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The article presents a study reviewing the literature relating to empirical studies of the acreage and production response to the direct payments made to U.S. farmers under the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 and related payments under additional legislation. Empirical studies indicate that the payments may have influence over planted area and possibly the use of variable inputs, particularly farm household labor. Payment variables are sometimes statistically insignificant and they imply that each type of payment increased planted area and on-farm work hours by less than 5%. Panel data collected annually over a period of several years would make it possible to assess longer run impacts of direct payments on farm decision-making.

The 2014 Farm Bill required farmers and landowners to make a set of one-time, irrevocable decisions lasting for the duration of the farm bill. The decisions included the choice between three program alternatives with uncertain payments. To aid in making those decisions, the farm bill funded two key educational efforts: (a) the development of two online decision tools and (b) additional funding to support land grant institutions and extension systems to educate farmers through more traditional extension mediums, particularly in-person meetings. This paper provides an evaluation of both types of farm bill education through two case studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is generally believed that the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (SHTA) of 1930 was an electoral response on the part of the Republican Party to Midwestern farmers' concerns in the 1928 general election which via the legislative process (pork-barreling and log-rolling) was transformed into a generalized upwards tariff revision. There are, however, problems with this view, not the least of which is the fact that the farmers themselves were well aware of the fact that higher tariffs would not improve their lot, and hence favored the price support/equalization measures found in the Haugen-McNary Farm Relief Bill. This paper presents an alternative explanation. Specifically, it is argued that the SHTA had its origins in manufacturing states where the demand for a comprehensive upward revision of tariffs was transformed via the electoral process - and not the legislative process - into an omnibus upward tariff revision that included agriculture. The omnibus nature of the bill, it is argued, was intended as both (i) an electoral strategy and (ii) a hedge against near-certain revolt in rural America over anticipated higher prices for manufactures. We show that while successful electorally (i.e., in the 1928 presidential election), the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Bill fell apart in the legislature in the summer of 1929 when 13 Insurgent Republicans broke with the party to vote with the Democrats to lower tariffs on manufactures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feral swine have created significant problems for numerous agricultural and environmental communities across the United States. Attempts by states to regulate them under agricultural and environmental law have yielded commentary from diverse members of agricultural, environmental, business, and general community members. Michigan is one state that is currently dealing with questions and opposition regarding how to regulate feral swine. This paper examines arguments for and against feral swine regulation from the stakeholders of the agricultural community, and also examines the critical role of the government in executing the political, executive, and legal policy framework of Michigan's agriculture. Further, it examines the role of the courts in weighing the concerns and legal arguments of these diverse members of the community. The takeaway is that this is a topic that exhibits multiple and often-conflicting concerns from the diverse members that comprise Michigan's agricultural community. This is also a topic that exhibits that, even when members of the community share a goal, there may be obstacles in the process that impede that goal. Further, this topic has a far-reaching impact and deserves discussion. Because feral swine have the potential for immense impact on agriculture, the environment, and the economy, the steps and missteps of Michigan's successes and failures can serve as an example for other states who face similar regulatory challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various reports published within the issue about contributions of the Farm Bill on fish and wildlife in the U.S.

From 2004 until 2006, reform of US agricultural subsidy programmes seemed a likely result of pressure from the World Trade Organization. Many groups saw this pressure as an opportunity to 'green' farm policy by crafting environmental service payments that could replace crop subsidies. Yet the 2008 US farm bill fell short of such drastic changes. This paper uses discourse analysis to trace the decline of prospects for reform of the farm bill, and a shift to incremental policy making between 2006 and 2008. It finds that, in addition to political and situational factors, striking discursive shifts altered policy debates and outcomes to create particular conservation impacts. It thus argues for broader use of rhetoric theory and discourse analysis to assess environmental policy. Implications for land conservation are presented in the context of interest group tactics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the effects of the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) on land values. A theoretical model is presented to analyze the interaction between farmers' CRP participation decisions and land values. Empirical models are estimated to evaluate the effects of the CRP on land values. Results suggest that CRP participation had the largest effects in the Mountain, Southern Plains, and Northern Plains regions, where it increased average farmland values by 5% to 14%, 4% to 6%, and 2% to 5%, respectively. The CRP also had a statistically significant effect on developed land values, but the percentage increases were smaller. Implications of the results for the design of conservation programs are discussed. (JEL Q24, Q28) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper surveys some recent developments in contract theory and illustrates how this theory might be useful for conceptualising policy issues related to vertical coordination and contracting in the agro-food industry. The article begins by surveying contract theory to identify key economic distortions that can potentially justify government involvement. Next, the general ingredients of agricultural contracts that are most likely to create inefficiencies are discussed. Finally, controversial aspects of real-world agricultural contracts are highlighted and lessons from the theory are used to determine whether government intervention is justified. Actual legislation that has been proposed in the USA is analysed where appropriate and topics that await further research are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By looking at both the EU and US agricultural context, this essay reflects on the implementation of big data into agricultural legal practice, on regulations the implementation may require and on potential changes it brings into the legal realm of agriculture. The first part discusses big data's potential for agriculture, together with problems and dilemmas arising from it. The second section reviews the main legal problems information exchange poses between farmers and ATPs, by analysing the normative questions on ownership, privacy and security of big farm data. The final part showes the possible perspectives the issue opens in the agricultural sphere, by using the concepts of "open data" and "data philanthropy" as institutional and procedural patterns to follow to achieve more knowledgeable and sustainable agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2018 United States Farm Bill has opened the possibility for farmers to increase their profits through hemp cultivation. The literature suggests hemp has the potential to replace soybeans in soybean–wheat double-cropping because hemp shares key attributes of soybeans as a rotation crop (profitability, potential as an energy crop, and maintenance of soil fertility). Nonetheless, due to a short history of hemp cultivation in the USA, it is difficult to predict a time series relationship between hemp, soybean, and wheat through conventional approaches. In this article, we use Bayesian time series models and data from Statistics Canada and the Alberta Agricultural and Rural Development Department to examine a time series relationship between hemp, wheat, and soybean acreage and therefore predict farmers' decision when hemp is a legal alternative agricultural commodity. Our results show evidence of complementary and substitution relationships for hemp–wheat and hemp–soybean, respectively. In addition, the results indicate a potential of hemp monoculture as a positive response to self-positive shock on hemp acreage that lasts for years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses increasing differentiation of U.S. dietary components by socioeconomic strata and its health implications. While upper-income groups have had increasing access to higher-quality foods, lower-to-middle-income class diets are heavily focused on “energy-dense” fares. This neoliberal diet is clearly associated with the proliferation of obesity that disproportionately affects the poor. We provide a critical review of the debate about obesity from within the critical camp in food studies, between individual-focused and structural perspectives. Using official data, we show how the US diet has evolved since the 1960s to a much greater emphasis on refined carbohydrates and vegetable oils. Inequality is demonstrated by dividing the population into households-income quintiles and how they spend on food. We then introduce our Neoliberal Diet Risk Index (NDR), comprised of measures of food-import dependency, the Gini coefficient, rates of urbanization, female labor-force participation, and economic globalization. Our index serves to measure the risk of exposure to the neoliberal diet comparatively, across time and between nations. We conclude that only a societal actor like the state can redirect the food-production system by modifying its agricultural subsidy policies. Inequality-reducing policies will make the healthier food involved in such change widely available for all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper firstly analyzed legislation of the United States for guaranteeing qualified successors of agriculture, such as Morrill Land Grant College Act. Then, it elaborated policies of the United States for supporting beginning farmers and ranchers. On the basis of analysis, it came up with recommendations for cultivating new professional farmers, including adhering to leading role of government, speeding up legislation of cultivating new professional farmers, combining cultivation and attraction, and strengthening fundamental position of education and training in cultivation of new professional farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The federal crop insurance program has been a major fixture of U.S. agricultural policy since the 1930s, and continues to grow in size and importance. Indeed, it now represents the most prominent farm policy instrument, accounting for more government spending than any other farm commodity program. The 2014 Farm Bill further expanded the crop insurance program and introduced a number of new county-level revenue insurance plans. In 2013, over $123 billion in crop value was insured under the program. Crop revenue insurance, first introduced in the 1990s, now accounts for nearly 70% of the total liability in the program. The available plans cover losses that result from a revenue shortfall that can be triggered by multiple, dependent sources of risk--either low prices, low yields, or a combination of both. The actuarial practices currently applied when rating these plans essentially involve the application of a Gaussian copula model to the pricing of dependent risks. We evaluate the suitability of this assumption by considering a number of alternative copula models. In particular, we use combinations of pair-wise copulas of conditional distributions to model multiple sources of risk. We find that this approach is generally preferred by model-fitting criteria in the applications considered here. We demonstrate that alternative approaches to modeling dependencies in a portfolio of risks may have significant implications for premium rates in crop insurance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comments on the article of Paarlberg and Orden about the U.S. farm policy in 1996. Most disappointing aspect of the farm policy debate; One of the claimed advantage of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act; Impression given by Paarlberg and Orden in their papers.

Legal knowledge, learning, and scholarship pertaining to the production and regulation of food historically centered around two distinct fields of law: Food & Drug Law and Agricultural Law. The former focuses on the regulation of food by the Food and Drug Administration under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, while the latter examines the impacts of law on the agricultural sector's production of food and fiber. Neither field--alone or in tandem--focuses in whole or in part on many of the most pressing legal issues that currently impact our food system. Consequently, elements of these two fields converged roughly one decade ago to create a significant and distinct new field of legal study: "Food Law & Policy." This field explores legal and policy issues well outside the scope of Food & Drug Law and of Agricultural Law to address important questions about food that had never been explored fully within the legal academy. Food Law & Policy embraces a broader study of laws and regulations at all levels of government that impact the food system--covering everything from local regulations pertaining to farmers' markets or food trucks to federal policies pertaining to obesity or hunger. Food Law & Policy now enjoys a strong and growing presence throughout the legal academy. This Article introduces ten categories of original empirical data to document the field's vitality--including figures on law school courses, legal scholarship, clinical legal programs, and student societies at U.S. law schools. It details the past and present of Food & Drug Law and Agricultural Law alongside that of Food Law & Policy. The Article demonstrates that Food Law & Policy has proven to be a timely and vibrant addition to the legal academy and suggests next steps in the ongoing development of the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetically Modified crops were first grown commercially in 1996. This paper explores what genetic modification is, what crops are GM and which traits these crops have. It also shows how GM crops are tested, regulated and monitored in the US and Australia. It details some of the scientific controversy about GM. It clarifies how GM food is labelled in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A disproportionate number of African American women have the highest rates of poverty and poor health. It is therefore imperative that health activism be centered on policies that directly affect the well-being of these women and their communities. One such comprehensive policy that affects the lives of African American women and all Americans is the Farm Bill. This legislation includes issues of food safety and nutrition, rural development, environmental stewardship, energy, food stamps and supplemental food assistance. This comprehensive policy binds the fate of all Americans; therefore, it must be a priority on the health activism agenda to ensure the health and well-being of all communities in the nation, particularly African American women who suffer disproportionately from health and economic disparities. This paper discusses the implications of the Farm Bill for African American women and highlights recommendations for health activism that is concerned with addressing the real needs of such vulnerable populations who will be affected by this important legislation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper examines the debate surrounding the inception of the Conservation Security Program (CSP) under the 2002 US Farm Bill as a possible expression of ecological modernization by examining the discursive contributions made by official actors, social movement organizations, and producer organizations. Based on this analysis, the CSP embodies different expectations in terms of ecological modernization. Social movement actors view the program as a pragmatic solution to environmental problems created by productivist agriculture. Official actors and farm lobby representatives argue that the program should serve to create the pre-conditions for the eventual commodification of the natural resource benefits resulting from agricultural activity. These divergent discourses create multiple expectations of policies – reflecting both traditional productivist and post-productivist regimes. Using an ecological modernization framework allows us to see both the commonalities and differences in these approaches, and provides insight into the ways in which discourses surrounding global agri-environmental policies might play out in states'' different political, social, economic, and ecological contexts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article focuses on the various threats to the agricultural community. It considers the concern on the food produced through biotechnology in the U.S. Realizing the potential threat of foods adulterated by terrorists entering the U.S. across its borders, new anti-terrorism legislation was introduced. The approved legislation (Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002) could significantly affect the efforts that have been made for more open trade in agriculture. The database "BIOSIS" is an excellent resource for locating critical, cut- ting-edge information in this area. The unified indexing structure enables a researcher to pinpoint the exact data necessary to support the detection, diagnosis, and response to acts of agro-terrorism. By using the controlled vocabulary, one can set the overall umbrella in broad subject areas such as agriculture, animal husbandry, soil science, foods, and toxicology. Thus, "BIOSIS" coverage is highly international with resources from over ninety countries.

Agriculture is a vital component to the United States economy and is necessary to all our daily needs. This article provides descriptions for the most important Internet sites for agriculture. Sites are described for general resources, statistics and agricultural economics, plant sciences, food sciences, and animal and veterinary sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Article identifies the threat that agriculture security legislation-or ag-gag laws-pose to unauthorized animal and agribusiness workers. This Article advocates full recognition of First Amendment speech rights to unauthorized workers, especially in the ag-ag context, to counter the threat of coercion. Part I of this Article profiles unauthorized workers in the U.S. animal and agriculture industry. Part II discusses nationwide First Amendment litigation on ag-gag laws and describes how the effects on unauthorized workers has been largely ignored in the ag-gag debate. Part III theorizes how the right that ag-gag laws seek to protect weighs against the First Amendment rights of unauthorized workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cooperative Extension Service has performed the role of educator and change agent for more than a century. Changes occurring during this period caused Extension to extend its influence beyond the farm and traditional roles. Today, Extension faces controversial public issues and unparalleled levels of policy and regulation impacting agriculture and natural resources. As the needs of our changing society evolve, regulation increases, and response to public opinion becomes more complex. Extension must expand its role in providing education related to public issues and acting as facilitators and change agents to ensure viable actions are taken. This study was conducted to determine the level of preparedness of Florida Extension agents in dealing with policies and regulations. An emailed survey of all Florida Extension agents utilized questions regarding frequency of addressing policies with their clientele and their knowledge of said policies. Results indicated a low frequency of agents of all types addressing most policies with their clientele and a need for increased knowledge about the policies. In particular, there is an opportunity for all agent types to improve interactions with clientele on the topic of Immigration Reform as well as knowledge of related policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2014 Farm Bill continued the trend towards more risk managementbased support for U.S. farmers. However, it also represents a major departure from previous legislation by introducing multiple program options among which producers had the ability to choose. While allowing producers to have choices creates flexibility, the design of the program required producers to consider potential outcomes for crop prices and production levels in future periods when making their decisions. Experience over the first two years of program implementation suggests that while programs are working as designed, not all producers are fully satisfied with their enrollment decisions. This will lead to proposals for further modification to programs, and to questions about whether program choice should be a component of the next Farm Bill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses how tort claims for plaintiffs harmed by seed companies whose genetically engineered seeds produced more problems than profits in the U.S. Topics discussed include laws governing genetically engineered crops, legal remedies available to farmers and exporters injured by seed companies, and agricultural crops regulations. It reports the decision of District Court of Illinois in the case 'In re StarLink Corn Prods.'

The article discusses issues related to the recreational use of immunity statute to farm owners in the U.S. Information about the farmer's ability to increase their revenues in respond to the side effect of retarding agricultural education in the country, is provided. Also mentioned is the opportunity for hands-on experience during farming provided for students and consumers in the country.

The article discusses the implications on the agricultural system in the U.S. and the flawed review process in the government. An overview on the history of Chinese food company Shuanghui International Holdings Ltd. that was taken by food company Smithfield Foods Inc., is highlighted. Also mentioned is the food safety law in the U.S. and China.

The article discusses issues related to nuisance and negligence in pending litigation over biotech crops particularly for plant breeding methods that edit DNA in the U.S. Information about the Biosafety Protocol that regulates the release and application of living modified organisms called genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Also emphasized is the regulation of all novel foods such as herbicide-resistant crop with the use of mutagenesis in some nation states like Canada.

The article discusses the agricultural laws and legislation in the U.S. An overview on the potential impacts from the disclosure of client information, scope of agricultural ethics and model rule of professional conduct in different states such as Virginia, New Mexico and California, is provided. Also mentioned is the ethical rankings of attorneys in the country.

In urging "responsible eating," food writer Wendell Berry once wrote, "I begin with the proposition that eating is an agricultural act."1 Yet the legal world has long treated food and agriculture as separate spheres. Food law in the United States has traditionally been viewed as the area of law related to the development and marketing of final food products, while agricultural law has been viewed as the area of law relevant to farmers and rangers, agri-businesses, and food processing and marketing firms. But more recently, both policymakers and scholars have been taking a more systems-oriented approach to food regulation through the reframing of food and agricultural law into a broader food systems2 law. In particular, a number of legal scholars working in these areas have begun merging the fields of food law and agricultural law—as well as components of other fields of law-into something perhaps greater than the sum of its parts: a field of law that examines food systems as an interactive whole, rather than as individual components of the farm-to-fork process. This Article is the first of a two-part project. This part explores trends in agricultural and food law scholarship to argue that a nascent integrated approach, one that is more systems-oriented, is developing within current legal scholarship. The Article begins by providing some broader context on systems-oriented approaches to understanding food, drawing from food policy and environmental policy literature. It next briefly describes the different origins and coverage of early agricultural law and food law,4 situating the distinct historical and theoretical foundations of agricultural law and food law into the broader literature of legal taxonomy. It then illustrates developing trends in scholarly articles, legal casebooks, and other law school institutional coverage to suggest the convergence of these two areas into a broader, more systems-oriented approach. Finally, the Article highlights distinctive features that might arise out of a more deliberate development of systems-oriented approach in this legal field. It argues that such an approach may provide insights into other cross-cutting areas of legal scholarship that the separated areas of food law and agricultural law cannot provide. In doing so, this Article lays the groundwork for the next part of this project, which presents case studies to provide a more complete analysis of the benefits that would arise from such an approach and uses systems theory to develop important considerations for the deliberate cultivation of food systems law as a field of law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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