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Oil-pressboard/paper insulation materials are essential in transformers for ensuring their safe and stable operation, primarily due to their roles in spatial electric field distribution and charge migration mechanisms. Current spatial distribution analyses rely on computational methods that lack empirical validation, particularly for oil-pressboard/paper composites. This study leverages the principles of the Kerr electro-optic effect to develop a rapid measurement platform for electric fields within oil-pressboard/paper insulation under impulse voltage conditions, which measures the spatial electric field characteristics using Cu-Cu and Al-Al electrodes under various scenarios: with asymmetric and symmetric pressboard coverage and different numbers of insulating paper layers. Findings indicated: (1) In asymmetric pressboard models, Cu-Cu electrodes exhibit a consistent peak electric field of approximately 16 kV/mm, while Al-Al electrodes show peak values of 18.13 kV/mm and −14.98 kV/mm. Charge density patterns are similar, with Cu-Cu at about 68 μC/m2 and Al-Al at 11.2 μC/m2 and −124.8 μC/m2. (2) Symmetric models present consistent peak electric fields and charge densities for both polarities. (3) Increasing insulating paper layers elevates electric field strengths. Both electrodes show the similar peak field of about 17 kV/mm with differing paper layers due to higher charge injection from the Al electrode. (4) Utilizing the Schottky effect and field emission principles, the study clarifies charge generation and migration mechanisms. These insights could provide a theoretical foundation for designing and verifying oil-pressboard/paper insulation structures in transformers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simultaneous electromagnetic field probing system (SEMPS) has been popular in recent years. Herein, a simultaneous electromagnetic field probing system with Y‐shaped separation detection structure (SEMPS Y) is first proposed, in which the electric field probing region and the magnetic field probing region of the probe are separated by completely covering the shield along the loop and adding a pin‐shaped metal wire to capture the electric field, which are not the same as the classical dual probe structure. Combined with the non‐rotating asymmetric calibration method (NRACM), a 4‐port vector network analyser (VNA) and a highly symmetric grounded coplanar waveguide (GCPW) calibrator are used to solve the calibration matrix of the asymmetric SEMPS Y. The high symmetry GCPW calibrator is used to generate the standard electromagnetic field for calibration. The results of standing wave measurements show that the SEMPS Y can achieve ultrawideband electromagnetic field measurement of up to 20 GHz. Based on near‐field scanning measurements, SEMP Y can obtain results consistent with the calculation. In addition, when the probe is rotated 90° to invalidate the H‐field input, the decoupling curves of E‐field and H‐field are measured. Results show that the separation detection structure can effectively solve the cross‐coupling problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a wireless chipless resonator-based sensor for measuring the absolute value of an external time-varying electric field. The sensor is developed using contactless air-filled substrate-integrated waveguide (CLAF-SIW) technology. The sensor employs a low-impedance electromagnetic band gap structure to confine the electric field within the sensor's air cavity. The air cavity is loaded with varactor diodes whose reverse bias voltage is modified by the to-be-measured external electric field. Variation in the external electric field results in a variation of the sensor's resonant frequency. The CLAF-SIW sensor offers a high unloaded quality factor, which is required for a long-distance ringback-based interrogation system. A prototype of the proposed sensor is fabricated and tested. It can measure a time-varying external electric field up to 6.9 kV/m, has a sensitivity of 1.86 (kHz)/(V/m), and can be interrogated from a distance of 80 cm. The feasible maximum bandwidth of the external electric field is 25 kHz. The proposed sensor offers a compact planar multilayer structure that can easily be incorporated with a planar antenna and its size can be reduced by selecting a higher operating frequency without an increase in dielectric loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The power frequency electric field is the most important electromagnetic environmental factor in alternating current power transmission projects. The humidity has a negative influence on available electric field measuring devices, which may lead to discrepancies of up to seven times the actual value at a relative humidity exceeding 80%. The changes in the support and probe shell impedance may be the reason for the error. The optimization measures include modifying the communication mode, designing a suitable structure and circuit for the probe, and using composite insulating material with strong hydrophobicity for the support. A three‐axis omnidirectional electric field measuring device was developed based on wireless communication and composite support. The variation of the measured electric field strength value is less than 1% at relative humidities ranging from 45% to 90% in the laboratory, and the measured results obtained in high humidity at the high‐voltage test site and under the transmission line demonstrated high accuracy. The research demonstrates that the composite support can be used to improve the performance of conventional devices. The proposed device can better meet the needs for accurate measurement of electric field strength in a high‐humidity environment and overcome the technical problems raised by the IEC standard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Simultaneous electromagnetic field probing system (SEMPS) has been popular in recent years. Herein, a simultaneous electromagnetic field probing system with Y‐shaped separation detection structure (SEMPS Y) is first proposed, in which the electric field probing region and the magnetic field probing region of the probe are separated by completely covering the shield along the loop and adding a pin‐shaped metal wire to capture the electric field, which are not the same as the classical dual probe structure. Combined with the non‐rotating asymmetric calibration method (NRACM), a 4‐port vector network analyser (VNA) and a highly symmetric grounded coplanar waveguide (GCPW) calibrator are used to solve the calibration matrix of the asymmetric SEMPS Y. The high symmetry GCPW calibrator is used to generate the standard electromagnetic field for calibration. The results of standing wave measurements show that the SEMPS Y can achieve ultrawideband electromagnetic field measurement of up to 20 GHz. Based on near‐field scanning measurements, SEMP Y can obtain results consistent with the calculation. In addition, when the probe is rotated 90° to invalidate the H‐field input, the decoupling curves of E‐field and H‐field are measured. Results show that the separation detection structure can effectively solve the cross‐coupling problem.

Abstract The power frequency electric field is the most important electromagnetic environmental factor in alternating current power transmission projects. The humidity has a negative influence on available electric field measuring devices, which may lead to discrepancies of up to seven times the actual value at a relative humidity exceeding 80%. The changes in the support and probe shell impedance may be the reason for the error. The optimization measures include modifying the communication mode, designing a suitable structure and circuit for the probe, and using composite insulating material with strong hydrophobicity for the support. A three‐axis omnidirectional electric field measuring device was developed based on wireless communication and composite support. The variation of the measured electric field strength value is less than 1% at relative humidities ranging from 45% to 90% in the laboratory, and the measured results obtained in high humidity at the high‐voltage test site and under the transmission line demonstrated high accuracy. The research demonstrates that the composite support can be used to improve the performance of conventional devices. The proposed device can better meet the needs for accurate measurement of electric field strength in a high‐humidity environment and overcome the technical problems raised by the IEC standard.

Oil-pressboard/paper insulation materials are essential in transformers for ensuring their safe and stable operation, primarily due to their roles in spatial electric field distribution and charge migration mechanisms. Current spatial distribution analyses rely on computational methods that lack empirical validation, particularly for oil-pressboard/paper composites. This study leverages the principles of the Kerr electro-optic effect to develop a rapid measurement platform for electric fields within oil-pressboard/paper insulation under impulse voltage conditions, which measures the spatial electric field characteristics using Cu-Cu and Al-Al electrodes under various scenarios: with asymmetric and symmetric pressboard coverage and different numbers of insulating paper layers. Findings indicated: (1) In asymmetric pressboard models, Cu-Cu electrodes exhibit a consistent peak electric field of approximately 16 kV/mm, while Al-Al electrodes show peak values of 18.13 kV/mm and −14.98 kV/mm. Charge density patterns are similar, with Cu-Cu at about 68 μC/m2 and Al-Al at 11.2 μC/m2 and −124.8 μC/m2. (2) Symmetric models present consistent peak electric fields and charge densities for both polarities. (3) Increasing insulating paper layers elevates electric field strengths. Both electrodes show the similar peak field of about 17 kV/mm with differing paper layers due to higher charge injection from the Al electrode. (4) Utilizing the Schottky effect and field emission principles, the study clarifies charge generation and migration mechanisms. These insights could provide a theoretical foundation for designing and verifying oil-pressboard/paper insulation structures in transformers.

This paper presents a wireless chipless resonator-based sensor for measuring the absolute value of an external time-varying electric field. The sensor is developed using contactless air-filled substrate-integrated waveguide (CLAF-SIW) technology. The sensor employs a low-impedance electromagnetic band gap structure to confine the electric field within the sensor’s air cavity. The air cavity is loaded with varactor diodes whose reverse bias voltage is modified by the to-be-measured external electric field. Variation in the external electric field results in a variation of the sensor’s resonant frequency. The CLAF-SIW sensor offers a high unloaded quality factor, which is required for a long-distance ringback-based interrogation system. A prototype of the proposed sensor is fabricated and tested. It can measure a time-varying external electric field up to 6.9 kV/m, has a sensitivity of 1.86 (kHz)/(V/m), and can be interrogated from a distance of 80 cm. The feasible maximum bandwidth of the external electric field is 25 kHz. The proposed sensor offers a compact planar multilayer structure that can easily be incorporated with a planar antenna and its size can be reduced by selecting a higher operating frequency without an increase in dielectric loss.

Abstract Buildings near direct current transmission lines are sensitive to the electromagnetic environment, and the measurement of the electric field above them is important in engineering design and environmental assessment in China. The models of buildings and probes in the ion flow field were established to explore the accurate measurement method of the electric field above the building. Based on the upstream finite element method and the predictor–corrector method, the influence of whether the probe was grounded or not above the building was studied. On this basis, simulation experiments and real‐type experiments were carried out. The results show that when the electrical conductivity of the building was greater than 10−10 S/m, being grounded or not would not change the results. When the building conductivity was between 10−11 and 10−12 S/m, the electric field measurement results would be increased by 30% to 120% after grounding. In the real‐type experiments on the platform with a plywood roof, the relative error in the electric field when grounded or not was only 2.6%. This proved the reliability of the calculated results. In this paper, the measuring method of the DC space charge‐modified electric field above buildings was analyzed first, and the conclusion that ground wire can be cancelled above buildings with general materials was presented. The research results can provide a technical basis for the accurate measurement of the electric field above the buildings near DC transmission lines.

Abstract TiO2 nanoparticles can improve the electrical performance of oil paper insulation. In this study, 10 nm TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared and dispersed into transformer oil, and then immerse pressboards in it to obtain nanofluid impregnated pressboards (NP). Its thermal aging was accelerated together with the reference sample at 130°C for 36 days. Analyzing the acid value in the oil, polymerization degree, surface topography, AC breakdown strength, surface flashover characteristics and surface potential decay characteristics. It was observed that TiO2 nanoparticles can reduce the acid value and improve AC breakdown strength of oil. However, the degree of polymerization and surface appearance of NP and oil impregnated pressboards (OP) during thermal aging did not differ significantly. During the aging process, the energy level of pressboard surface traps shifted first towards the shallow and then gradually towards the deep. During all the aging stages, the surface flashover voltage of NP was always higher or close to that of OP. The mechanism of TiO2 nanoparticles improving the breakdown and surface flashover characteristics of oil–paper insulation during thermal aging is discussed from the perspective of water molecules and aging by‐products adsorption and introduction of shallow traps by nanoparticles.

Buildings near direct current transmission lines are sensitive to the electromagnetic environment, and the measurement of the electric field above them is important in engineering design and environmental assessment in China. The models of buildings and probes in the ion flow field were established to explore the accurate measurement method of the electric field above the building. Based on the upstream finite element method and the predictor–corrector method, the influence of whether the probe was grounded or not above the building was studied. On this basis, simulation experiments and real‐type experiments were carried out. The results show that when the electrical conductivity of the building was greater than 10−10 S/m, being grounded or not would not change the results. When the building conductivity was between 10−11 and 10−12 S/m, the electric field measurement results would be increased by 30% to 120% after grounding. In the real‐type experiments on the platform with a plywood roof, the relative error in the electric field when grounded or not was only 2.6%. This proved the reliability of the calculated results. In this paper, the measuring method of the DC space charge‐modified electric field above buildings was analyzed first, and the conclusion that ground wire can be cancelled above buildings with general materials was presented. The research results can provide a technical basis for the accurate measurement of the electric field above the buildings near DC transmission lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

TiO2 nanoparticles can improve the electrical performance of oil paper insulation. In this study, 10 nm TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared and dispersed into transformer oil, and then immerse pressboards in it to obtain nanofluid impregnated pressboards (NP). Its thermal aging was accelerated together with the reference sample at 130°C for 36 days. Analyzing the acid value in the oil, polymerization degree, surface topography, AC breakdown strength, surface flashover characteristics and surface potential decay characteristics. It was observed that TiO2 nanoparticles can reduce the acid value and improve AC breakdown strength of oil. However, the degree of polymerization and surface appearance of NP and oil impregnated pressboards (OP) during thermal aging did not differ significantly. During the aging process, the energy level of pressboard surface traps shifted first towards the shallow and then gradually towards the deep. During all the aging stages, the surface flashover voltage of NP was always higher or close to that of OP. The mechanism of TiO2 nanoparticles improving the breakdown and surface flashover characteristics of oil–paper insulation during thermal aging is discussed from the perspective of water molecules and aging by‐products adsorption and introduction of shallow traps by nanoparticles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sag is an important indicator of the operational health of a transmission line, and its timely measurement is of great significance to maintain the stability and reliability of power systems. However, traditional contact measurements may be affected by the electromagnetic interference of conductors. In contrast, measurement methods without direct electrical contact with the subject provide greater portability and flexibility. This paper presents a study of a transmission line sag measurement and simulation based on non-contact electric field sensing. The finite element method was used to analyze the conductor distribution, establish the coupling relationships among the electric field, transmission line, and measurement point, propose a sag inverse calculation model, and assess the impact of the transmission line parameter on the curved drooping measurement. Simultaneously, sag measurement schemes for single-round and dual-circuit lines were designed for multi-conductive lines, and measurement array studies were conducted. The vertical component of the electric field in space measured by the array was obtained, which could be used to perform conductor sag measurement simply and efficiently. The proposed method will facilitate the monitoring of the overhead transmission line status, which is conducive to the effective operation of the entire system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In view of the problems of large volume, high energy consumption and difficult maintenance of electric field measurement sensors in existing power systems, non-contact miniature electric field sensors have become a hot topic in current research. In this paper, a MEMS miniature electric field measurement sensor model based on the principle of piezoelectric-piezoresistive coupling is constructed, and the sensor structure is optimized by analyzing the steady-state characteristics of the piezoelectric material and semiconductor membrane of the sensor. The input and output characteristics of the sensor were tested. The test results show that the sensor has excellent mechanical strain capacity, and the output voltage of the sensor has a linear relationship with the electric field strength, thus verifying the feasibility of the sensor measurement in the electric field. The research results will provide some reference for the development of contactless coupled sensors.

Lightning-generated electric field measurement is used to characterize cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes. Prior to the first return stroke (FRS), these signals sometimes exhibit a pulse train, known as preliminary breakdown pulses (PBP), whose study provides information about the first event that originate the breakdown process inside the cloud. Considering that characteristics of PBPs may change according to geographical conditions, in this work, six parameters (temporal and magnitude) associated with 69 trains identified in negative CG flashes that occurred in the Bogota savannah, Colombia were analyzed. The signatures were recorded in 2017 using a fast response antenna (10 MHz bandwidth), a 100 ns sampling time and a window of 500 ms. Among the most relevant results, it was found that the train duration ( ) varied from 0.5 ms up to 5.2 ms with arithmetic mean (AM) of 1.74 ms, while the time interval between the peak of the train and the FRS (PBP-FRS) had an AM and a geometric mean (GM) of 35.7 ms and 10.2 ms, respectively. On the other hand, the ratio between the peak value of the PBP and its FRS ( ) exhibited an AM of 0.7 and a GM of 0.56. It was concluded that PBP train starts with low amplitude pulses, later increases its magnitude in the central region and decreases at the end. Furthermore, bipolar pulses with similar polarity to that of the FRS were identified at the beginning and in the middle of the train, while unipolar pulses were observed at the end of the signatures.

Measuring the atmospheric electric field is of crucial importance for studying the discharge phenomena of thunderstorm clouds. If one is used to indicate the occurrence of a lightning event and zero to indicate the non-occurrence of the event, then a binary classification problem needs to be solved. Based on the established database of weather samples, we designed a lightning prediction system using deep learning techniques. First, the features of time-series data from multiple electric field measurement sites are extracted by a sparse auto encoder (SAE) to construct a visual picture, and a binary prediction of whether lightning occurs at a specific time interval is obtained based on the improved ResNet50. Then, the central location of lightning flashes is located based on the extracted features using a multilayer perceptron (MLP) model. The performance of the method yields satisfactory results with 88.2% accuracy, 92.2% precision rate, 81.5% recall rate, and 86.4% F1-score for weather samples, which is a significant improvement over traditional methods. Multiple spatial localization results for several minutes before and after can be used to know the specific area where lightning is likely to occur. All the above methods passed the reliability and robustness tests, and the experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the model in lightning short-time proximity warning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of our experiment, which consisted in measurement of the shielding effectiveness of a camera enclosure that was designed and constructed in order to increase the susceptibility of a camera against external electromagnetic fields. All activities, from defining of requirements to final design and measurements, were performed in the Laboratory of Electromagnetic Compatibility at the Faculty of Applied Informatics of Tomas Bata University in Zlín. The hereby described approach allowed to utilize standardized laboratory equipment that is normally used for device susceptibility test to radiated electric field. The measurement was made inside a semi-anechoic room additionally damped by absorbers placed on its floor. When configuring the experiment, relevant EMC standards EN 55016 and EN 61000-4-3 were considered. Although the uncertainty tolerances, allowed by the relevant standards, were quite high for measurements in such rooms, the results obtained by the experiment matched the theoretical expectations quite satisfactorily.

Abstract An efficient method to determine the electromagnetic characteristics of transparent conducting oxide (TCO) thin films is presented herein. When a two‐port flange coaxial probe is used for electromagnetic characterization, it is important to note that since the thickness of the film is very thin, it should be taken into account that the measured S parameters not only correspond to the thin film, but also to the substrate. The main idea of this study is to exploit the S parameters corresponding solely to the thin film by employing transfer matrix method. Then, by using the obtained S parameters, the effective conductivity (σ) and relative permittivity (εr) of the TCO thin film are determined. By applying this method to a sample under test, the conductivity and relative permittivity are obtained in the order of 105 (S/m) and 106 in the 2–20 GHz frequency range, respectively. These results are compared with those obtained by the Nicolson–Ross–Wier and open‐ended coaxial probe methods. Simulation results show that when the TCO thin film thickness reaches 0.5 mm, its conductivity increases up to two times. Also, when the gap between the coaxial probe and the thin‐film surface is 0.1 mm, the conductivity approaches zero. Using this method, the material and thickness of the substrate have slight effect on determining the electromagnetic characteristics.

• Nonuniform E-field is restored by measuring E-FISH signals along probing laser. • Convergence of inversion algorism related to measuring system parameter is given. • Accuracy of inversion algorism is validated via experimental investigations. • Robustness of inversion algorism in resisting measurement noise is confirmed. The electric field-induced second-harmonic generation (E-FISH) method can offer high spatiotemporal resolution in electric field measurement, but faces challenge in reconstructing the inhomogeneous electric field along the probing laser. This paper presents an inversion method to reconstruct the electric field profile by using E-FISH signals measured from multiple points along the probing laser. The relationship between the condition number of the inversion coefficient matrix and the parameters of E-FISH measurement system is clarified. The inversion method is validated through experimental investigations conducted in three different electrode configurations, namely the plate-to-plate gap, the rod-to-rod gap, and the rod-plate gap. With the inhomogeneity coefficient varies from 1 to 10.7, the maximum deviation between the measured electric field and the finite element simulation is less than 6%. This method does not rely on priori assumptions and electrode configurations, and exhibits good robustness in resisting the effect of measurement noise on the inversion accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We experimentally estimate a reduced electric field (${E}/{N}{)}$ of Hermstein’s glow corona discharge from $\text{N}_{{2}}$ intensity ratio: the intensity of the first positive system band (3, 1) [FPS(3, 1)] and the intensity of second positive system band (0, 0) [SPS(0, 0)] are used. The intensity ratio [FPS(3, 1) $/$ SPS(0, 0)] has the relation with the ${E}/{N}$. First, we experimentally clarify the relationship between FPS(3, 1) $/$ SPS(0, 0) and $\text {E}/\text {N}$ at atmospheric pressure. This relationship is acquired by generating the uniform light ionized emission in the parallel-plane gap with the YAG laser and measuring the intensity ratio of FPS(3, 1)/SPS (0, 0) in the range of ${E}/{N} =83.9\,\,\times \,\,10^{-{21}}$ –95.9 $\times \,\,10^{-{21}}$ Vm2. This relationship is applied to Hermstein’s glow corona discharge at atmospheric pressure. As a result, the ${E}/{N}$ of Hermstein’s glow corona discharge is acquired in the range of ${E}/{N} =117.4\,\,\times \,\,10^{-{21}}$ –125.1 $\times \,\,10^{-{21}}$ Vm2. We find the transition of the corona stabilization effect from the discharge occurrence to breakdown by measuring the ${E}/{N}$. This work also considers the gas temperature rise of discharge. Considering the gas temperature rise of discharge has led to the universal method of acquiring the ${E}/{N}$ of discharge from the intensity ratio of FPS(3, 1)/SPS(0, 0). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sag is an important indicator of the operational health of a transmission line, and its timely measurement is of great significance to maintain the stability and reliability of power systems. However, traditional contact measurements may be affected by the electromagnetic interference of conductors. In contrast, measurement methods without direct electrical contact with the subject provide greater portability and flexibility. This paper presents a study of a transmission line sag measurement and simulation based on non-contact electric field sensing. The finite element method was used to analyze the conductor distribution, establish the coupling relationships among the electric field, transmission line, and measurement point, propose a sag inverse calculation model, and assess the impact of the transmission line parameter on the curved drooping measurement. Simultaneously, sag measurement schemes for single-round and dual-circuit lines were designed for multi-conductive lines, and measurement array studies were conducted. The vertical component of the electric field in space measured by the array was obtained, which could be used to perform conductor sag measurement simply and efficiently. The proposed method will facilitate the monitoring of the overhead transmission line status, which is conducive to the effective operation of the entire system.

Measuring the atmospheric electric field is of crucial importance for studying the discharge phenomena of thunderstorm clouds. If one is used to indicate the occurrence of a lightning event and zero to indicate the non-occurrence of the event, then a binary classification problem needs to be solved. Based on the established database of weather samples, we designed a lightning prediction system using deep learning techniques. First, the features of time-series data from multiple electric field measurement sites are extracted by a sparse auto encoder (SAE) to construct a visual picture, and a binary prediction of whether lightning occurs at a specific time interval is obtained based on the improved ResNet50. Then, the central location of lightning flashes is located based on the extracted features using a multilayer perceptron (MLP) model. The performance of the method yields satisfactory results with 88.2% accuracy, 92.2% precision rate, 81.5% recall rate, and 86.4% F1-score for weather samples, which is a significant improvement over traditional methods. Multiple spatial localization results for several minutes before and after can be used to know the specific area where lightning is likely to occur. All the above methods passed the reliability and robustness tests, and the experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the model in lightning short-time proximity warning.

We here demonstrate the potentialities of pigtailed electrooptic probes to perform vectorial electric field characterizations of dielectric barrier discharges (DBDs). The analysis leads to the accurate determination of the breakdown voltage and the associated electric field in the vicinity of the discharge. A polarimetric analysis of the DBDs is proposed due to real-time measurement of longitudinal and radial components of the electric field vector. Moreover, the transition from capacitive to resistive behavior is characterized at the breakdown field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent time series observations of electric fields within collisionless shocks have shown that the fluctuating, electrostatic fields can be in excess of one hundred times that of the quasi-static electric fields. That is, the largest amplitude electric fields occur at high frequencies, not low. In contrast, many if not most kinetic simulations show the opposite, where the quasi-static electric fields dominate, unless they are specifically tailored to examine small-scale instabilities. Further, the shock ramp thickness is often observed to fall between the electron and ion scales while many simulations tend to produce ramp thicknesses at least at or above ion scales. This raises numerous questions about the role of small-scale instabilities and about the ability to directly compare simulations with observations.

Measurement of electric fields is crucial for the evaluation of the electromagnetic environment in electric power transmission system. Due to limited transmission corridor resources, the hybrid transmission lines including high‐voltage alternating current and high‐voltage direct current (HVAC/HVDC) are more common nowadays. However, commonly used field‐mill direct current electric field sensors (DC EFSs) can only be used beneath HVDC lines and the emergence of alternating current (AC) electric fields has adversely affected measurement results recorded by DC EFS. In this work, a DC EFS was designed that is capable of measuring ground‐level DC electric fields generated by overhead HVAC/HVDC transmission lines in a hybrid corridor. A field‐mill structure was used to modulate the DC and AC hybrid electric field and then a narrow band‐pass filter was used to realise suppression of the AC electric field signal. Subsequently, the phase‐sensitive detection method was used to realise amplitude demodulation and phase discrimination of the DC electric field. Sensor prototypes based on the foregoing method were experimentally tested in the China national high‐voltage base. These DC EFSs could be mass‐produced conveniently from current field‐mill for hybrid corridors application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we achieve a sub-breakdown electric field measurement in a premixed stagnation flame by electric-field-induced second-harmonic generation (ESHG) using a nanosecond laser. Under the application of a DC voltage, the premixed flame can transit from a flat substrate-stabilized mode to a conical nozzle-stabilized mode due to the two-way interaction between the electric and hydrodynamic responses of the flame. The average electric fields along the laser pathway for these two flame modes are measured at different heights above the burner. Combining the measurement and the numerical simulation of a charge transport model, we further elucidate that the flame affects the electric field distribution in two different ways. For the flat flame mode, the electric field strength is shielded at the flame front and then quickly increases both upstream and downstream, reaching the maximum at the electrodes. The charge transport model reveals that the electrostatic shielding effect of the flame front can be attributed to the charge redistribution in the chemi-ionized conductive layer. For the conical flame mode, the electric field strength has a large gradient near the conical tip and remains almost zero downstream. The conical flame front then serves as a conductive layer to guide the charge transport under the application of the electric field. The positive and negative charges are separated at different radial positions because of the inclined asymmetric flame front. Thus, the largest electric field gradient is generated upstream of the flame conical tip, where the net charge and the electric body force maximize and create a virtual flame stabilization mode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The DC electric field strength is an important electromagnetic environment parameter of the high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission line. Measurement results of the space electric field are dramatically affected by the size and the potential of the sensor. In addition, the battery-powered solution of electric field sensor (EFS) is not feasible, for the reason that in the high-voltage electric field environment, the replacement of the battery will bring security risks to the power system and workers. The wireless energy supply solution not only solves the problem of potential isolation of the sensor, but also ensures that the sensor can work continuously. Various wireless power transmission systems (WPTSs) were compared. Microwave wireless power transmission system (MWPTS) was selected as the power supply of EFS. The key boundary conditions of MWPTS were determined. Two microstrip receiving antennas were designed in this article. A good performance antenna with high permittivity substrate was designed, realising 4.26 dB gain with the area of 1 cm^2 at 5.8 GHz. The antenna meets the energy requirements of the EFS which is 10 m far from the source.

The current standards related to live working provide no determined path for equal potential working, in which only safety distance is referred, so that the works are often executed relying on the line maintenance experience. As high-voltage and strong space electrical field intensity exist in 1000 kV ultra-high voltage transmission lines, the real-time safe distance measurement is difficult to be conducted and the exhaustive full-scale experiments are difficult to accomplish due to the varied true tower models and lines. Simulation calculation is aroused for improving the efficiency of safety distance calculation and safety path planning during the process of importing and exporting the potential according to the different kind of tower and the actual line situation. Here, with the cup type iron tower and hanging basket mode, the electrical field intensity in and outside of screening clothes at different part of body while climbing tower and during equal-potential process are calculated, and then the safety distance, the combination gap, and the optimal path planning are carried out. The simulation results demonstrate that electrical field intensity meet safety requirements using the proposed planning path, which enriches the theoretical basis for the safety operation of ultra-high voltage live working.

With the development of high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission projects, the issue of electromagnetic compatibility has become more and more severe, especially the synthetic ion flow electric field. The DC electric field is inseparable from the equipment insulation, the safety of the system operation, and effects on organisms nearby. The measurement of the synthetic electric field of ion flow has been a major difficulty due to the influence of ion currents and distorted field. A differential electric field sensor for measuring the synthetic electric field is proposed. The calibration method and the experimental device for the measurement of the air synthetic electric field of ion flow are presented. Calibration experiments show that the calibration method is practical and effective, and the test result from the sensor is in good agreement with the theoretical value. The experiments in the library show the validity of the calibration method and the excellent performance of the sensor.

Detection of corona discharge of the transmission line can reflect its health status and provide warning information for maintenance. Some existing detection methods are flawed and cannot be used widely. This study presents a new method by measuring the electromagnetic wave caused by corona discharge with RF antenna. Then a circularly polarised log-periodic antenna was designed by making two pairs of log-periodic antennas 90° orthogonal. Finally, this antenna was simulated and manufactured to detect electromagnetic signals, the result shows that the time domain signal of corona discharge is a high frequency oscillation wave and its fast Fourier transform main distributes between 200 and 350 MHz.

The design of the oil–pressboard/paper insulation structure is the key to maintain the safe and reliable operation of power transformers, which mainly relies on simulation and verification test undertaken with simple or equivalent models, falling short of the physical entity verification undertaken in the large-scale structure. Based on the Kerr electro-optic effect and the optical fiber technology, a novel electric field measuring sensor was developed in this paper for the application test in the large-scale oil–pressboard structure. The sensor is contained of collimator, total reflection prism, coupler, and customized optical elements, whose appearance is a miniature capsule-shaped configuration. The key technical performance parameters of sensor were obtained, for instance, and the effect of imported sensor on the electric field under measurement is an average 1.17% reduction in intensity; the sensitivity of designed system is 162.84 V/mm under ac voltage and 40.43 V/mm under dc voltage. Under dc voltage, the measuring accuracy of the designed system is greater than 97.42%, while in the context of ac voltage, it could reach 97.14%. The application test was conducted to capture the dynamic process of the electric field in oil in the large-scale outlet device model, which has three uniformly spaced oil spacings divided by pressboards, under ac voltage, dc voltage, and polarity reversal voltage. The experimental results verify that the developed electric field sensor could be effectively and reliably applied in the large-scale oil–pressboard insulation, and it could be confidently inferred that the larger the scale of insulation structure, the better is the performance of sensor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current standards related to live working provide no determined path for equal potential working, in which only safety distance is referred, so that the works are often executed relying on the line maintenance experience. As high-voltage and strong space electrical field intensity exist in 1000 kV ultra-high voltage transmission lines, the real-time safe distance measurement is difficult to be conducted and the exhaustive full-scale experiments are difficult to accomplish due to the varied true tower models and lines. Simulation calculation is aroused for improving the efficiency of safety distance calculation and safety path planning during the process of importing and exporting the potential according to the different kind of tower and the actual line situation. Here, with the cup type iron tower and hanging basket mode, the electrical field intensity in and outside of screening clothes at different part of body while climbing tower and during equal-potential process are calculated, and then the safety distance, the combination gap, and the optimal path planning are carried out. The simulation results demonstrate that electrical field intensity meet safety requirements using the proposed planning path, which enriches the theoretical basis for the safety operation of ultra-high voltage live working. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The DC electric field strength is an important electromagnetic environment parameter of the high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission line. Measurement results of the space electric field are dramatically affected by the size and the potential of the sensor. In addition, the battery-powered solution of electric field sensor (EFS) is not feasible, for the reason that in the high-voltage electric field environment, the replacement of the battery will bring security risks to the power system and workers. The wireless energy supply solution not only solves the problem of potential isolation of the sensor, but also ensures that the sensor can work continuously. Various wireless power transmission systems (WPTSs) were compared. Microwave wireless power transmission system (MWPTS) was selected as the power supply of EFS. The key boundary conditions of MWPTS were determined. Two microstrip receiving antennas were designed in this article. A good performance antenna with high permittivity substrate was designed, realising 4.26 dB gain with the area of 1 cm2 at 5.8 GHz. The antenna meets the energy requirements of the EFS which is 10 m far from the source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detection of corona discharge of the transmission line can reflect its health status and provide warning information for maintenance. Some existing detection methods are flawed and cannot be used widely. This study presents a new method by measuring the electromagnetic wave caused by corona discharge with RF antenna. Then a circularly polarised log-periodic antenna was designed by making two pairs of log-periodic antennas 90° orthogonal. Finally, this antenna was simulated and manufactured to detect electromagnetic signals, the result shows that the time domain signal of corona discharge is a high frequency oscillation wave and its fast Fourier transform main distributes between 200 and 350 MHz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission projects, the issue of electromagnetic compatibility has become more and more severe, especially the synthetic ion flow electric field. The DC electric field is inseparable from the equipment insulation, the safety of the system operation, and effects on organisms nearby. The measurement of the synthetic electric field of ion flow has been a major difficulty due to the influence of ion currents and distorted field. A differential electric field sensor for measuring the synthetic electric field is proposed. The calibration method and the experimental device for the measurement of the air synthetic electric field of ion flow are presented. Calibration experiments show that the calibration method is practical and effective, and the test result from the sensor is in good agreement with the theoretical value. The experiments in the library show the validity of the calibration method and the excellent performance of the sensor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper presents measurements and calculations of electric field in samples with deliberately planted superficial and internal defects. Samples evaluated include full-scale composite insulators and cylindrical rods of the housing material. The goal of this work is to ascertain the viability of electric field as an indicator of impending failure of composite insulators that can develop such defects during manufacture and/or service. Measurements were performed with an Electro-optic probe based on Pockels effect. Calculations were performed using 3-dimensional Boundary Element Method package. Good agreement between the measurements and calculations has been demonstrated. The results show that conducting defects originating from the HV electrode produce a greater change in the electric field when compared to a healthy insulator than defects originating from the ground electrode or anywhere in between. The magnitude of the change in electric field when compared with a healthy sample diminished with increasing radial distance from the sample. Hence, it is important that the probe be placed close to the insulator shank for maximizing defect detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for electric field measurement system under the High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission lines, it is necessary to obtain the electric field distribution with multiple sensors. The location information of each sensor is essential to the correct analysis of measurement results. Compared with the existing approach which gathers the location information by manually labelling sensors during deployment, the automatic localization can reduce the workload and improve the measurement efficiency. A novel and practical range-free localization algorithm for the localization of one-dimensional linear topology wireless networks in the electric field measurement system is presented. The algorithm utilizes unknown nodes’ neighbor lists based on the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) values to determine the relative locations of nodes. The algorithm is able to handle the exceptional situation of the output permutation which can effectively improve the accuracy of localization. The performance of this algorithm under real circumstances has been evaluated through several experiments with different numbers of nodes and different node deployments in the China State Grid HVDC test base. Results show that the proposed algorithm achieves an accuracy of over 96% under different conditions.

For the development of HVDC electrical insulation performance in liquid dielectric systems such as oil-pressboard (PB) composite systems in DC converter transformers, a Kerr electro-optic electric field measurement (Kerr-EOM) technique has been well established and will be considered as the key technique to be introduced. In this paper, the Kerr-EOM was experimentally applied to identify the electric field stress distribution and clarify charging activities in oil/PB composite insulation systems, under HVDC and DC polarity reversal (DC-PR) conditions. The physical mechanisms of charge movement and the amount of charge accumulation in liquid/solid insulation systems are also thoroughly investigated and discussed. Moreover, the breakdown discharge initiation by accumulated charges on the PB was observed and discussed together with the field measurement results. Secondly, by combining the Kerr-EOM with the electric field analysis using the Finite Element Method (FEM), the enhancement of the electrical insulation performance for HVDC applications was discussed and the critical testing voltage conditions in DC converter transformers were addressed. This paper is based on the Hans Tropper Memorial Lecture given at the IEEE DEIS, International Conference on Dielectric Liquids (ICDL) in 2017 in Manchester, UK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work focuses on the measurement and analysis of the electric field for live working in a 1000‐kV substation. Also, it compares the electric field and the shielding efficiency requirement of a 1000‐kV substation with 1000‐kV transmission lines. The electric field at the ground potential of the substation was measured using a microelectromechanical system (MEMS)‐based device. However, for safety reasons and to acquire rigorous data, finite element method (FEM) was applied to calculate the electric field at equipotential. Two cases of entry into equipotential were considered: one in which the worker moves along tension insulators to live conductors, and another where the worker is lifted to an energized bus bar on an insulated elevating platform. Our results indicate that the electric field values on the worker in the 1000‐kV substation and transmission lines are about the same at ground potential, while at equipotential, the substation's maximum electric field is 25.2% higher outside the conductive clothing and 47.4% higher outside the metallic mask as compared to the 1000‐kV transmission lines. Based on these results, for live working in a 1000‐kV substation, we recommend the use of conductive clothing with 60‐dB shielding efficiency, which is similar to that used in live working on a 1000‐kV transmission line, but the metallic mask should have 25‐dB shielding efficiency, which is 5 dB higher than that used for the transmission line. © 2018 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An efficient analytical model based on electromagnetic (EM) topology has been developed for predicting the EM field coupling with a lossless penetrated transmission line (TL) of which the termination loads are located in two enclosures, respectively, excited by an internal vertical monopole and an external plane wave of oblique incidence. Firstly, the electric fields generated by the plane wave are calculated based on Bethe's aperture coupling theory and scalar wave function method. Then, the topology network of the EM interaction is established according to the analysis of the interference paths and the coupling mechanism from sources to the TL. Finally, the electric current induced at the line terminations is obtained by combining the generalised Baum–Liu–Tesche equation and the Agrawal's model. The analytical model has been successfully verified by the finite difference time domain method over a broad frequency range, and costs less time and fewer computational resources than numerical methods, which provides guidance for the field‐to‐line coupling in complex multiple enclosures against different sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric field measurement sensors based on the crystal Pockels effect are widely used. Currently, the development aims for electric field sensors are mainly focused on miniaturizing and integrating the sensor structure and improving measurement sensitivity and precision. The goal of this study was to analyse the sources of error in Pockels effect electric field measurement sensors, consider the mutual influence and accumulation effect of the various error factors, and establish a basic mathematical model of the measurement system with error components. Calculation and analysis were used to classify the function and change trend of several main errors, providing reference data for the structure design and error compensation of the sensor. The results show that the polarizing angle and the analyser angle have the same influence on assembly error. The inherent error is positively related to the electric field intensity. The periodic accumulation characteristic error under large electric field is also discussed. In order to avoid this error under an intense electric field, a suitable test electric field range was determined. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The electric field environment under high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission lines is an important design consideration. In the wireless sensor networks for electric field measurement system under the HVDC transmission lines, it is necessary to obtain the electric field distribution with multiple sensors. The accurate localisation of sensing nodes is essential to the analysis of measurement results. However, most current techniques are limited to constant measurement environment with fixed and known path-loss exponent. Here, the authors report a localisation method based on received signal strength indication with unknown path-loss exponent for the localisation of one-dimensional linear topology wireless networks in the electric field measurement system. The optimisation method is utilised to obtain the optimal pass-loss parameter without involving the previous environment parameters. Afterwards, simulations are employed to demonstrate the feasibility and the effectiveness of the proposed method by comparing with other methods.

Nano-beam electron diffraction (NBED) is a method which can be applied to measure lattice strain and polarisation fields in strained layer heterostructures and transistors. To investigate precision, accuracy and spatial resolution of such measurements in dependence of properties of the specimen as well as electron optical parameters, simulations of NBED patterns are required which allow to predict the result of common disc-detection algorithms. In this paper we demonstrate by focusing on the detection of the central disc in crystalline silicon that such simulations require to take several experimental characteristics into account in order to obtain results which are comparable to those from experimental NBED patterns. These experimental characteristics are the background intensity, the presence of Poisson noise caused by electron statistics and blurring caused by inelastic scattering and by the transfer quality of the microscope camera. By means of these optimized simulations, different effects of specimen properties on disc detection – such as strain, surface morphology and compositional changes on the nanometer scale – are investigated and discussed in the context of misinterpretation in experimental NBED evaluations. It is shown that changes in surface morphology and chemical composition lead to measured shifts of the central disc in the NBED pattern of tens to hundreds of µrad. These shifts are of the same order of magnitude or even larger than shifts that could be caused by an electric polarisation field in the range of MV/cm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microwave‐based measurement can provide new methods and practical solutions for the challenging task of measurement inside large industrial combustion chambers. In order to measure or communicate inside a combustion chamber using microwaves, the spectrum of background noise at microwave frequencies must be known. This study investigates the basic electromagnetic spectrum in flames, concentrating on microwave frequencies from 0.1 to 19 GHz. The study introduces, as reference values, known results from forest flames and flames in controlled environments. The focus of the work is the level of background noise at microwave frequencies and the impact of this noise on radio communication inside the combustion chamber. The effects of the microwave radiation levels are compared with the requirements of practical communication systems such as Bluetooth and narrowband ISM (industrial, scientific, medical) systems at 800–950 MHz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is based on International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61967‐4 standards for measuring electromagnetic emissions and interferences at the chip level. Conventional measurement methods using fixed SMA connectors were replaced with an improved radio frequency current probe featuring semi‐rigid coaxial cables, making it capable of taking mobile measurements, enhancing the flexibility and convenient probing usage. To effectively assess the practical value of the improved probe, the authors have referred to the standard designs provided in IEC 61967‐1 to manufacture a four‐layer digital circuit board that controls the screen of an on‐board navigational screen for automobiles. Circuit board electromagnetic interference (EMI) noise frequency and level readings from the improved probe were also compared with three other measurement methods, namely magnetic field probes available in the market, TEM cells, and the 10‐m far‐field measurement method. The results demonstrated the capability of the improved probe to effectively identify sources of noise at the chip‐level during the IC design phases, helping with root cause analysis and allowing EMI noises experienced by the product to be solved promptly during the process of electromagnetic compatibility design optimisation and analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present the potentialities of the electro-optic technique for the radial electric field transient analysis of a three-phase power cable. A longitudinal electro-optic probe performing real time characterization of the field surrounding the cable has been developed. The measurement gives the transient evolution of the radial component of the field. The analysis provides information on amplitude, position, and phase of the conductors in the multicore cable. Theoretical analysis, simulations, and experimental measurements are in agreement and demonstrate the contactless voltage diagnostic of multicore cables. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this paper, a simple but very accurate circuit model for two-port (split) loop antennas typically used for direction finding in the HF-band is presented. The circuit model consists of lumped elements and can be used to accurately estimate the input impedances and received voltages of two-port loop antennas in receive mode. It is shown that the same circuit model can be reduced to predict the input impedance behavior of a single-port loop antenna with much more accuracy than the existing transmission line and lumped element models over a wide frequency range. The model is shown to be valid for frequencies up to a point where the loop circumference is about a wavelength. The same circuit model in receiving mode can provide the 3-D radiation pattern of the antenna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]