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Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) from spent vegetable oils requires pre and or post-transesterification treatment to meet International norms for biodiesel. The present study assessed the potential of waste printing paper (WPP) as post-transesterification treatment for adsorption of metals from FAME obtained from Nigerian neat and spent vegetable oils (NSpVOs). The WPP adsorbent was prepared according to Moyib et al. (2017). The adsorption experiments for the removal of single metal ions were carried out using 10 mL FAME samples, 1.0 g WPP at a constant 25 o C, pH 6 for 60 min. At the end of the contact time, alkali metals in FAMEs were estimated according to EN 14108 and EN 14109 for Na and K, respectively and alkaline and heavy metals followed AOAC (2005). The results revealed WPP was able to reduce the metal content in the FAME to acceptable limit level and also, enhanced biofuel properties such as acid value (AV) and Conradson carbon (CC) but with loss of minute FAME. Cluster analysis distinguished FAMEs after and before WPP adsorption treatment. Part I and II of this study show feasibility for diversifying Nigerian spent vegetable oils as non-food option for production of biodiesel and achieve low carbon footprint. Also, WPP as locally available and cheap adsorbent showed good potential as post-transesterification treatment of FAME to desirable quality.

The modernized world is over-consuming low-cost energy sources that strongly contributes to environmental stress. As a consequence, the interest for environmentally friendly alternatives has increased immensely. One such alternative is utilizing the diazotrophic nature of the heterocystous filamentous cyanobacteria Nostoc sp. as feedstock for biodiesel and hydrogen production using pulp and paper wastewater – a phosphorous and nitrogen deficient medium. In this work, biodiesel and hydrogen production was studied with respect to three main aspects: biodiesel quality properties, lipid content and hydrogen production coupled with a preliminary study investigating the luminous effects on the biomass and biodiesel quality properties when exposed to low (50 μEm-2s-1), medium (150 μEm-2s-1) and high light (300 μEm-2s- 1). The preliminary study showed that an increase of light intensity was associated with parabolic results for biomass following the 10-day cultivation period, with the medium light intensity showing an average dried weight of at the most 203% greater than the two other light intensities. When analysing the FAME- composition, similar results were demonstrated for the fatty acid constituents preferred for biofuel applications, C18:1 and C18:2 fatty acids, where the low, medium and high light showed an accumulative 34.65, 43.1 and 31.6 dwt % respectively. The strain could be of interest as feedstock for biodiesel when cultivated in pulp and paper wastewater, due to the positive results pertaining to the lipid content and biodiesel quality properties. Following the 10-day cultivation period the lipid content obtained was 35.9 dwt %. The biodiesel quality properties were tested to assess the strains suitability for biodiesel and were tested to ensure its accordance to the standards on commercial biodiesel quality; European Standard for Biodiesel as heating oil (EN 14213) and European Biodiesel Standard (EN 14214). The critical parameters tested were the regulated (iodine value, cetane number, density, viscosity, pour point, cold filter plugging point, oxidative stability) and unregulated (FAME-composition) fuel properties. Results obtained showed values within the regulated values set by the different standards. However, due to a high saturated fatty acid content, the strain showed inadequate low temperature flow properties (cloud point, pour point and the cold filter plugging point). This study shows that this strain has a low potential for hydrogen production, with a hydrogen production of 0.13 nmol/mg dry wt/h following the 10-day cultivation period. This low hydrogen production could be attributed to the among other things the current growth phase of the cyanobacteria. Chemical analyses were conducted for revealing the total nitrogen, total phosphorus and chemical oxygen demand (COD) content. Following the 10-day cultivation period, the samples showed a 22% decrease in phosphorous concentration, 11% decrease in COD concentration and 51% increase of nitrogen concentration. The probable causes for this increase is the Nostoc’s diazotrophic nature and the ammonium excretion nitrogen fixation entails, as well as the nitrogen release following the final algal growth phase – the death phase. In conclusion, the results showed great potential, however, further studies are recommended investigating the changes that occurs during cultivation period to further assess the strains potential as well as assessing the continuity of the results with a greater initial cellular concentration. Nonetheless, due to the positive results obtained regarding the nutrient uptake, biodiesel and hydrogen production, this study shows potential for further optimization for the use of Nostoc grown in pulp and paper wastewater for wastewater treatment, biodiesel and/or hydrogen production.

In recent years renewable and cleaner fuel for diesel engines are compulsory due to depletion of fossil fuel. Various types of bio-based fuels are investigated by the researchers. Biodiesel is anticipated as potential contenders of diesel fuel. Though it is possible to utilize pure biodiesel in diesel engines, some burdens like higher density, lower cetane number and lesser calorific value hinder it from replacing conventional diesel completely. Therefore, using blends with biofuels in diesel engines has a preference. Thus, this paper reviews two different approaches on the role of nanoparticles on biofuel production and effects of nanoparticles in biodiesel–diesel fuel blends on performance, combustion analysis and emission characteristics of diesel engines. Wide range of results from previous research studies with potential and application of nanoparticles in bioethanol production, the effect of the addition of nanoparticles into diesel fuel with different biofuels ratios are collected in this review study. There are different engine performances enhancing methods surveyed. Nanoparticles can be utilized in the production of biofuels from feedstock pre-treatment to chemical reaction as catalysts. It was observed from the overall results that by adding nanoparticles, there was a significant reduction in the brake specific fuel consumption about 20% to 23% as compared with biodiesel–diesel blends with and without alcohol as additives. Besides as nanoparticles possess high thermal conductivity, the addition of nanoparticles enhanced the process of combustion and increases the brake power about 2.5% to 4%. Emission results showed that in most reviews, NO x emission is increased by up to 55%, while HC, CO and PM are decreased significantly. It was concluded from the study that a diesel engine could be effectively run and give better performance and effective regulated emissions on the application of added nanoparticles with biodiesel and their blends as fuel in a CI engine.

This study is conducted to figure out the change in the function of ester oil as a result of the aging process - Kraft paper composite insulation. To duplicate actual conditions on a transformer, a sample of 800 ml biodiesel oil and 6 grams of Kraft paper were put together in a heat-resistant bottle. The sample was put under the same initial conditions through heating at 100 ° C for 24 hours. After initial conditions, then all samples of thermal were accelerated from 336 hours to 672 hours at 120 0 C and 150 0 C for actual conditions in the transformer. FTIR and DGA test are carried out at each aging period. The aging process shows several changes in functional groups in the ester oil and produced several dominant combustible gas compositions, including carbon monoxide (CO) and ethane (C 2 H 6 ). These flammable gases arise due to the decomposition of the insulation which makes C = C functional groups in a particular spectrum produce ethane gas, thereby increasing the bonds of paper insulation.

The valorisation of lignin is being increasingly recognised to improve the economics of pulp and paper making mills. In the present study, an integrated lignin–glycerol valorisation strategy is introduced with an overarching aim for enhancing the process value chains. LignoBoost kraft lignin was subjected to base-catalysed depolymerisation using glycerol as a co-solvent. The generated bio-oil was used as a renewable additive to biodiesel for enhancing its oxygen stability. The influence of three independent parameters including temperature, time and glycerol amount on lignin depolymerisation was investigated. Response surface methodology was applied to design the experiments and to optimise the process for maximising the yield and antioxidant impact of bio-oil. The results showed that glycerol has a positive qualitative and quantitative impact on the produced bio-oil, where an enhancement in the yield (up to 23.8%) and antioxidant activity (up to 99 min induction period) were achieved using the PetroOxy method (EN16091). The addition of 1 wt% bio-oil to biodiesel has led to an improvement in the oxidation stability over a neat sample of up to ∼340%, making it compliant with European standard (EN14214). The proposed process presents a biorefinery paradigm for the integrated utilisation of waste cooking oil, lignin and glycerol.

Restricted resources of fossil fuels together with exhaust-gas emissions dilemma led to looking for the promising solutions to increase the engine’s efficiency and decrease the fuel consumption. Substituting the biodiesel instead of diesel oil as well as using additives, have been introduced as reliable solutions to increase the engine efficiency and reduce the emissions. In this experimental work, the various concentrations of cerium oxide nano-particles (i.e. 60 ppm, 90 ppm and 120 ppm) were added to diesel/biodiesel fuel blend and their effects on energy and exergy efficiency are examined on the single cylinder in-direct injection diesel engine. Results revealed that B0W5N60 (diesel containing 5% water and 60 ppm NPs) has 2.5% higher brake thermal efficiency compared to pure diesel. Also, B0W5N90 and B0W5N120 lead to 3.8% and 4.7% improvement in brake thermal efficiency compared to diesel, respectively. By adding the nano-particles into the fuel samples, brake specific fuel consumption is enhanced; Results indicated that brake specific fuel consumption of B0W5N120 and B5W5N90 are 1.05% and 0.42% lower than that of B5W5N60, respectively. Increasing the nano-particles concentration has the increasingly effect on the exergy efficiency for all amounts of biodiesel. For B0 fueling cases, the maximum exergy efficiency of the engine belongs to the B0W5N120 (36.6%) while minimum amount is assigned to the B0W15N60 (31%).

The utilization of non-renewable energy sources leads to long-standing unfavorable consequences on human health and environmental issues. Ever growing demand and use of diesel engines in various fields cause the emission of exhaust gases like NOx and CO that lead to serious environmental pollution and hazards like global warming, respiratory problems. Hence, it has a necessity a reduction in the use of diesel fuel and addition of suitable biodiesel. Mahua biodiesel blend has also been considered a safe renewable fuel for conventional engines. This is due to its desirable properties such as rapid growth rate, higher productivity, and the ability to utilize CO2 into fuel. Doping of an antioxidant, preferably n-butanol eliminates these harmful emissions from the diesel engine. In this experimental investigation, a Blend of Mahua biodiesel mixed with n-butanol was used as test fuel in a conventional engine. About 20–30 vol.% of n-butanol blended with 80 vol.% of diesel and tested. The injection timing was varied between 21 °CA bTDC and 25 °CA bTDC. Nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide of a blend of B20 + D80 + 30% n-butanol (NBM blend) at 21 °CA bTDC were reduced by 49 percent and 5.88 percent, respectively, when a relative to diesel fuel. The smoke and hydrocarbon emission of NBM blend at 25 °CA bTDC is reduced by 40% and 38.07%, respectively, related to diesel. The brake thermal efficiency for NBM blend at all injection timing was identified higher as a correlated to all other test blends. The brake thermal efficiency of the NBM blend at 25 °CA bTDC was increased by 15.30% when compared with diesel fuel. From the results, the Period of combustion was higher biodiesel as related to diesel. The span of ignition delay for NBM blend at advanced IT was 13.3% and 16.5% lower as compared to standard and advanced IT. These promising results assure that the Mahua biodiesel blend containing antioxidants would be eco-friendly fuel.

Biodiesel has great potential as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. However, poor low-temperature flow property and high viscosity of biodiesel limit its use in engines. Therefore, alcohol comes into researchers’ eyes as a promising additive for diesel–biodiesel (DB) blends. In this study, the effects of lower and higher alcohol contents with different speeds on combustion and emissions characteristics were investigated in a modified single cylinder diesel engine. The results indicated that the maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR) maintained a consistent drop ratio as speed increased from 1500 rpm to 1800 rpm for the tested fuels. However, B10E10 (10% biodiesel and %10 ethanol by volume) had a big drop, which meant that engine’s power ability had a big loss at high speed. The declining rate with speed decreased for indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) when adding alcohol to diesel–biodiesel blends, especially n-pentanol. Moreover, compared with other tested fuels, B10P10 (10% biodiesel and 10% n-pentanol) had smaller cycle variation and more stable combustion state as speed changed, despite it had the highest coefficient of variation (COV) at 1000 rpm. It can be found that has advantages in combustion stability, and can well reduce the total hydrocarbon (THC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions under the condition of medium speed commonly used by vehicle. Overall consideration, using diesel/biodiesel/alcohol ternary fuels may be a better choice for diesel engines.

R ice bran oil (RBO) is claimed to be a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. N on-catalytic in-situ biodiesel production from a low-cost feedstock ( rice bran ) using subcritical ethanol-water mixture was investigated in this study . T he influence of four independent variables, i.e. , addition of co-solvent, ethanol concentration, temperature, and time of reactions , on the yield of biodiesel was examined . The results showed that the most effective co-solvent was ethyl acetate and the optimum ethanol concentration, temperature and reaction time were 80% v/v, 200 o C and 3 hours, respectively. The maximum yield of biodiesel was found to be around 80%. The optimization of operating conditions was carried out by response surface methodology (RSM) with historical data design (HDD). The statistical method also suggested similar optimum operating conditions, i.e., 78.44% (v/v) ethanol concentration, 200 o C, and 3.2 hours reaction time with ethyl acetate as a co-solvent. The predicted maximum biodiesel yield was also slightly lower, i.e., 76.98%. Therefore, this study suggests that biodiesel production from rice bran through a non-catalytic in-situ process using a subcritical ethanol-water mixture with ethyl acetate as a co-solvent is very feasible since the yield can reach 80%. The study also found that RSM with HDD can predict the optimum operating conditions with a good accuracy.

Babassu oil is extracted from the babassu palm, one of the most important plants in the north and northeast Brazilian regions, and like many biofuels, it does not have adequate properties to be used as pure fuel, especially under low-temperature conditions. Therefore, researches to improve the physical-chemical properties of these biofuels are needed, one of the most common methods is using additives, usually synthetic ones, which are not environmentally friendly. A good alternative would be to try to found natural compounds with this potential. This paper describes the effects of the addition of two natural compounds, tung biodiesel, and camphor, in the physical properties of babassu biodiesel. These additives were select because of their physical-chemical properties, which can potentially improve the babassu biodiesel ones. They were tested separately, the camphor at the 3, 4, 5, 6 % proportions, and the tung biodiesel at 3, 5, 9, 12 %. The results were compared to biodiesel standards, limited by the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Biofuels (ANP), and for both additives, the 3 % proportion showed the best suited to the quality standards established at the Brazilian normative. Thus, was observed that the camphor and the tung biodiesel has the potential to be efficient additives in babassu biodiesel

Microalgae can accumulate various carbon-neutral products, but their real-world applications are hindered by their CO2 susceptibility. Herein, the transcriptomic changes in a model microalga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, in a high-CO2 milieu (20%) are evaluated. The primary toxicity mechanism consists of aberrantly low expression of plasma membrane H+-ATPases (PMAs) accompanied by intracellular acidification. Our results demonstrate that the expression of a universally expressible PMA in wild-type strains makes them capable of not only thriving in acidity levels that they usually cannot survive but also exhibiting 3.2-fold increased photoautotrophic production against high CO2 via maintenance of a higher cytoplasmic pH. A proof-of-concept experiment involving cultivation with toxic flue gas (13 vol% CO2, 20 ppm NOX, and 32 ppm SOX) shows that the production of CO2-based bioproducts by the strain is doubled compared with that by the wild-type, implying that this strategy potentially enables the microalgal valorization of CO2 in industrial exhaust., Microalgae used for CO2 removal in an industrial exhaust gas stream usually has low CO2 tolerance. Here, the authors increase CO2 tolerance by expressing a single H + -pump and enable microalgal valorization of industrial flue gas.

In the present research, biodiesels were prepared from Mahua and Jatropha oil by two-step transesterification. The physicochemical characteristics (viz. density, acid value, iodine value, kinematic viscosity, cloud-pour point, fire-flash point) of prepared biodiesels were evaluated. Finally, the prepared biodiesels were blended with mineral diesel in different proportion and physicochemical characteristics of blended dual biofuel sample blends were also evaluated in order to determine the best blend. The results revealed that the dual biofuel samples met the requirements of EN-14214 (Europe standards), ASTM D-6751 (USA standards) and IS-15607 (India standards). A set of regression equations were also formulated, this mathematical model revealed that different physicochemical properties had high values of the regression coefficient (R2) up to 0.986 for various proportions of blend samples. The obtained results have shown that the pre-treatment process can effectively reduce the free fatty acid value to less than 1% for biodiesels. Further, the values of density and kinematic viscosity were found to be better for sample blends B10, B20, and B30, while B40 was on the upper-end limit and B50 was found to be out of limit range. Furthermore, it was concluded that the sample blends B30 (with 15% blending of each biodiesel) and B40 (with 20% blending of each biodiesel) had better properties and can be used further to test their fuel combustion characteristics on a diesel engine.

This study is motivated by the depletion of fossil fuels in nature, which is inversely proportional to the higher level of fuel oil consumption, so the need for alternative fuels, namely biodiesel. Biodiesel can be made using waste cooking oil because of its abundant quantity, low price, and not being reused. One of the efforts to achieve energy conservation and improve fuel quality is using bioadditives. A lemon essential oil can be used as a bio-additive because it is easily soluble in fuel and its oxygen-rich content can reduce the rate of fuel consumption. The process in this study is to produce biodiesel with waste cooking oil (WCO) using a transesterification process. Biodiesel samples containing the bioadditive lemon essential oil on B20 biodiesel with varying volume fraction (0%; 0.1%; 0.15%; 0.2%). In general, this research can be done in three steps. The first step is the characterization of the compound composition (GCMS) and functional group (FTIR) of diesel fuel, biodiesel, and lemon essential oil bioadditive. The second step is the characterization of the physicochemical properties (density, viscosity, flash point, calorific value) of B20 biodiesel with various concentrations of lemon essential oil bioadditive, then compared with SNI 7182:2015. The third step is determining the rate of fuel consumption in diesel engines. The results show that Biodiesel B20 with a volume fraction of 2% lemon essential oil bioadditive has a high ability to reduce the rate of fuel consumption. Copyright © 2021 by Authors, Published by BCREC Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0).

This research was aimed to examine the diesel engine’s performance and emission of secondary fuels (SFs), comprising waste plastic oil (WPO) and palm oil biodiesel (POB), and to analyze their tribological properties. Their compositions were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Five SFs (10–50% POB in WPO) were prepared by mechanical stirring. The results were compared to blank WPO (WPO100) and Malaysian commercial diesel (B10). WPO90 showed the maximum brake power (BP) and brake torque (BT) among the SFs, and their values were 0.52 and 0.59% higher compared to B10, respectively. The increase in POB ratio (20–50%) showed a negligible difference in BP and BT. WPO70 showed the lowest brake-specific fuel consumption among the SFs. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) increased with POB composition. The maximum reductions in emission of hydrocarbon (HC, 37.21%) and carbon monoxide (CO, 27.10%) were achieved by WPO50 among the SFs. WPO90 showed the maximum reduction in CO2 emission (6.78%). Increasing the POB composition reduced the CO emissions and increased the CO2 emissions. All SFs showed a higher coefficient of friction (COF) than WPO100. WPO50 showed the minimal increase in COF of 2.45%. WPO90 showed the maximum reduction in wear scar diameter (WSD), by 10.34%, compared to B10. Among the secondary contaminated samples, SAE40-WPO90 showed the lowest COF, with 5.98% reduction compared to SAE40-WPO100. However, with increasing POB content in the secondary contaminated samples, the COF increased. The same trend was also observed in their WSD. Overall, WPO90 is the optimal SF with excellent potential for diesel engines.

Glycerol is a byproduct of biodiesel production and is generated in large amounts, which has resulted in an increased interest in its valorization. In addition to its use as an energy source directly, the chemical modification of glycerol may result in value‐added derivatives. Herein, acid phosphatases employed in the synthetic mode were evaluated for the enzymatic phosphorylation of glycerol. Nonspecific acid phosphatases could tolerate glycerol concentrations up to 80 wt % and pyrophosphate concentrations up to 20 wt % and led to product titers up to 167 g L−1 in a kinetic approach. In the complementary thermodynamic approach, phytases were able to condense glycerol and inorganic monophosphate directly. This unexpected behavior enabled the simple and cost‐effective production of rac‐glycerol‐1‐phosphate from crude glycerol obtained from a biodiesel plant. A preparative‐scale synthesis on a 100 mL‐scale resulted in the production of 16.6 g of rac‐glycerol‐1‐phosphate with a reasonable purity (≈75 %)., Good things from glycerol: The valorization of crude glycerol is achieved through regioselective enzymatic (trans)phosphorylation reactions. rac‐Glycerol‐1‐phosphate is obtained from the reaction catalyzed by nonspecific acid phosphatases with pyrophosphate or by phytases with monophosphate.

In last few years in automobile sector there is a emerging need of an alternative fuel because of depletion of the stock of fossil fuels in all over the world. Bio-diesel in this regard contested a strong alternative to the conventional fuels. Bio-diesel contains 9-10% higher oxygen and higher cetane number which allows its good combustion in the combustion chambers of the engine. But poor hot flow and cold flow properties of biodiesel restricts their applications in the field of automotives. So the blends of biodiesel in percentage with diesel and ethanol as an properties enhancer additives are used in the biodiesel/diesel blend. Reduced viscosity, higher calorific value, improved flash and fire point and enhanced cold flow properties of the blends with ethanol as an additive, enhanced the combustion and reduced harmful emissions from the engine. Experimental work presented in this paper is by considering cottonseed biodiesel as raw feedstock blended with diesel and 5% ethanol. Properties were investigated experimentally as per IS 1448 standards. Trials were conducted on the single cylinder diesel. Results show that there are significant improvements in the properties of the blend, performance, combustion and reduced harmful emission from the engine. Experimental investigation reported that ethanol as an additives in the blends of cotton-seed biodiesel with diesel reduces kinematic viscosity by 7%, cold flow properties by 9% to 10% . But on the other hand but density of the blend is increased by 3% and higher heating value is decreased by 9%.

The study of lube oil is useful in scheduled maintenance activity, determining the oil replacement time for engines, to increase the engine life and ensure the maximum performance. Investigation of engine oil can reduce maintenance cost and promises higher design efficiency. Experiments were carried out on a mono cylinder compression ignition engine fueled with diesel-ethanol blended, which is operated at a constant rated speed of 1500 rpm for 100 hours. The lube oil samples were subjected to wear metal tests, chemical and physical tests. The quantity of wear metal in the engine oil was observed using the atomic absorption spectrometer. The total base number and total acid number were measured by the titration method according to ASTM code ASTM D6654 and ASTM2896, respectively. The viscosity was determined using the Stab Viscometer, SVM3000, by the ASTM D445 method at 40oC temperature. Iron and copper concertation was increased with an increase in usage time. However, TBN decreased, and TAN increased with the usage time. Viscosity and density decrease with the increase in usage time. The lube oil shows that the engine can be operated for an extended time with the same lube oil since all the measured parameters are within the limit.

In this study, an experimental work was conducted in a naturally aspirated, 4-stroke, 4 cylinder direct injection compression ignition engine operated with diesel-soybean biodiesel-hydrogen combinations as fuels and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) as nanoparticle additive. Engine tests were carried out between 1200 rpm and 2800 rpm engine speeds by 400 rpm intervals at full load condition. Each tests were repeated three times and results were averaged in order to ensure to gather more accurate results. Power and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) as performance and carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) as emission characteristics of the engine were determined. Nanoparticle additive was mixed with fuels with the help of an ultrasonic processor. Hydrogen enrichment was achieved through intake manifold. Experiments have exhibited that deteriorations on engine performance with biodiesel utilization can partially or fully be compensated with nanoparticle addition and hydrogen supplementation. CO emission was reduced in all fuels in comparison to diesel fuel. Adverse effects on CO2 emission as a result of biodiesel and nanoparticle additive usage can be eliminated a bit by hydrogen since it has superior combustion characteristics. Unfortunately, all test fuels trigger more NOx release compared with diesel fuel. H-B20-A demonstrated best performance characteristics with 6.64% rise in power and 2.72% reduction in BSFC compared to diesel fuel. Most reduction in CO (15.91%) was achieved with H-B100-A. Least increase in CO2 compared to diesel fuel (6.1%) was realized with H-B20-A while the least CO2 was observed with diesel fuel. In NOx emission, all fuels exhibited more release than diesel fuel. But least rise was observed with B20 as 6.73% in comparison with diesel fuel.

As a rule, the highest permissible sulfur content in the marine fuel must drop below 0.5% from 1 January 2020 for global fleets. As such, ships operating in emission control areas must use low sulfur or non-sulfur fuel to limit sulfur emissions as a source of acid rain. However, that fact has revealed two challenges for the operating fleet: the very high cost of ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) and the installation of the fuel conversion system and the ULSD cooling system. Therefore, a solution that blends ULSD and biodiesel (BO) into a homogeneous fuel with properties equivalent to that of mineral fuels is considered to be significantly effective. In the current work, an advanced ultrasonic energy blending technology has been applied to assist in the production of homogeneous ULSD-BO blends (ULSD, B10, B20, B30, and B50 with blends of coconut oil methyl ester with ULSD of 10%, 20%, 30% and 50% by volume) which is supplied to a small marine diesel engine on a dynamo test bench to evaluate the power and torque characteristics, also to consider the effect of BO fuel on specific fuel consumption exhaust gas temperature and brake thermal efficiency. The use of the ultrasonic mixing system has yielded impressive results for the homogeneous blend of ULSD and BO, which has contributed to improved combustion quality and thermal efficiency. The results have shown that the power, torque, and the exhaust gas temperature, decrease by approximately 9%, 2%, and 4% respectively with regarding the increase of the blended biodiesel rate while the specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency tends to increase of around 6% and 11% with those blending ratios.

Fossil fuel depletion and pollution are calling for alternative, renewable energies such as biofuels. Actual challenges include the design of efficient processes and catalysts to convert various feedstocks into biofuels. Here, we review nanoferrites heterogeneous catalysts to produce biodiesel from soybean and canola oil. For that, transesterification is the main synthesis route and offers simplicity, cost-effectiveness, better process control, and high conversion yield. Catalysis with nanoferrites and composites allow to obtain yields higher than 95% conversion with less than 5.0 wt.% of catalyst loading at 80 °C in 1–2 h. More than 90% conversion yields can be achieved with a moderate alcohol/oil molar ratio, i.e., between 12:1 to 16:1. Catalyst recovery is easy due to the magnetic properties of nanoferrite, which can be effectively reused up to 4 times with less than 10% loss of catalytic efficiency.

Reactive distillation (RD) holds promise for process intensification in biodiesel production since it integrates reaction and separation. It simplifies the process and enhances the conversion of the equilibrium limited reactions. To ensure the stability in RD operation, sensitivity study and process control simulation are necessary. In this work, RD was employed for free fatty acid (FFA) esterification of mixed non edible oils in biodiesel synthesis. Non edible oils used were waste cooking oil, crude jatropha oil, and crude nyamplung oil (Calophyllum inophyllum L). Simulation was conducted using ASPEN Plus V8.8. Sensitivity study was carried out to determine the effects of the operating condition alteration. A dynamic simulation was performed as a Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller tuning. It was revealed that the highest FFA conversion was 85%, achieved at the feed stage of 7, distillate rate of 0.22 kmol/hr, and oil to methanol molar ratio of 1:5. Level, pressure and temperature controls were installed in RD. Then, a dynamic simulation was applied as a PID controller tuning. Three different controller tuning methods, viz. Ziegler-Nichols, Cohen-Coon, and Internal Model Control, were studied. The best PID parameter was obtained by using Cohen-Coon method which provided fastest rise time, lowest settling time and lowest overshoot.

The rapid growth in industrialization steadily increased the energy demand. The world's population ultimately depends on petroleum as a major share of fuel for transportation and industrialization. Even though it is widely used in various sectors, its emission into the atmosphere creates serious problems in the form of acid rain, smog, etc. This present experimental investigation highlights the utilization of Vachellia nilotica seed oil methyl ester (VNSOME) synthesized from Vachellia nilotica seed oil (VNSO) fueled in a diesel engine to assess the emission and performance characteristics. VNSOME is produced using the alkaline catalyst (NaOH) transesterification technique. Four different fuel blends of biodiesel, namely, VNSOME5, VNSOME10, VNSOME15, and VNSOME20, were prepared and fueled in an unmodified engine. The engine brake thermal efficiency is lower, the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) using VNSOME20 is higher, and the temperature of exhaust gas emitted after combustion is increased. The thermal efficiency is reduced by 7.34% with increased BSFC and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) of 9.3 and 14.28%, respectively, as compared to diesel fuel. Similarly, using an optimized biodiesel blend (VNSOME20), the emission emitted such as HC and CO is reduced by 19.14 and 22.2%, respectively. However, the engine fueled with the VNSOME20 biodiesel blend increased the level of CO2 and NO x emitted into the atmosphere when compared to diesel fuel.

Over the last decades, microalgal biomass has gained a significant role in the development of different high-end (nutraceuticals, colorants, food supplements, and pharmaceuticals) and low-end products (biodiesel, bioethanol, and biogas) due to its rapid growth and high carbon-fixing efficiency. Therefore, microalgae are considered a useful and sustainable resource to attain energy security while reducing our current reliance on fossil fuels. From the technologies available for obtaining biofuels using microalgae biomass, thermochemical processes (pyrolysis, Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL), gasification) have proven to be processed with higher viability, because they use all biomass. However, due to the complex structure of the biomass (lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins), the obtained biofuels from direct thermochemical conversion have large amounts of heteroatoms (oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur). As a solution, catalyst-based processes have emerged as a sustainable solution for the increase in biocrude production. This paper’s objective is to present a comprehensive review of recent developments on the catalyst-mediated conversion of algal biomass. Special attention will be given to operating conditions, strains evaluated, and challenges for the optimal yield of algal-based biofuels through pyrolysis and HTL.

Biodiesel is considered as a potential substitute for fossil fuel due to its renewability, sustainability, environmentally friendliness, and biodegradability, especially with comparable fuel properties to diesel. The chemocatalytic production of biodiesel from plant oils is widely used in industrial production due to its low cost and high conversion rate. However, the disadvantages are high energy consumption and environmentally unfriendly processing such as chemical catalysts, downstream technology and simultaneously produced waste. Therefore, in the past decade, enzyme-catalyzed biodiesel has attracted more attentions due to its sustainability and environmental friendliness. High-cost, enzyme stability and reusability are the main obstacles to the large-scale industrial development of microbial biodiesel. This review first showcases the state-of-the-art of microbial biodiesel production, including (1) lipid accumulation of oleaginous microorganisms from pretreated lignocellulose biomass, and (2) production of biodiesel from microbial oils via transesterification by immobilized lipase. Also, the technological challenges and future developmental trends are discussed, with the goal of providing the possibility of more economical large-scale industrial production. This paper provides opportunities for the sustainable and eco-friendly production of enzymatic biodiesel in the future.

The sensitization for energy issues and environmental resulting from burning fossil fuels encourage the search for materials, inputs and renewable sources of energy. The biofuel is one of these renewable sources and is produced from vegetable oils extracted from raw material such as castor (Ricinus communis). It has been investigated as a raw material due to the high oil content in the seed, the possibility of plantations in regions with water deficit and high agricultural productivity. In front of the possibility of developing a simplified process for the production of biodiesel, such as in situ transesterification, which avoids the previous separation of the oil existing in the micelle, the present work aims to evaluate the kinetic behavior of extraction from castor oil using ethanol as solvent. In this context, experimental data were obtained about the kinetic from castor oil using ethanol in several conditions of temperature, as well as, fitting mathematical models able to describe the kinetic of the system castor-oil-ethanol. The castor seed used in the work were characterized about its humidity, oil content and acidity, having been obtained 4.86 %, 43.3 % and 2.1 %, respectively. The experiments were carried out in batch using sealed Erlenmeyer flasks in a thermostatic bath with reciprocal agitation to investigate the extraction process at different temperatures (25, 35 and 45 ºC) and solid-liquid ratio equal to 0.08 (g/ml). The percentage extractions were quantified in times of 15, 30, 45, 60, 120, 180, 240, 300, 480, 600 and 1440 min. For description of kinetics extraction, the fit of three different kinetic models to the experimental data was tested, pseudo-first order (PFO), pseudo-second order (PSO) and Patricelli. From the calculation of the corrected Akaike information criterion (AICc), the PSO model was the one that best described the extraction kinetics. In this way, the results obtained in this work contribute to expand the knowledge about the extraction process of castor oil with ethanol as solvent. A sensibilização para questões energéticas e ambientais decorrentes da queima de combustíveis fósseis incentivou a busca por materiais, insumos e fontes renováveis de energias. O biocombustível é uma dessas fontes renováveis e é produzido a partir de óleos vegetais extraídos de matérias primas como a mamona (Ricinus communis). Ela tem sido investigada como matéria-prima devido ao alto teor de óleo na semente, a possibilidade de plantio em regiões com déficit hídrico e à sua elevada produtividade agrícola. Diante da possibilidade de desenvolvimento de um processo simplificado para a produção de biodiesel, como o de transesterificação in situ, que evita a separação prévia do óleo presente na micela, o presente trabalho busca avaliar o comportamento cinético da extração do óleo de mamona empregando etanol como solvente. Nesse contexto, foram obtidos dados experimentais sobre a cinética da extração de óleo de mamona com etanol em diferentes condições de temperatura, bem como, ajustar modelos matemáticos capazes de descrever a cinética do sistema mamona-óleo-etanol. As sementes de mamona empregadas no trabalho foram caracterizadas acerca de sua umidade, teor de óleo e acidez, tendo sido obtido 4,86 %, 43,3 % e 2,1 %, respectivamente. Os experimentos foram realizados em batelada utilizando frascos erlenmeyer selados em banho termostático com agitação recíproca para investigar o processo de extração em diferentes temperaturas (25, 35 e 45 ºC) e razão sólido-líquido 0,08 (g/mL). As extrações percentuais foram quantificadas em tempos de 15, 30, 45, 60, 120, 180, 240, 300, 480, 600 e 1440 min. Para descrição da cinética de extração, foi testado o ajuste de três modelos cinéticos diferentes aos dados experimentais, pseudo-primeira ordem (PFO), pseudo-segunda ordem (PSO) e Patricelli. A partir do cálculo do critério de informação de Akaike corrigido (AICc) o modelo PSO foi o que melhor descreveu a cinética de extração. Deste modo, os resultados obtidos neste trabalho contribuem para ampliação dos conhecimentos acerca do processo de extração de óleo de mamona com etanol como solvente.

The use of abundantly available Garcinia gummi-gutta seeds grown at forest lands and ethanol a by-product of sugar industries has led to resource conservation and their use as alternate fuel to diesel engines for pollution reduction. Garcinia gummi-gutta (GGG) oil-based methyl esters blended with 20% ethanol and diesel fuel composed of six fuel samples (D100, B20E20, B30E20, B40E20, B100E20 and B100) are tested at different engine loads (0%, 20%, 40%, 80% and 100%) for their practical usefulness in diesel engine. Six fuel samples are tested for fuel properties. Biodiesel–diesel–ethanol blends showed approximately closer fuel properties to standard diesel fuel. Tests are carried out experimentally to know their performance and emission characteristics of six test samples fuelled in diesel engine varied subjected to different loads. Brake specific fuel consumption for all biodiesel blends is slightly higher for diesel fuel and its proportion decreases with increase in engine load. At full load engine condition, the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) for diesel fuel is 26.25%, and for biodiesel blends vary in the ranges of 22.5 to 25.2%. Compared to diesel fuel there is a reduction in 32.56% of carbon monoxide (CO) emission and 35.71% of hydrocarbon (HC) emission for biodiesel fuel (B100E20). For all biodiesel blended fuels tested at all engine loads, the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions are marginally higher than diesel fuel. At full load engine condition, B100E20 (100% diesel and 20% ethanol) reduces CO emissions by 6.45%, HC emissions by 6.64%, and increases BTE by 0.8%, compared to neat biodiesel (B100). GGG based biodiesel blended with ethanol resulted with better fuel properties, performance and emission characteristics to that of diesel fuel. Garcinia gummi-gutta seed yields 45% of oil with a high conversion ratio to biodiesel of 1:0.96, which help the industry for biodiesel production in large scale at reduced cost.

Ketersediaan bahan bakar fosil semakin lama semakin berkurang. Hal tersebut menyebabkan dibutuhkannya pengganti bahan bakar alternatif yaitu biodiesel. Minyak biji kelor memiliki potensi sebagai bahan baku pembuatan biodiesel, karena kandungan asam oleatnya yang tinggi yaitu 75,36 – 87,49%. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji pembuatan biodiesel, penggunaan katalis heterogen serta pengaruh parameter operasi terhadap hasil dan kualitas biodiesel dari minyak biji kelor dengan metode studi literatur. Tahapan yang dilakukan dalam studi literatur ini adalah pengumpulan, pemisahan dan analisis artikel jurnal serta perumusan pembahasan dan kesimpulan. Pembuatan biodiesel minyak biji kelor dilakukan dengan beberapa tahapan proses, yaitu pengambilan minyak dari biji, proses esterifikasi-transesterifikasi dan pemurnian biodiesel. Parameter operasi yang paling berpengaruh dalam menghasilkan biodiesel minyak biji kelor adalah rasio molar metanol dan minyak, konsentrasi katalis, waktu reaksi dan temperatur reaksi. Penggunaan katalis heterogen mampu menghasilkan yield biodiesel minyak biji kelor yang tinggi yaitu rata-rata lebih besar dari 90%. Biodiesel minyak biji kelor telah sesuai dengan standar nasional (SNI 7182 : 2015) dan internasional (ASTM D6751 dan EN 14214) Kata Kunci : Biodisel Minyak Biji Kelor, Katalis Heterogen, Parameter Operasi, Karakteristik Biodiesel. ABSTRACT The availability of fossil fuels is decreasing over time. This causes the need for an alternative fuel substitute, namely biodiesel. Moringa oleifera seeds are the raw material for making Moringa seed oil, used as raw material for making biodiesel. This is due to its high oleic acid contents, in the range of 75,36% - 87,49% the objectives of this study are to observe the production of biodiesel from Moringa seed oil, the use of heterogeneous catalysts in the production of Moringa seed oil biodiesel, the effect of operating parameters on the yield and quality of biodiesel produced. Literature study was done in this research, including the collection of journal articles, separation and analysis of journal articles, as well as the formulation of discussions and conclusions. Based on this study, there are several stages in the production of Moringa seed oil biodiesel, namely extracting oil from the seeds, esterification- transesterification, and refining of biodiesel. Operating parameters affect the manufacture of Moringa seed oil biodiesel. The most influential operating parameters are the molar ratio of methanol and oil, catalyst concentration, reaction time, and reaction temperature. The use of heterogeneous catalysts is able to produce a high yield of Moringa seed oil biodiesel, which is on average greater than 90%. Moringa seed oil biodiesel complies with both national (SNI 7182: 2015) and international (ASTM D6751 and EN 14214) standardr. K eywords : Moringa Seed Oil, Biodiesel, Heterogeneous Catalyst, Operating Parameters

Domestic wastewater contains a high average nutrient ammonia-N (NH 3 -N) and total phosphate (PO 4 3- -P). This nutrient content has the potential to cause eutropication in water bodies. To prevent this eutropication, it is necessary to treat domestic wastewater. Currently, processing technology is needed that is useful for improving the quality of processed wastewater and a small amount of byproduct. One of these technologies is processing with a microalgae system, where the algae can be used to become biodiesel. Two types of microalgae that have the potential to produce biodiesel are Spirulina platensis and Nannochloropsis oculate . The cultivation of the two types of microalgae was carried out in the domestic wastewater media of Jakarta City by providing 24-hour lighting with UV-A and UV-B. The specific growth rates of Spirulina platensis and Nannochloropsis oculate were not much different, namely 0.0279 h -1 and 0.0282 h -1 . The microalgae Spirulina platensis and Nannochloropsis oculate respectively reduced NH 3 -N nutrients by 82% and 80%, while PO 4 3 -P was 65.2% and 63.7%. The pH value during processing shows in the normal pH range. Total dissolved solids (TDS) in the processing process also decreased in a span of 48 hours.

Over the years, the diesel engine has been used in several marines, automobiles, locomotives, and agriculture applications due to its high efficiency and high-power torque capacity. However, the use of a diesel engine increases the rate of harmful pollutants like soot and NOx. This study aims to reduce engine emissions while simultaneously enhancing engine performance by using dual biodiesel emulsified fuel. For the preparation of the test fuel, a B20 Castor - Jatropha biodiesel blend (10% Castor + 10% Jatropha + 80% Diesel v/v %) was selected. Furthermore, for the preparation of emulsified test fuel, the concentration of water (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 v/v %), surfactant (1, 2 v/v %) and HLB ratio (4.3, 5.3, 6) varies in the given range, respectively. During the experiment, parameters such as the stability of the fuel, engine performance, combustion, and emission analysis were carried out, comparing the test fuels with diesel. As the engine does not constantly operate at its full-rated load throughout its entire life, the results were therefore multiplied by the engine load factor. Our experiments demonstrated that the test fuel with a 5% water concentration formed the best-emulsified fuel. This fuel had a 14% higher BTE, 42% higher CO2, and ~60% lower NOx. Apart from this, the test fuel showed better combustion and performance characteristics than diesel and other emulsified fuels. The present work concludes that 20% of biodiesel, 2% surfactants, 5% water and 5.3 of HLB ratio shows reduced harmful engine emissions and improve engine performance.

Biodiesel is an eco-friendly, renewable, and potential liquid biofuel mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Biodiesel has been produced initially from vegetable oils, non-edible oils, and waste oils. However, these feedstocks have several disadvantages such as requirement of land and labor and remain expensive. Similarly, in reference to waste oils, the feedstock content is succinct in supply and unable to meet the demand. Recent studies demonstrated utilization of lignocellulosic substrates for biodiesel production using oleaginous microorganisms. These microbes accumulate higher lipid content under stress conditions, whose lipid composition is similar to vegetable oils. In this paper, feedstocks used for biodiesel production such as vegetable oils, non-edible oils, oleaginous microalgae, fungi, yeast, and bacteria have been illustrated. Thereafter, steps enumerated in biodiesel production from lignocellulosic substrates through pretreatment, saccharification and oleaginous microbe-mediated fermentation, lipid extraction, transesterification, and purification of biodiesel are discussed. Besides, the importance of metabolic engineering in ensuring biofuels and biorefinery and a brief note on integration of liquid biofuels have been included that have significant importance in terms of circular economy aspects. Fil: Chintagunta, Anjani Devi. Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and Research. Department of Biotechnology; India Fil: Zuccaro, Gaetano. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Francia. Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II; Italia Fil: Kumar, Mahesh. Central Agricultural University; India Fil: Kumar, S. P. Jeevan. Indian Institute of Seed Science; India. Directorate of Floricultural Research; India Fil: Garlapati, Vijay Kumar. Jaypee University of Information Technology; India Fil: Postemsky, Pablo Daniel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Bahía Blanca. Centro de Recursos Naturales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida. Universidad Nacional del Sur. Centro de Recursos Naturales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida; Argentina Fil: Kumar, N. S. Sampath. Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and Research. Department of Biotechnology; India Fil: Chandel, Anuj K.. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Simal Gandara, Jesus. Universidad de Vigo; España

Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly fuel, produced by a transesterification process using homogeneous catalyst which causes water pollution and cannot be recycled. The present study utilizes industrial brine sludge waste (IBSW) as a heterogeneous catalyst in the transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel. One variable at a time design was applied to optimize the transesterification process. The process variables were varied as follows: methanol to oil weight ratio (10–50 %), reaction time (0.5–2.5 h), reaction temperature (30–90 °C) and catalyst to oil weight ratio (0.84–4.2 %). The IBSW before and after calcination and the transesterification process was characterized using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Biodiesel was produced at maximum yield of 95.51 wt% at reaction time, temperature methanol to oil weight ratio, and catalyst to oil weight ratio of 1 hour, 60 °C, 30 wt%, and 2.52 wt% respectively. The FTIR and SEM results confirms that before and after the transesterification process the modification of IBSW took place. Using the ideal process conditions, biodiesel was produced and vital fuel properties such as viscosity, density, pour point and flash point were measured and were found to be within the specification as per American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) standards for biodiesel. The reusability of the IBSW catalyst was tested by recycling and it can be established that the catalyst can be utilized up to four times without affecting its catalytic activity.

In biodiesel production by trans-esterification, one of the essential compound is glycerin. Global glycerin production is increasing significantly, projecting a global value reduction for glycerol. Consequently the scientific community had been encouraged to investigate converting glycerol into more valuable products. In this research, the primary sources and processes of biodiesel production are surveyed. Where the processes that involve glycerin are reviewed and the diesel engine performance and emissions under variant states are discussed. According to the results of this study, it is reported that the choice of an optimal diesel/biodiesel significantly depends on the materials, additives and the engine condition. Glycerol etherification, carboxylation, and glycerol carbonate, however, had been identified as the widely manufactured and used additives. It is further observed that the use of these such additives has reduced several emissions, which is an important factor. In addition, it is suggested that using glycerin additives improves the properties of biodiesel. Acetone, on the other hand is introduced as one of the most important additives in the combination of diesel and biodiesel fuel due to the reduction of maximum emission. The presence of hydroxyl groups can reduce NOx. Finally, the diethyl ether additive can be mentioned which increases the thermal efficiency and increases the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC).

Methyl ester biodiesel was produced from Moringa Oleifera oil and Jatropha Curcas oil with the sole aim of assessing the feasibility of the feedstocks as viable sources of biodiesel in Botswana. Oil extraction and transesterification were carried out under identical experimental conditions for both Jatropha Curcas and Moringa Oleifera biomass. Oil was extracted from seeds through a soxhlet extraction method using the solvent, n-hexane. The extracted oil was then trans-esterified at 60 °C using a methanol/oil ratio of 12:1 at a stirring rate of 350 rpm, 3 wt. % catalyst loading and 120 min reaction time. Zinc Oxide modified with fly ash was used as heterogeneous catalyst for the process. GC analysis results of biodiesels produced indicated that the highest biodiesel yield was obtained from Jatropha seed oil. Moringa biodiesel showed a greater proportion of docosanedioic acid while Jatropha biodiesel composed of oleic acid in larger proportions. Both oleic and docosanedioic acid are unsaturated methyl esters. The results obtained suggests Jatropha as the more suitable feedstock as compared to Moringa.

Berdasarkan karakteristiknya biodiesel memiliki densitas, viskositas, serta tingkat keasaman yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan bahan bakar solar, sehingga memiliki kekurangan dari sisi pelumas terutama dalam jangka panjang. Dampaknya berupa penurunan nilai viskositas kinematik pelumas, penurunan total base number hingga berdampak pada penurunan kinerja mesin. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui karakteristik pelumas yang dihasilkan dari penggunaan biodiesel (B20 dan B100) terhadap nilai viskositas kinematik pelumas dan Total Base Number (TBN). Metode pengujian menggunakan standard ASTM D2896-15 dan ASTM D445-06. Penelitian ini menggunakan dua unit mesin diesel Kubota RD 65 DI-NB dengan volume silinder masing-masing mesin 376 cc. Mesin dikopel dengan generator untuk menyalakan lampu halogen dengan total daya 4000 W. Kedua mesin menggunakan bahan bakar berbeda, mesin pertama diisi dengan bahan bakar B20 dan mesin kedua diisi dengan bahan bakar B100 dari minyak sawit. Kecepatan putar mesin dijaga konstan pada 2200 rpm dan mesin dioperasikan selama 300 jam tanpa henti, dan setiap kelipatan 100 jam dilakukan pengambilan sampel pelumas. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian kualitas pelumas berbahan bakar B100 tidak lebih baik dibandingkan pelumas berbahan bakar B20. Pelumas berbahan bakar B100 memiliki nilai viskositas kinematik pada suhu 40 °C dan 100 °C serta nilai TBN yang lebih rendah dibandingkan pelumas berbahan bakar B20.

Jatropha biodiesel produced from Jatropha podagrica oil by alkaline-catalysed transesterification was blended with diesel in the ratios of 88:12 wt% (B88) and 12:88 wt% (B12). The fuel properties, consumption rate and exhaust gas emission characteristics of J. podagrica biodiesel, diesel and their blends were assessed. The results showed that J. podagrica seed oil have similar fatty acid profile with those of Jatropha curcas cultivated in Thailand and other South-East Asian countries. Blending of J. podagrica biodiesel and diesel enhanced the fuel properties of the blends, similar to those of the diesel. However, the B88 blend emitted lesser pollutants when compared to B12 and petrol diesel, making it very ideal for use as a promising alternative to the petrol diesel used in the mini tractor for farming activities. The results from the current study form a basis for further research on the use of B88 as a fuel source.

Oil from neem and yellow oleander seeds were extracted using Soxhlet extractor with normal hexane as solvent and characterized using standard methods and their Physico chemical properties determined. The results revealed that the oil yields of neem and yellow oleander seeds are 38.80% and 49.69% respectively. Both oil samples contain high free fatty acid values, 8.77% for neem and 7.21% for yellow oleander. The characterization revealed the following results for neem seed oil; saponification value = 185.50 mg KOH/g, acid value = 17.54 mg KOH/g, iodine value = 58 mg I/100g, peroxide value = 7.95 mg/peroxide/kg, viscosity at 40 °C = 37.80 mm/s2, specific gravity = 0.87, and refractive index = 1.469 while saponification value = 196.30 mg KOH/g, acid value = 14.42 mg KOH/g, iodine value = 81 mg I/100g, peroxide value = 4.20 mg/peroxide/kg, viscosity at 40 °C = 31.40 mm/s2, specific gravity = 0.96, and refractive index = 1.467 for yellow oleander seed oil. The results of the experimental analyses carried out in this study indicate that neem and yellow oleander seeds are high-yielding and good sources of oil for commercial biodiesel production. Values obtained for physico chemical properties of the extracted oils fall within the acceptable limits for oils suitable for biodiesel production by international standards. High free fatty values obtained revealed that the oils must undergo acid esterification before transesterification to avoid the formation of soap.

This study uses broiler chicken eggshells to enhance catalytic activity of clay obtained from Pasaman Barat (West Sumatra, Indonesia) in lab-scale biodiesel production. The eggshell is a source of calcium oxide (CaO) which operates as a catalyst when mixed with the clay (Ca-Clay). Two other catalysts were also prepared as comparisons by 1) heating the clay at 800 oC for 6 hours (P-Clay), 2) mixing the P-Clay with KOH (K-Clay). An X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) showed the elemental composition of Ca-Clay contained Ca, Si, Al, and Fe. An X-ray Diffraction (XRD) showed the formation of highly crystalline CaO in the Ca-Clay with the main peak at 2θ = 37.27o. The Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) spectrum showed an absorption peak in the range of 700-900 cm-1 indicating Ca-O stretching demonstrating successful incorporation of the CaO into the clay. The catalytic activity test showed the Ca-Clay had a higher catalytic performance than P-Clay and K-Clay in terms of the yield of biodiesel produced (73%). Copyright © 2021 by Authors, Published by BCREC Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0).

Biodiesel has gained wide acceptance as an alternative energy source despite its high cost of production. This study investigated the possibility of lowering the cost of biodiesel production by exploring the use of readily available biological materials such as egg-shell (ES), pineapple peel (PP) and cow bone (CB) as catalysts. The effect of the refining process on the chemical properties of used vegetable oil was also examined. The refined oil was transesterified and biodiesel yield of 76%, 78% and 88.3% were obtained for ES, PP and CB catalyzed biodiesel samples, respectively. The three biodiesel samples were found to be of close physicochemical properties and good biodiesel potentials going by the ASTM and EN standards. It was also observed that the chemical properties such as the acid, free fatty acid and iodine value of the used vegetable oils greatly improved after the degumming process.