in den Jahrzehnten nach dem Krieg verliert. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay aims at developing the research on antimilitarist men from gender perspectives to acquire more nuanced and precise understandings. The focus is on pictures. I interpret images and texts as elements in cultural communication and in relation to their historical contexts, and look at how socialist antimilitarist ideals and norms coincided with and differed from dominant notions of what men should be. The essay includes discussions of concepts of masculinity, manliness, and unmanliness. I argue that socialist antimilitarist manlinesses contested military values in various degrees and forms, and find four different but overlapping sets of ideals and norms. The first three are revolutionary, muscular, and pacifist socialist manliness, and the fourth is related to visions of a new humanity. I also argue that to better understand men taking the risk to be culturally marginalized, we need more research with a focus on the perspectives of the men themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the various ways that patents and standards framed a challenger's opportunities. It recounts the history of the Bull punched card system, both in Norway in the 1920s and France in the 1930s, as it developed and became a challenger to IBM's monopoly. Bull faced the first mover's patents and standards differently. Standards paved the way for the challenger's actions, while patents hampered certain facilities for their duration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Constituting what may be called "a community of spinsters," Norwegian middle-class unmarried woman played an important role in undermining and destabilizing the heterosexual cultural matrix during the period 1880-1920. In their anti-sexuality, self-sufficiency and hatred of men the spinsters challenged the heteronormativity of the period, and their queerness still presents a challenge to the harmony-oriented, heteromormative Norwegian women's history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Interwar Norway saw a depressed labor market with mass unemployment both in the 1920s and 1930s. To protect family household income, breadwinners were preferred in the labor market. In consequence, discriminatory measures were carried out against married women and the younger part of the labor force with minor family support responsibilities. The article offers new estimates of employment, unemployment, family support responsibilities, labor participation rates, and hidden unemployment based on census data and files from the Norwegian National Archive. The major conclusion drawn is that the discriminatory policy made unemployment higher in the young non-breadwinning part of the labor force than among breadwinners, while married women to a large extent withdrew from the labor market and went into hidden unemployment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]