Search

Lysin motif receptor–like kinases (LysM-RLKs) are involved in the perception of chitooligosaccharides (COs) and related lipochitooligosaccharides (LCOs) in plants. Expansion and divergence of the gene family during evolution have led to various roles in symbiosis and defense. By studying proteins of the LYR-IA subclass of LysM-RLKs of the Poaceae , we show here that they are high-affinity LCO-binding proteins with a lower affinity for COs, consistent with a role in LCO perception to establish arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM). In Papilionoid legumes, whole-genome duplication has resulted in two LYR-IA paralogs, MtLYR1 and MtNFP in Medicago truncatul a, with MtNFP playing an essential role in root nodule symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia. We show that MtLYR1 has retained the ancestral LCO-binding characteristic and is dispensable for AM. Domain swapping between the three LysMs of MtNFP and MtLYR1 and mutagenesis in MtLYR1 suggest that the MtLYR1 LCO-binding site is on the second LysM and that divergence in MtNFP led to better nodulation, but surprisingly with decreased LCO binding. These results suggest that divergence of the LCO-binding site has been important for the evolution of a role of MtNFP in nodulation with rhizobia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whilst many interactions with fungi are detrimental for plants, others are beneficial and result in improved growth and stress tolerance. Thus, plants have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to restrict pathogenic interactions while promoting mutualistic relationships. Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of nitric oxide (NO) in the regulation of plant defence against fungal pathogens. NO triggers a reprograming of defence-related gene expression, the production of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial properties, and the hypersensitive response. More recent studies have shown a regulatory role of NO during the establishment of plant–fungal mutualistic associations from the early stages of the interaction. Indeed, NO has been recently shown to be produced by the plant after the recognition of root fungal symbionts, and to be required for the optimal control of mycorrhizal symbiosis. Although studies dealing with the function of NO in plant–fungal mutualistic associations are still scarce, experimental data indicate that different regulation patterns and functions for NO exist between plant interactions with pathogenic and mutualistic fungi. Here, we review recent progress in determining the functions of NO in plant–fungal interactions, and try to identify common and differential patterns related to pathogenic and mutualistic associations, and their impacts on plant health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genome sequence of Tricholoma vaccinum was obtained to predict its secretome in order to elucidate communication of T. vaccinum with its host tree spruce (Picea abies) in interkingdom signaling. The most prominent protein domains within the 206 predicted secreted proteins belong to energy and nutrition (52%), cell wall degradation (19%) and mycorrhiza establishment (9%). Additionally, we found small secreted proteins that show typical features of effectors potentially involved in host communication. From the secretome, 22 proteins could be identified, two of which showed higher protein abundances after spruce root exudate exposure, while five were downregulated in this treatment. The changes in T. vaccinum protein excretion with first recognition of the partner were used to identify small secreted proteins with the potential to act as effectors in the mutually beneficial symbiosis. Our observations support the hypothesis of a complex communication network including a cocktail of communication molecules induced long before physical contact of the partners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study which examines the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) genes on the growth of sorghum, wheat and barley plants. It states that AM symbiosis shows strong growth stimulation on sorghum where as with barley and wheat it shows growth depression. The result of the study reveals that the fungal vesicles were formed more in barley and wheat as compare to sorghum.

The majority of plants are able to form the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis in association with AM fungi. During symbiosis development, plant cells undergo a complex reprogramming resulting in profound morphological and physiological changes. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important components of the regulatory network of plant cells. To unravel the impact of miRNAs and miRNA-mediated mRNA cleavage on root cell reprogramming during AM symbiosis, we carried out high- throughput (Illumina) sequencing of small RNAs and degradome tags of Medicago truncatula roots. This led to the annotation of 243 novel miRNAs. An increased accumulation of several novel and conserved miRNAs in mycorrhizal roots suggest a role of these miRNAs during AM symbiosis. The degradome analysis led to the identification of 185 root transcripts as mature miRNA and also miRNA*-mediated mRNA cleavage targets. Several of the identified miRNA targets are known to be involved in root symbioses. In summary, the increased accumulation of specific miRNAs and the miRNA-mediated cleavage of symbiosis-relevant genes indicate that miRNAs are an important part of the regulatory network leading to symbiosis development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of plants are able to form the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis in association with AM fungi. During symbiosis development, plant cells undergo a complex reprogramming resulting in profound morphological and physiological changes. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important components of the regulatory network of plant cells. To unravel the impact of miRNAs and miRNA-mediated mRNA cleavage on root cell reprogramming during AM symbiosis, we carried out high- throughput (Illumina) sequencing of small RNAs and degradome tags of Medicago truncatula roots. This led to the annotation of 243 novel miRNAs. An increased accumulation of several novel and conserved miRNAs in mycorrhizal roots suggest a role of these miRNAs during AM symbiosis. The degradome analysis led to the identification of 185 root transcripts as mature miRNA and also miRNA*-mediated mRNA cleavage targets. Several of the identified miRNA targets are known to be involved in root symbioses. In summary, the increased accumulation of specific miRNAs and the miRNA-mediated cleavage of symbiosis-relevant genes indicate that miRNAs are an important part of the regulatory network leading to symbiosis development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biosynthesis of the recently identified novel class of plant hormones, strigolactones, is up-regulated upon phosphate deficiency in many plant species. It is generally accepted that the evolutionary origin of strigolactone up-regulation is their function as a rhizosphere signal that stimulates hyphal branching of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. In this work, we demonstrate that this induction is conserved in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), although Arabidopsis is not a host for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. We demonstrate that the increase in strigolactone production contributes to the changes in shoot architecture observed in response to phosphate deficiency. Using high-performance liquid chromatography, column chro-matography, multiple reaction monitoring-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis, we identified two strigolactones (orobanchol and orobanchyl acetate) in Arabidopsis and have evidence of the presence of a third (5-deoxystrigol). We show that at least one of them (orobanchol) is strongly reduced in the putative strigolactone biosynthetic mutants more axillary growth! (maxl) and max4 but not in the signal transduction mutant max!. Orobanchol was also detected in xylem sap and up-regulated under phosphate deficiency, which is consistent with the idea that root-derived strigolactones are transported to the shoot, where they regulate branching. Moreover, two additional putative strigolactone-like compounds were detected in xylem sap, one of which was not detected in root exudates. Together, these results show that xylem-transported strigolactones contribute to the regulation of shoot architectural response to phosphate-limiting conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pseudomonas fluorescens C7R12 was previously shown to promote colonization of Medicago truncatula roots by Glomus mosseae BEG12. To gain more insight into the interaction between C7R12 and BEG12, the cell organization of C7R12 was characterized on adventitious roots mycorrhized or not with BEG12 and on extraradical hyphae. Bacterial cell observations were made using the immuno-fluorescence technique and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Five types of cell organization, so-called organization types (OT), were identified: small or large single cells, cells by pair and cells in microcolonies or in strings. The frequencies of each OT on the roots were expressed as the percentage of observations in which these OTs were represented. The OT frequencies on mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal roots differed significantly. Bacterial cells were more frequently single on mycorrhizal than on nonmycorrhizal roots, and in microcolonies and strings on nonmycorrhizal roots. Furthermore, the root area covered by bacterial cells, as assessed by image analysis, appeared to be significantly lower on mycorrhizal than on nonmycorrhizal roots. C7R12 cells were abundant on extraradical hyphae and organized both as single cells and microcolonies. Taken together, these results suggest that P. fluorescens C7R12 cells were less active and less abundant on mycorrhizal than on nonmycorrhizal roots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different symbiotic mycorrhizal associations between plants and fungi occur, almost ubiquitously, in a wide range of terrestrial ecosystems. Historically, these have mainly been considered within the rather narrow perspective of their effects on the uptake of dissolved mineral nutrients by individual plants. More recent research has placed emphasis on a wider, multifunctional perspective, including the effects of mycorrhizal symbiosis on plant and microbial communities, and on ecosystem processes. This includes mobilization of N and P from organic polymers, release of nutrients from mineral particles or rock surfaces via weathering, effects on carbon cycling, interactions with myco-heterotrophic plants, mediation of plant responses to stress factors such as drought, soil acidification, toxic metals, and plant pathogens, as well as a range of possible interactions with groups of other soil micro-organisms. Mycorrhizal fungi connect their plant hosts to the heterogeneously distributed nutrients required for their growth, enabling the flow of energy-rich compounds required for nutrient mobilization whilst simultaneously providing conduits for the translocation of mobilized products back to their hosts. In addition to increasing the nutrient absorptive surface area of their host plant root systems, the extraradical mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi provides a direct pathway for translocation of photosynthetically derived carbon to microsites in the soil and a large surface area for interaction with other micro-organisms. The detailed functioning and regulation of these mycorrhizosphere processes is still poorly understood but recent progress is reviewed and potential benefits of improved understanding of mycorrhizosphere interactions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Tuber rufum is a truffle widely distributed throughout Europe, which forms mycorrhizal associations with numerous species of broadleaf and coniferous trees. The possibility of T. rufum contamination in commercial truffle-infected plants makes its detection important. To facilitate the identification of T. rufum from mycorrhiza and fruitbodies, species-specific primers were designed and tested. To overcome the high intraspecific genetic variability within the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of T. rufum, as demonstrated by phylogenetic analysis, two forward primers, Ru1f and Ru2f, located on the ITS1 region were designed to be used in concert with the reverse primer ITS4. Only T. rufum was amplified with this primer combination, while DNA of Tuber magnatum, Tuber brumale, Tuber maculatum, Tuber borchii, Tuber excavatum and Tuber melanosporum was not. These primers give a specific amplicon ranging between 566 and 572 bp and are able to discriminate between T. rufum, T. borchii and T. magnatum in multiplex PCR. In addition, T. rufum-specific amplicons were obtained from both spore suspensions and mycorrhiza by direct PCR. Tuber rufum mycorrhiza obtained in the greenhouse using mycelial inoculation techniques had morphological features similar to those of other species of Tuber, stressing the importance of molecular tools for their identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to establishing symbiotic relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, legumes also enter into a nitrogen-fixing symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria that results in the formation of root nodules. Several genes involved in the development of both arbuscular mycorrhiza and legume nodulation have been cloned in model legumes. Among them, Medicago truncatula DMI1 (DOESN'T MAKE INFECTIONSI) is required for the generation of nucleus-associated calcium spikes in response to the rhizobial signaling molecule Nod factor. DMI1 encodes a membrane protein with striking similarities to the Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum potassium channel (MthK). The cytosolic C terminus of DMI1 contains a RCK (regulator of the conductance of K+) domain that in MthK acts as a calcium-regulated gating ring controlling the activity of the channel. Here we show that a dmi1 mutant lacking the entire C terminus acts as a dominant-negative allele interfering with the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules and abolishing the induction of calcium spikes by the C-protein agonist Mastoparan. Using both the full-length DMI1 and this dominant-negative mutant protein we show that DMI1 increases the sensitivity of a sodium- and lithium-hypersensitive yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) mutant toward those ions and that the C-terminal domain plays a central role in regulating this response. We also show that DMI1 greatly reduces the release of calcium from internal stores in yeast, while the dominant-negative allele appears to have the opposite effect. This work suggests that DMI1 is not directly responsible for Nod factor-induced calcium changes, but does have the capacity to regulate calcium channels in both yeast and plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on research into the chemical identification of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM)-related apocarotenoids and their role in the regulation and establishment of AM symbiosis conducted in the last decade. Strigolactones act as chemical signal for AM fungi during presymbiotic stages. Stimulation of carotenoid metabolism occurs during root colonization by AM fungi.

The mutualistic interaction in arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is characterized by an exchange of mineral nutrients and carbon. The major benefit of AM, which is the supply of phosphate to the plant, and the stimulation of mycorrhization by low phosphate fertilization has been well studied. However, less is known about the regulatory function of carbon availability on AM formation. Here the effect of enhanced levels of hexoses in the root, the main form of carbohydrate used by the fungus, on AM formation was analyzed. Modulation of the root carbohydrate status was performed by expressing genes encoding a yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)-derived invertase, which was directed to different subcellular locations. Using tobacco (Nicotiana tabacuin) alc::cwINV plants, the yeast invertase was induced in the whole root system or in root parts. Despite increased hexose levels hi these roots, we did not detect any effect on the colonization with Glomus intraradices analyzed by assessment of fungal structures and the level of fungus-specific palmitvaccenic acid, indicative for the fungal carbon supply, or the plant phosphate content. Roots of Medicago truncatula, transformed to express genes encoding an apoplast-, cytosol-, or vacuolar-located yeast- derived invertase, had increased hexose-to-sucrose ratios compared to β-glucuronidase-transformed roots. However, transformations with the invertase genes did not affect mycorrhization. These data suggest the carbohydrate supply in AM cannot be improved by root-specifically increased hexose levels, implying that under normal conditions sufficient carbon is available in mycorrhizal roots. In contrast, tobacco roIC::ppa plants with defective phloem loading and tobacco pyk10::InvInh plants with decreased acid invertase activity in roots exhibited a diminished mycorrhization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycorrhizae occur in nearly all terrestrial ecosystems. Resource exchange between host plants and mycorrhizal fungi influences community, ecosystem, and even global patterns and processes. Understanding the mechanisms and consequences of mycorrhizal symbioses across a hierarchy of scales will help predict system responses to environmental change and facilitate the management of these responses for sustainability and productivity. Conceptual and mathematical models have been developed to help understand and predict mycorrhizal functions. These models are most developed for individual- and population-scale processes, but models at community, ecosystem, and global scales are also beginning to emerge. We review seven types of mycorrhizal models that vary in their scale of resolution and dynamics, and discuss approaches for integrating these models with each other and with general models of terrestrial ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the symbiotic interaction between Medicago truncatula and the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus Glomus intraradices, an endogenous increase in jasmonic acid (JA) occurs. Two full-length cDNAs coding for the JA-biosynthetic enzyme allene oxide cyclase (AOC) from M. truncatula, designated as MtAOC1 and MtAOC2, were cloned and characterized. The AOC protein was localized in plastids and found to occur constitutively in all vascular tissues of M. truncatula. In leaves and roots, MtAOCs are expressed upon JA application. Enhanced expression was also observed during mycorrhization with G. intraradices. A partial suppression of MtAOC expression was achieved in roots following transformation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes harboring the MtAOC1 cDNA in the antisense direction under control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. In comparison to samples transformed with 35S:: uidA, roots with suppressed MtAOC1 expression exhibited lower JA levels and a remarkable delay in the process of colonization with G. intraradices. Both the mycorrhization rate, quantified by fungal rRNA, and the arbuscule formation, analyzed by the expression level of the AM-specific gene MtPT4, were affected. Staining of fungal material in roots with suppressed MtAOC1 revealed a decreased number of arbuscules, but these did not exhibit an altered structure. Our results indicate a crucial role for JA in the establishment of AM symbiosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current hypotheses on the origin of the fungus-attine ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) symbiosis propose, as an ancestral first step in the development of fungal cultivation, fortuitous feeding on fungi growing adventitiously on substrates such as rotting wood, insect parts, seeds stored by ants in nests, regurgitated infrabuccal pellets, free-living soil fungi, or mycorrhizae. However, feeding-deterrent fungi regularly colonize these substrates. De novo feeding on these fungi by the attine ancestor is unlikely because the almost universal presence of mycotoxins on adventitious fungi is a formidable barrier to mycophagy. In addition, there is no evolutionary history of mycophagy in the Hymenoptera. Instead, I propose that attine mycophagy began from opportunistic, selective feeding on wood-colonizing fungi previously "domesticated" by other insects: ambrosia beetles: (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae or Platypodinae); and less likely, woodwasps (Hymenoptera: Siricoidea). Attine ancestors foraged for beetle brood and fungal biomass in the galleries of those insects, which provided the attine ancestor with fungi that were nutritious and nontoxic to insects. The invading ants' debris (fecal spots, exuviae, meconia, and saliva) possibly allowed the growth of the "good" domesticated fungi in galleries, while ants mechanically eliminated undesirable ones. Feeding on beetle fungi first allowed the development of broad mycophagy in ants, and, later, of the gardening habits. Subsequently, more restricted, specific mycophagy evolved. Only after serious barriers were overcome did incipient mycophagy develop, followed by cultivation. The ambrosia fungi-lined beetle galleries in wood provide one location favorable for this sequence. An analogous progression in mycophagy and incipient fungus manipulation, departing from the onmivore diet has occurred in Megalomyrmex ants that feed parasitically on brood and/or fungus gardens of attines. Colonies of the ancestral attine... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study that obtained insights into the transcriptional alterations associated with the development of a mycorrhizal symbiosis between Medicago truncatula and an arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus, Glomus versiforme, using cDNA arrays and expression profiling. Arrays and experimental materials; Differential gene expression in the AM symbiosis; Specificity of expression of mycorrhiza-induced genes.

Focuses on the modification of the gene expression pattern in plants and fungi through the establishment of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Bidirectional transfer of nutrients between symbionts; Role of the electrochemical gradient in the transfer of nutrients across the plasma membrane; Isolation of a fungal circular DNA clone.

In situ 13C pulse labelling was used to measure the temporal and spatial carbon flow through an upland grassland. The label was delivered as 13C‐CO2 to vegetation in three replicate plots in each of two treatments: control and lime addition. Harvests occurred over a two month period and samples were taken along transects away from the label delivery area. The 13C concentration of shoot, root, bulk soil, and soil‐respired CO2 was measured. There was no difference in the biomass and 13C concentration of shoot and root material for the control and lime treatments meaning that the amount of 13C‐CO2 assimilated by the vegetation and translocated below ground was the same in both treatments. The 13C concentration of the bulk soil was lower in the lime treatment than in the control and, conversely, the 13C concentration of the soil‐respired CO2 was higher in the lime. Unlike the difference in bulk soil 13C concentration between treatments, the difference in the 13C concentration of the soil‐respired CO2 was obvious only at the delivery site and primarily within 1 d after labelling. An observed increase in the abundance of mycorrhizal fungi in the lime treatment was a possible cause for this faster carbon throughput. The potential key role of mycorrhizas in the soil carbon cycle is discussed. The importance of a better understanding of soil processes, especially biological ones, in relation to the global carbon cycle and environmental change is highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on mycorrhiza with specific reference to the importance of mycorrhiza to trees and theories on mycorrhizal fungi. It refers to a study by researcher J. M. Janse in 1897, which described the endotrophic mycorrhiza of coffee in humus rich soils in Java and postulated an external source of carbon used by the fungi. The article presents recent observations from Amazon Forests where the Alpha Helix research vessel of Scripps Institute of the University of California at San Diego, was employed. It proposes a theory based on observations of soils over a wide area of the Amazon Basin, which explains how minerals are recycled.

The article discusses the relationship between mycelia and tree nutrition. Research showed that tree growth was aborted when soil lacked symbiotic fungi, notwithstanding the abundant supply of key nutrients. This paper defies the traditional view on symbiotic relationship between trees and fungi by citing scientific findings that raise questions on the role of mycelia in nutrient absorption. The author explains the symbiosis otherwise by proposing the liberation of nutrients from raw organics through fungi-aided chelation.

Background and Aims Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is currently viewed as an adaptation to water deficit. In plants of Clusia minor, which grow mostly on acidic, P-deficient soils, CAM is induced by water deficit. The symbiosis between plants and mycorrhizal fungi alleviates the symptoms of P deficiency and may influence drought resistance. Therefore, the effect of P supply, modified by three different experimental treatments, on the induction of CAM by drought in C. minor was investigated to test the hypothesis that P deficiency will produce greater CAM activity and, in addition, that treatment will modify drought tolerance. Methods Seedlings were grown in forest soil sterilized and inoculated with Scutellospora fulgida (SF treatment), sterilized and supplemented with P (Ph treatment) or non-sterilized and containing native mycorrhizae (Nat treatment). Leaf turgor potential (ψT) was determined psychrometrically, and CAM activity as nocturnal acid accumulation (ΔH+) by titration of dawn and dusk leaf sap. Key Results Plant mass and P content were higher in SF and Ph than in Nat seedlings. After 21 d of water deficit, ψT increased in SF, decreased in Ph and remained unchanged in Nat, and, after 7 and 14 d of water deficit, ΔH+ in Nat was three times higher than at the beginning of drought, whereas in SF and Ph ΔH+ was lower than on day 0. Conclusions P deficiency in Nat seedlings was ameliorated by inoculation or P addition. The SF and Nat seedlings showed greater tolerance of drought than Ph. P deficiency promoted the induction of CAM by drought in Nat seedlings, whereas P fertilization and mycorrhization did not. Nocturnal acid accumulation was highly and negatively correlated with plant P and N contents, indicating that P and N deficiencies are promoters of CAM in droughted plants of C. minor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the role of Jasmonic Acid in establishing Arbuscular Mycorrhizae in the legume fodder crop. Feature of the mutual symbiosis; Main symbiotic organs involved in the exchange of nutrients; Details on the establishment of Arbuscular Mycorrhizae.