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The Scythian Platform (ScP) with a heterogeneous basement of Baikalian-Variscan- Cimmerian age is located between the East European Craton (EEC) on the north and the Crimean-Caucasus orogenic belt and the Black Sea (BS) Basin on the south. In order to get new constrains on the basin architecture and crustal structure of the ScP and a better understanding of the tectonic processes and evolution of the southern margin of the EEC during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time, a 630-km-long seismic wide-angle refraction and reflection (WARR) profile DOBRE-5 was acquired in 2011 October. It crosses in a W-E direction the Fore-Dobrudja Trough, the Odessa Shelf of the BS and the Crimean Plain. The field acquisition included eight chemical shot points located every 50 km and recorded by 215 stations placed every ~2.0 km on the land. In addition, the offshore data from existing profile 26, placed in the Odessa Shelf, were used. The obtained seismic model shows clear lateral segmentation of the crust within the study region on four domains: the Fore-Dobrudja Domain (km 20-160), an offshore domain of the Karkinit Trough at the Odessa Shelf of the BS (km 160-360), an onshore domain of the Central Crimean Uplift (Crimean Plain, km 360-520) and the Indolo-Kuban Trough at the Kerch Peninsula (km 520-620) that is the easternmost part of the Crimea. Two contrasting domains of the ScP within the central part of the DOBRE-5 profile, the Karkinit Trough and the Central Crimean Uplift, may represent different stages of the ScP formation. A deep Karkinit Trough with an underlying high-velocity (>7.16 km s-1) lower crust body suggests its rifting-related origin during Early Cretaceous time. The Central Crimean Uplift represents a thick (up to 47 km) crustal domain consisting of three layers with velocities 5.8-6.4, 6.5-6.6 and 6.7-7.0 kms-1, which could be evidence of this part of the ScP originating on the crust of Precambrian craton (EEC). The thick heterogeneous basement of the Central Crimean Uplift shows inclusions of granitic bodies associated with magmatic activity related with Variscan orogeny within the ScP. General bending and crustal scale buckling of the Central Crimean Uplift with a wavelength of 230 km could be an effect of the Alpine compressional tectonics in the adjacent Crimean Mountains. The extended/rifted continental margin of the ScP (EEC) at the Odessa Shelf and buckling/uplifted domain of the Central Crimean Uplift affected by compressional tectonics, are separated by the N-S oriented Western Crimean Fault. The crust of the southern margin of the EEC is separated from the ScP, which originated on the EEC crust tectonised and reworked during the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic, by the crustal fault of ~W-E orientation, which corresponds with the Golitsyn Fault observed at the surface between the EEC and the ScP. The Fore-Dobrudja Domain with a thick (>10 km) heterogeneous basement and two subhorizontal layers in the crystalline crust (with velocities 6.2-6.3 and 6.4-6.65 km s-1) differs from the ScP crust and its origin could be very similar to that of the Trans-European Suture Zone and Palaeozoic West European Platform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence of the lateral compression of the Earth's crust is apparent from folds and faults observed in rock, and the mechanics describing their development is well established in the fields of structural geology and tectonics. This paper describes similar structures in soils that developed in multilayered varved clay under the side slopes and toe of an embankment due to the nonuniform loading. Using analytical methods derived for the buckling of thin plates of alternating high and low moduli, predictions of wavelengths and the critical stresses to initiate folding were determined, and found to correlate with field and laboratory measurements. When these conditions occur, the resulting fabric changes have implications for slope stability modeling and the interpretation of field monitoring observations. This includes the ability of the clay to sustain large strains as it transitions from a highly anisotropic macrofabric to a relatively homogeneous material, without undergoing shear failure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although parts of the lithosphere may be expected to behave elastically over certain timescales, this effect is commonly ignored in models of large-scale mantle dynamics. Recently it has been demonstrated that elasticity, and in particular viscoelasticity, may have a significant effect on the buckling instability and on the creation of lithospheric-scale shearzones. It is, however, less clear whether elasticity also has an effect on mantle convection and density-driven lithospheric instabilities. The focus of this work is, therefore, to study the effects of elasticity on the two-layer Rayleigh–Taylor (RT) instability, consisting of a Maxwell viscoelastic layer overlying a viscous layer of lower density. We analyse this problem by performing systematic numerical simulations that are compared with newly derived analytical solutions. It is demonstrated that elasticity can be important for certain parameter combinations; it leads to a speedup of the RT instability. The cause for this speedup is that the RT instability is only sensitive to the viscous fraction of deformation in the viscoelastic layer. Elasticity reduces the viscous fraction of deformation at timescales shorter than the Maxwell relaxation time ( , where μ is the viscosity and G the elastic shear module). For plate tectonics on Earth, the parameters are such that the effect of elasticity on instability growth is negligible for most boundary conditions. Whereas elasticity does not (or only slightly) change the timescales for lithospheric detachment of the upper mantle, it does significantly alter the response and stress build-up in the overlying crust. Numerical simulations illustrate this effect for lithospheric detachment and show that peak stresses in a viscoelastic crust are smaller than stresses that develop in a viscous crust. Moreover, if the timescale for delamination of the mantle lithosphere is equal or smaller than the Maxwell relaxation time of the crust, the topography of the crust is increased compared to viscous models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the deformation and strain-stress analysis of the Earth's crust under external thermal loading. More specifically, the influence of cyclic changes in the surface temperature field on the stress and displacement inside the crust over a two-year time span is investigated. The finite element program MSC.Marc Mentat was used to calculate the stresses and displacements. For practical analysis reasons, the Earth's crust is simplified as a planar, piecewise homogeneous, isotropic model (plane strain), and time-varying temperature functions of illumination (thermal radiation) from the Sun are considered in the local isotropy sections of the model. Interaction between the Earth's crust and mantle is defined by the Winkler elastic foundation. By applying a probabilistic approach (Monte Carlo Method), a new stochastic model of displacements and stresses and new information on crustal displacements relative to the Earth's mantle were obtained. The results proved the heating influence of the Sun on the Earth's crust and plate tectonics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Density instabilities in the lithosphere can founder gravitationally via viscous dripping and decoupling from overlying crust. The lithospheric dripping concept has been invoked across the globe, but the diversity of crustal effects, observable evidence, and tectonic settings involved in dripping remain underexplored. Here, we synthesize numerical and analogue modeling studies and geologic data from the literature, including all proposed lithospheric dripping events to‐date. We argue that two distinct styles of dripping can occur depending on crustal strength (relative to that of the mantle lithosphere). Near‐surface contraction and subsidence of strong crusts contrasts with near‐surface extension and uplift of weak crusts. We discuss these events in terms of tectonic setting, timing, size, and the main types of data associated with each event. We also find that lithospheric dripping is associated with a distinct suite of geological observations including sedimentological, structural, volcanic, and geophysical data, which can be used to distinguish strong crusts from weak crusts. We find 27 events for which lithospheric dripping is a key hypothesis, including 9 with clear evidence for strong‐crust dripping and 3 with clear evidence of weak‐crust dripping. We review emerging research methods have the potential to detect the signals of dripping in the geologic and geophysical record, and we suggest additional techniques in light of our strong‐crust versus weak‐crust framework. The diverse tectonic settings and inferred consequences of these lithospheric drips, if confirmed, would demand a shift in our understanding of continental geology to emphasize the role of vertical removal of continental lithosphere. Plain Language Summary: If part of the lithosphere (Earth's crust and the rigid upper part of the mantle) increases in density, it may become heavier than the underlying mantle and sink, or founder. Foundering results in the removal of blobs of lithosphere from overlying crust, a process called dripping. Dripping may have occurred in several locations across the globe, but the effects it is capable of producing are not well understood. We synthesize numerical models of dripping with studies of real‐world locations and compile available evidence to better understand the dripping process. We suggest that key observable effects are driven by the strength of the crust relative to the foundering lithosphere. In particular, when the crust is weak and able to flow in response to a lithospheric drip, complex patterns of deformation and sedimentation can result. For the 27 events that have been discussed to date, 9 have clear evidence for strong‐crust behavior, and 3 for a weak‐crust behavior. This framework will help researchers understand what lithospheric dripping looks like in geological and geophysical data, and we discuss avenues for further research on this topic. Key Points: Lithospheric dripping has been proposed for 27 locations throughout the globe and may be responsible for a wide range of observable effectsA synthesis of modeling studies suggests two distinct types of dripping depending on crustal strength relative to mantle lithosphereExisting data support the strong‐crust versus weak‐crust drip framework and suggest future research opportunities [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geodynamic modelling provides a powerful tool to investigate processes in the Earth's crust, mantle, and core that are not directly observable. However, numerical models are inherently subject to the assumptions and simplifications on which they are based. In order to use and review numerical modelling studies appropriately, one needs to be aware of the limitations of geodynamic modelling as well as its advantages. Here, we present a comprehensive yet concise overview of the geodynamic modelling process applied to the solid Earth from the choice of governing equations to numerical methods, model setup, model interpretation, and the eventual communication of the model results. We highlight best practices and discuss their implementations including code verification, model validation, internal consistency checks, and software and data management. Thus, with this perspective, we encourage high-quality modelling studies, fair external interpretation, and sensible use of published work. We provide ample examples, from lithosphere and mantle dynamics specifically, and point out synergies with related fields such as seismology, tectonophysics, geology, mineral physics, planetary science, and geodesy. We clarify and consolidate terminology across geodynamics and numerical modelling to set a standard for clear communication of modelling studies. All in all, this paper presents the basics of geodynamic modelling for first-time and experienced modellers, collaborators, and reviewers from diverse backgrounds to (re)gain a solid understanding of geodynamic modelling as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meteor impacts can induce unique pressure‐dependent structural changes in minerals due to the propagation of shock waves. Plagioclase—ubiquitous throughout the Earth's crust, extraterrestrial bodies, and meteorites—is commonly used for reconstructing the impact history and conditions of the parent bodies. However, there have been unresolved inconsistencies in the interpretation of shock transformations across previous studies: The pressure at which amorphization begins and the process by which it occurs is the subject of ongoing debate. Here, we utilize time‐resolved in situ X‐ray diffraction (XRD) to probe the phase transformation pathway of plagioclase during shock compression at a sub‐nanosecond timescale. Direct amorphization begins at pressures much lower than what was previously assumed, just above the Hugoniot elastic limit of 5 GPa, with full amorphization to a high‐density amorphous phase, observed at 32(10) GPa and 20 ns. Upon release, the material partially recrystallizes back into the original structure, demonstrating a memory effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Along the western border of the Sierra Nevada microplate, the San Andreas fault (California, United States) is comprised of three segments. Two (north and south segments) are locked and support large earthquakes (e.g., the M 7.7 1906 San Francisco and the M 7.8 1857 Fort Tejon earthquakes), while the central segment, from Parkfield to San Juan Bautista, is creeping. Based on mechanical models, we show that the late Pliocene-Quaternary convective removal (delamination) of the southern Sierra Nevada mantle lithosphere and associated uplift of the Sierra Nevada Mountains causes the Great Valley upper crust to deform by flexure and buckling. Additional three-dimensional flexural models imply that the local flexural bulge overlaps with the creeping segment of the fault system, while geological observations indicate that the local weakening of the San Andreas fault started at the same time that the Sierra Nevada started its recent phase of uplift. We argue that bending stresses promote lithostatic pore pressure to occur in the depth range of 7-15 km, causing the effective strength of the fault to vanish, and locally favoring creep. Our results suggest for the first time that earthquake cycles along a major plate boundary may be influenced by convective instabilities in the adjacent upper mantle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earthquake is a natural disaster that occurs when the Earth's crust moves suddenly. Every year, hundreds of earthquakes strike various parts of the globe. According to previous research, buildings that are built on sloped terrain are the most susceptible to earthquakes. This is attributable to the different heights of the columns on the ground floor. By changing the height of the column at the base of a 2-D Conventional RCC Frame and a Special Confined RCC Frame, an experimental investigation was carried out in this study. The parameters like load verses deflection, crack width and stiffness degradation was used to draw comparison between the Conventional RCC Frame and Special confined RCC Frame under Reverse Cyclic Loading by using Push and Pull Jack. Hysteresis curve clearly shows that Special Confining reinforcement provided for the column throughout the span because of columns with varying stiffness provides additional strength and performance against lateral force by dissipating energy. The ductility of Short column improved at initial stage, meanwhile the displacement of the Special confined RCC frame with short column also improved due to ductile reinforcement which leads to reduction in failure rate and arrest the sudden failure of the short columns in the frame as that is physically visible from the crack pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the role of the strength of lower crust on crustal thickening in an oblique collision in the Southern Alps, New Zealand. Crustal thickening occurring away from the area of maximum compression; Effect of the specific geometry of the Australian lithosphere on the location of crustal thickening; Decoupled deformation.

We present a 3D model of the main crustal boundaries beneath the Campanian region and the onshore and offshore surrounding areas, based on high-resolution potential field data. Our main objective is the definition of the main structural interfaces in the whole Campanian region from gravity and magnetic data, thanks to their ability to define them on a regional and continuous way. The complex morphology of the Mesozoic carbonate platform, which is fundamental to constrain the top of geothermal reservoir, was reconstructed by inverting the vertical gradient of gravity. We assumed local information from seismic models and boreholes to improve the model. We modeled the deep crustal structures by spectral analysis of Bouguer gravity and magnetic data. The inferred depth estimates indicate a shallow crystalline basement below the Tyrrhenian crust and the Apulian foreland and a significant depression beneath the Bradanic foredeep. The map of the Moho boundary shows a NE-SE verging trough below the Southern Apennine chain and two pronounced uplifts beneath the foreland and the Tyrrhenian crust. We also estimated the depth to the magnetic bottom, showing a thick magnetic crust below the mountain chain and shallow depths where the crustal heat flow is high. The models were compared with seismic sections along selected profiles; a good agreement was observed, despite of some inherent lower resolution for the gravity modelling from spectral methods. The regional covering and the continuity of our estimated crustal interfaces make it a new and valid reference for further geological, geophysical and geothermal studies, especially in areas such as northern and eastern Campania, where there is an incomplete geophysical and geological information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gravitational instabilities exert a crucial role on the Earth dynamics and in particular on its differentiation. The Earth's crust can be considered as a multilayered fluid with different densities and viscosities, which may become unstable in particular with variations in temperature. With the specific aim to quantify crustal scale polydiapiric instabilities, we test here two codes, JADIM and OpenFOAM, which use a volume-of-fluid (VOF) method without interface reconstruction, and compare them with the geodynamics community code ASPECT, which uses a tracking algorithm based on compositional fields. The VOF method is well-known to preserve strongly deforming interfaces. Both JADIM and OpenFOAM are first tested against documented two and three-layer Rayleigh–Taylor instability configurations in 2-D and 3-D. 2-D and 3-D results show diapiric growth rates that fit the analytical theory and are found to be slightly more accurate than those obtained with ASPECT. We subsequently compare the results from VOF simulations with previously published Rayleigh–Bénard analogue and numerical experiments. We show that the VOF method is a robust method adapted to the study of diapirism and convection in the Earth's crust, although it is not computationally as fast as ASPECT. OpenFOAM is found to run faster than, and conserve mass as well as JADIM. Finally, we provide a preliminary application to the polydiapiric dynamics of the orogenic crust of Naxos Island (Greece) at about 16 Myr, and propose a two-stages scenario of convection and diapirism. The timing and dimensions of the modelled gravitational instabilities not only corroborate previous estimates of timing and dimensions associated to the dynamics of this hot crustal domain, but also bring preliminary insight on its rheological and tectonic contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oroclines are map‐view deformation of Earth's crust resulting from bending of quasi‐linear elements. The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) is one of the largest and long‐lived accretionary orogens in the world and mainly consists of the Kazakhstan and Tuva–Mongolian oroclines. However, the mechanism of the oroclines is still in debate. Therefore, in this paper, we combine some investigation of high bathymetric relief resistance to subduction, review oroclinal bending models of the Kazakhstan Orocline, and propose a tentative model that involves asymmetric rollback in response to seamounts subduction and accretion, followed by bending associated with the convergence of the Siberian and Tarim cratons. Moreover, the role of pinning due to seamount and ridge subduction is probably more important than the convergence of continents in the CAOB. This model is compatible with the occurrence of seamounts, the spatial migration of intra‐oceanic arcs, and the development of multiple rollback processes during amalgamation of Eurasia. However, only geochemical and geochronological data will enable definition of the seamounts in CAOB so far, without much matching structural data. So we need more work to understand seamounts subduction and accretion as well as orocline bending in CAOB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mantle-based stresses have been proposed to explain the occurrence of deformation in the interior regions of continental plates, far from the effects of plate boundary processes. We examine how the gravitational removal of a dense mantle lithosphere root may induce deformation of the overlying crust. Simplified numerical models and a theoretical analysis are used to investigate the physical mechanisms for deformation and assess the surface expression of removal. Three behaviours are identified: (1) where the entire crust is strong, stresses from the downwelling mantle are efficiently transferred through the crust. There is little crustal deformation and removal is accompanied by surface subsidence and a negative free-air gravity anomaly. Surface uplift and increased free-air gravity occur after the dense root detaches. (2) If the mid-crust is weak, the dense root creates a lateral pressure gradient in the crust that drives Poiseuille flow in the weak layer. This induces crustal thickening, surface uplift and a minor free-air gravity anomaly above the root. (3) If the lower crust is weak, deformation occurs through pressure-driven Poiseuille flow and Couette flow due to basal shear. This can overthicken the crust, producing a topographic high and a negative free-air gravity anomaly above the root. In the latter two cases, surface uplift occurs prior to the removal of the mantle stress. The modeling results predict that syn-removal uplift will occur if the crustal viscosity is less than ~1021 Pa s, corresponding to temperatures greater than ~400-500 °C for a dry and felsic or wet and mafic composition, and ~900 °C for a dry and mafic composition. If crustal temperatures are lower than this, lithosphere removal is marked by the formation of a basin. These results can explain the variety of surface expressions observed above areas of downwelling mantle. In addition, observations of the surface deflection may provide a way to constrain the vertical rheological structure of the crust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key element of plate tectonics on Earth is that the lithosphere is subducting into the mantle. Subduction results from forces that bend and pull the lithosphere into the interior of the Earth. Once subducted, lithospheric slabs are further modified by dynamic forces in the mantle, and their sinking is inhibited by the increase in viscosity of the lower mantle. These forces are resisted by the material strength of the lithosphere. Using geodynamic models, we investigate several subduction models, wherein we control material strength by setting a maximum viscosity for the surface plates and the subducted slabs independently. We find that models characterized by a dichotomy of lithosphere strengths produce a spectrum of results that are comparable to interpretations of observations of subduction on Earth. These models have strong lithospheric plates at the surface, which promotes Earth-like single-sided subduction. At the same time, these models have weakened lithospheric subducted slabs which can more easily bend to either lie flat or fold into a slab pile atop the lower mantle, reproducing the spectrum of slab morphologies that have been interpreted from images of seismic tomography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aluminum is the third most abundant element, after oxygen and silicon, and the most abundant metal in Earth's crust. It is widely used in buildings, construction, transport, packaging and general engineering due to its corrosion resistance, durability, insulation capability, structural strength and low-weight, making it the metal of the future. Aluminum is widely used in all UAE construction related projects; however, the sustainability and environmental performance of the aluminum production process is questionable. The production of this metal is associated with many environmental impacts which compromise the sustainable production of aluminum. Aluminum manufacturing is an energy intensive industry and a major contributor to Greenhouse Gases such as CO2, CFC, and PFC. This industry generates huge amounts of waste such as the Bauxite Residue from the Alumina Refinery process and the Spent Pot-Lining (SPL) from the Smelting process. One of the sustainable solutions is to create a sustainable metal whilst also making a positive net impact on the environment over the life cycle of aluminum products. This solution suits UAE because the aluminum industry is on upstream production, with less emphasis on the use of recycling and secondary aluminum production. As an effective tool to control environmental impacts and improve the environmental performance of any production industry, Environment Management System (EMS) is further studied with regards to the aluminum production process. This research investigates the efficiency of the EMS at UAE aluminum production industry to determine its ability to control the industry's impact, and to attain sustainability standards. The aim of this research is to evaluate the efficiency of the existing EMS and to identify the factors affecting implementation of EMS in the UAE aluminum production. The implementation of EMS in the UAE aluminium industry is heavily affected by regulatory compliance and enforcement gap, transparent leadership, accountability, and human factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We introduce a regional 3-D structural model of the Barents Sea and Kara Sea region which is the first to combine information on the sediments and the crystalline crust as well as the configuration of the lithospheric mantle. Therefore, we have integrated all available geological and geophysical data, including interpreted seismic refraction and reflection data, seismological data, geological maps and previously published 3-D models into one consistent model. This model resolves four major megasequence boundaries (earliest Eocene, mid-Cretaceous, mid-Jurassic and mid-Permian) the top crystalline crust, the Moho and a newly calculated lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB). The thickness distributions of the corresponding main megasequences delineate five major subdomains (the northern Kara Sea, the southern Kara Sea, the eastern Barents Sea, the western Barents Sea and the oceanic domain comprising the Norwegian-Greenland Sea and the Eurasia Basin). Relating the subsidence histories of these subdomains to the structure of the deeper crust and lithosphere sheds new light on possible causative basin forming mechanisms that we discuss. The depth configuration of the newly calculated LAB and the seismic velocity configuration of the upper mantle correlate with the younger history of this region. The western Barents Sea is underlain by a thinned lithosphere (80 km) resulting from multiple Phanerozoic rifting phases and/or the opening of the NE Atlantic from Paleocene/Eocene times on. Notably, the northwestern Barents Sea and Svalbard are underlain by thinnest continental lithosphere (60 km) and a low-velocity/hot upper mantle that correlates spatially with a region where late Cenozoic uplift was strongest. As opposed to this, the eastern Barents Sea is underlain by a thicker lithosphere (~110-150 km) and a high-velocity/density anomaly in the lithospheric mantle. This anomaly, in turn, correlates with an area where only little late Cenozoic uplift/erosion was observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a joint inversion of gravity and teleseismic data to enlighten the lithospheric structures of the Baikal–Mongolia region, an area characterized by high topographic contrasts, sporadic Cenozoic volcanism, extension and large transcurrent faulting in the vicinity of the Baikal Rift, Central Asia. The study uses a 1000 km long seismic transect that cross-cuts the main tectonic structures from north to south (namely, the Siberian platform, Tunka basin, Hangay Dome and Gobi-Altai belt). The Siberian platform depicts a high-velocity lithosphere down to about 150 km. We evidence strong velocity contrasts within the crust below the Hangay Dome and the Tunka depression, interpreted as a thickened crust. A low-velocity/density region is located at various depths below the Hangay Dome. Thanks to the dense spatial coverage of gravity data, we are able to define the 3-D geometry of this particular low-velocity/density anomaly. The Hangay Dome anomalous body extends from 60 to 225 km depth at his largest point and slightly thins to no more than 40 km at its easternmost end. A deep low-velocity zone (below 150 km) with only a weak negative density contrast is observed on the eastern part of the transect. We propose that the late Cenozoic uplift of the whole Mongolian Plateau and associated rifting, magmatism, high heat flow and lithospheric thinning are not externally driven by the India–Asia collision, but results from the interaction of two mantle plumes with the overlying lithosphere. Conversely, recent faulting may be the major expression of the India–Asia collision in this region, as well as N–S striking rift basins that connect and interact with major strike-slip faults, such as the Bolnai fault. The comparison between time residuals of this experiment and the Baikal Rift seismic data shows an undeniable disproportion for the Hangay anomaly. The Hangay time residuals are far more positive than through the Baikal, arguing for an asthenospheric signature that is not seen beneath the Baikal Rift. Furthermore, the southern edge of the thick Siberian cratonic lithosphere may favour the rise of a sublithospheric mantle flow at the contact with the Baikal–Mongolia lithosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post-breakup vertical motions of passive margins are seen here as a result of the post-rift 2-D thermal evolution. A 2-D finite element numerical model is performed to evaluate both the vertical and horizontal conduction that drive the thermal evolution of continental passive margins, from breakup to post-breakup states. Initial temperature configurations corresponding to non-volcanic and volcanic margins are tested, and lead to different thermal evolution of the lithosphere. For both margins, a thermal thickening is observed in the stretched lithosphere, whereas the unstretched lithosphere undergoes first (0–80 Ma) a thermal thinning and secondly (after 80 Ma) a thermal thickening. In comparison with non-volcanic margins, volcanic margins show a slower thermal thickening and a greater thermal thinning in stretched and unstretched lithosphere, respectively. The variations with time of lithosphere thickness are then translated into isostatic vertical movements and reveal ‘seaward’ thermal induced subsidence and ‘landward’ thermal induced uplift. The estimated uplift reaches up to 250 m in volcanic margins and 120 m in non-volcanic margins. The modelled timing and amount of uplift in both margins are consistent with present-day topography of volcanic passive margins that stand two to three times higher than non-volcanic margins. Using these thermal models, we finally show that the 2-D strength of the margins drastically evolves with time from a seeward dominant strength (0–80 Ma) toward a landward dominant strength (time larger than 80 Ma). These lateral strength evolution could have strong effect on the flexural response of the margin through time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of folding in the Earth’s stratified crust is addressed within the framework of solid mechanics. The history and formulation of the problem and approaches to its solution are briefly outlined. The initial stage of folding in strata with different mechanical properties is studied in detail using the piecewise-homogeneous medium model and the three-dimensional theory of stability. Conclusions of applied and fundamental importance are drawn from an analysis of solutions to a wide range of specific problems [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Late Miocene tectonics of the Zagros folded belt (Fars province) has for long been related solely to folding of the cover controlled by a ductile décollement between basement and the sedimentary cover. However, geological constraints, topography analysis and seismotectonic studies reveal that basement thrusting may produce locally significant deformation in the cover. To determine how the deep-seated deformation in the basement may contribute to the overall topography we first examine the filtered large and short wavelengths of the topography. We find that the short-wavelength component of the topography (20–25 km), including the Zagros folds, is superimposed on the differential uplift at the regional scale. In other words, the regional base level of folded marker horizons remains parallel to the regional topography of interest. Modelling reveals that the salt-based wedge model, alone, is not able to reproduce the large-wavelength component of the topography of the Zagros Folded Belt. This reveals that when a thick (relatively to its overburden) layer of salt forms the basal décollement it is generally too weak and cannot support the growth of significant topography. We then test an alternative thick-skinned crustal wedge model involving the crust of the Arabian margin, which is decoupled above a viscous lower crust. This model satisfactorily reproduces the observed topography and is consistent with present-day basement thrusting, topography analyses and geological constraints. We conclude that basement-involved thickening and shortening is mechanically required to produce the shape of the Zagros Folded Belt since at least 10 Ma. Finally, the involvement of the basement provides mechanical and kinematic constraints that should be accounted for cross-sections balancing and further assessing the evolution of Zagros at crustal or lithospheric scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 30 May 2015 M w 7.9 Bonin Islands earthquake, Japan, is one of the largest deep‐focus earthquakes ever recorded. Its occurrence, close to 700‐km depth, in an area without any known historical seismicity, along with its magnitude, was a surprise to scientists. Deep earthquakes are generally believed to have few aftershocks and no foreshocks. Here, we explore the earthquake productivity in the hypocentral surroundings and detect 49 not previously identified earthquakes, 28 of which occurred during an accelerating preseismic phase that started 3 months prior to the main shock. This is the first time that such foreshock activity has been observed for a deep earthquake. The preseismic and postseismic activity suggests transformational faulting within a metastable olivine wedge (MOW) inside the slab at depth as the triggering principal mechanism for this deep earthquake sequence, the seismicity starting where the backward bending of the subducting Pacific plate is maximum. Plain Language Summary: Deep earthquakes have been puzzling seismologists for almost a century, since their discovery in the 1920s. Earthquakes deeper than 50 km represent about 25 % of the global seismicity, and deep‐focus earthquakes are defined as those located at 300‐km depth or more. They can be exceedingly large and occur at temperatures and pressures where sliding and fracture are inhibited, thus the brittle fracture/friction mechanism, valid in Earth's crust, cannot hold. Despite their abundance, the physical mechanism behind deep‐focus earthquakes is still a subject of ongoing debate. The Bonin Islands earthquake (30 May 2015, M w7.9) occurred at 680‐km depth in a previously quiet area. In order to better understand why and how it occurred there, we searched for previously unknown earthquakes in the surroundings. For the first time, we identify a preseismic phase preceding such a very deep‐focus earthquake. The location of the newly detected earthquakes reveals the geometry of the slab at depth, and their spatiotemporal distribution supports transformation of metastable olivine as the rupture initiation process. Key Points: We present the first evidence of intense foreshock activity before a deep‐focus earthquake49 newly detected EQs reveal slab geometry and the possible existence of metastable olivine wedge at depthWe find a low productivity aftershock sequence that follows Omori's law [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]