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Twelve qualitative case studies in German and Canadian hospitals and IT companies were used in this mixed-methods study analysing the labour market outcomes of immigrants. The reported case studies investigate the immigrants' recognition, integration process and the usability of foreign qualifications, skills and work experiences in the labour market. Furthermore, the strategies and rationales of employers and employees within the recruiting process are analysed. Here, the focus lies on the transferability and obstacles of cultural and social capital across country borders as well as the relevant framework conditions. This paper refers to Bourdieu's approach towards different types of capital as well as the rational choice theory. The results demonstrate that immigrants in both countries face more obstacles accessing the labour market within the health sector than within the IT sector. The context of the recruiting situation strongly affects the strategies and behaviour of the employers or the recruiters. Within these sector- and country-specific confines, individual factors determine the immigrants' labour market success. Furthermore, the sector and the country affect the relevance of each individual factor in the recruiting process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article explores the structure of and recent developments in research activities in the polar regions. Based on a bibliographic study of published papers indexed in the ISI Web of Science during the period 1981-2007, we have analyzed trends in publication, scientific disciplines and subdisciplines, coauthorship, and international collaboration within the field of polar research. We have uncovered several rather striking trends. Scientific output in terms of refereed publications has increased far more rapidly in polar research compared to science in general, quadrupling rather than doubling over the surveyed period. There is a nearly 1:1 ratio between papers covering the Arctic relative to the Antarctic, with the vast majority within either the geosciences (40%) or biology (33%). There has been particularly a steep rise in the number of climate-related papers. The U.S.A. is by far the largest contributor to polar research on both the Arctic and the Antarctic, followed by Canada, the U.K., Germany, Norway, and Russia. The number of coauthored papers has grown markedly, reflecting geopolitical shifts and changing national and international funding priorities during the period. We believe our publication-based survey reveals interesting developments in scientific activities and international cooperation in general, and in polar science strategies and priorities in particular. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The proposition that international students are not only sojourners but future immigrants has become well established in public policy. While education and immigration policy have become more intertwined, they continue to be analysed as separate spheres of influence. This paper compares Australia, Canada, and Germany, which between them host nearly 20% of all globally mobile students and where a nexus between international student and immigration policy has emerged. Using critical discourse analysis, a comparative case study design and based on a systematic literature review of over 300 studies published from 1990 to 2018, the findings revealed three ostensibly paradoxical discourses, which are discussed using the new term 'discursive pairings'. First, international students are selected for success but remain vulnerable to policy shifts that may exclude them and cause them to 'fail'. Second, international students are retained to fill economic shortages, but face difficulties being accepted on the labour market. Third, international students help build national reputation yet have been known to be exploited and subject to discrimination. The contradictions that emerge in the discourses bring into question the 'ideal immigrant' framing of international students, demonstrating that their role, acceptance, and ability to integrate into host countries is far from assured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we employ a comparative life course approach for Canada and Germany to unravel the relationships among general and vocational educational attainment and different life course activities, with a focus on labour market and income inequality by gender. Life course theory and related concepts of 'time,' 'normative patterns,' 'order and disorder,' and 'discontinuities' are used to inform the analyses. Data from the Paths on Life's Way (Paths) project in British Columbia, Canada and the German Pathways from Late Childhood to Adulthood (LifE) which span 28 and 33 years, respectively, are employed to examine life trajectories from leaving school to around age 45. Sequence analysis and cluster analyses portray both within and between country differences – and in particular gender differences – in educational attainment, employment, and other activities across the life course which has an impact on ultimate labour market participation and income levels. 'Normative' life courses that follow a traditional order correspond with higher levels of full-time work and higher incomes; in Germany more so than Canada, these clusters are male dominated. Clusters characterised by 'disordered' and 'discontinuous' life courses in both countries are female dominated and associated with lower income levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper employs multivariate panel cointegration techniques to re-examine the empirical relationship between bilateral real exchange rates and real interest rates. The results from a panel of 1470 quarterly observations on Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, and USA over the period 1977 to 1994 indicate the absence of any long-run relationship between the two variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tests for business cycle symmetry in G7 countries during the post-World War II period using a number of tests, each reflecting alternative definitions of business cycle asymmetry. The tests are applied to monthly coincident economic indicators of business cycles. This found that business cycles in the US are characterized by both longitudinal (deepness) and transversal (steepness and sharpness) asymmetries: further, it is found that asymmetric transition probabilties and time irreversibility are due to nonlinearities. On the contrary, business cycles in Germany exhibits a symmetric behaviour. Between these extremes are the other countries, for which at least one of the tests here considered rejects the null of cyclical symmetry. Particularly, business cycle is characterized by deepness and sharpness in Canada, asymmetry in persistence in France and Japan, and asymmetric transition probabilities in France and United Kingdom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Education policy is a highly interesting field from the point of view of governance, given the substantial changes that have been made throughout the world to the governance of such policy over the last 30 years or so. Western governments in particular have made significant changes in the governance arrangements of their education policy in order to achieve two fundamental goals: increased efficiency and greater accountability. In this process, the role of governments has changed but not diminished. This paper explores such developments by comparing the trajectories of governance reforms in three federal countries (Australia, Canada and Germany). What emerges is that the role of governments is key to all governance mixes modelled by the reform processes in the three analysed countries, and that there is greater “national” coordination than before, but also significant differences in the strategies adopted and in the content of reform, due to the differing nature of such countries’ federal dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses post-legislative examination of Acts of Parliament in Great Britain and the potential for developing more formal and systematic methods of reviewing legislation after it has been brought into force. Post-legislative scrutiny in the jurisdictions of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, Germany and France are also described. The primary reason for more systematic post-legislative scrutiny, is to see whether legislation is working out in practice as intended.

The Suicide Opinion Questionnaire (SOQ) has been used in many studies to assess cross-cultural attitudes towards suicide; these include studies in countries such as the USA, Canada, Japan, Germany, Singapore, to name a few. These studies suggest not only that the SOQ is applicable to various cultures, but also suggest that there is diversity in attitudes worldwide. Yet, there are problems (e.g., psychometric properties), but despite such limitations, further research with the SOQ is warranted. This paper reviews the development of the SOQ and its application to cross-cultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As social and health inequalities deepen around the world, scholarship in occupational therapy and occupational science has increasingly emphasised the role of occupation as a powerful tool in transformative processes. To explore how opportunities for everyday doing together may contribute to processes of social transformation by identifying ways occupation is being taken up in socially-transformative practice. A generic descriptive qualitative case study design was utilised in order to describe current practice examples and identify ways occupation was being taken up in five initiatives working towards social transformation located in Canada, Germany, South Africa and the United Kingdom. Focussing on the positioning of occupation within the initiatives, three themes were developed: The intentionality of the process, the nature of occupation within the initiatives, and the role of occupation within the processes of social transformation. Providing examples of agency on the micro level and of engagement with socioeconomic, political and cultural power structures at the societal level, this analysis raises important considerations in addressing how occupational therapy practice can move in socially responsive and transformative directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares recent developments in income inequality in Canada, Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In addition to describing cross-national variation in changes in income inequality, the paper examines different explanatory factors for these recent developments. The findings reported indicate that there is substantial cross-national variation, not only with regard to the level of inequality, but furthermore with regard to changes in inequality. The results indicate that the equalizing effect of welfare state redistribution did not decrease in all countries. By contrast, in all countries there was a universal tendency towards increased inequality in the pre-tax and transfer distribution, although the magnitude of the change differs from country to country. Even though a polarization of the earnings distribution is reported, the results still give no support to cross-national convergence with regard to income inequality during the 1980s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An online survey of 691 clinicians who use hypnosis was conducted in 31 countries to gain a broad real-world picture of current practices, views, and experiences in clinical hypnosis. Among 36 common clinical uses, stress reduction, wellbeing and self-esteem-enhancement, surgery preparations, anxiety interventions, mindfulness facilitation, and labor and childbirth applications were the most frequently rated as highly effective (each by ≥70% of raters) in the clinicians' own experience. Adverse hypnosis-associated effects had been encountered by 55% of clinicians but were generally short-lived and very rarely judged as serious. The most common hypnosis approaches used were Ericksonian (71%), hypnotic relaxation therapy (55%), and traditional hypnosis (50%). Almost all respondents reported regularly using other therapeutic modalities alongside hypnosis. Among a range of client variables potentially affecting therapy, most clinicians rated hypnotist-client rapport (88%) and client motivation (75%) as very or extremely important factors for successful hypnotherapy. The majority of respondents had conducted hypnosis treatment via teletherapy, and 54% of those estimated it to be as effective as in-person treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents results from a cultural comparative research on the issue of teaching assistants' and comparable (para-)professionals role in the international context on Inclusive Education. Due to the increasing expectations towards schools to work inclusive, in the last years assistant roles have been an important topic of educational research. On the basis of interview data collected in the UK, Canada and Germany especially the varying conditions of (para-)professionals' practice in inclusion oriented lessons and their professional self-perception are interpreted and internationally compared. Referring to the theoretical concept of professionalism by Ulrich Oevermann, the significance of the working alliance between teaching assistants and students for (para-)professionals self-perception is analysed. As the interpretations point out, teaching assistants' professional roles depend on locally varying structural conditions, but in all three countries are strongly associated with a struggle for increasing autonomy. This article focuses on professionals in schools, whose task it is to help students with assigned Special Educational Needs, for instance "teaching assistants" or "integration aids". We analyse the role of teaching assistants in Canada, the United Kingdom and Germany. Our interpretations base on interviews which have been conducted with teaching assistants in those countries. We will make clear that it is important for assistants to work autonomously. However, in some countries they are expected to mainly support individual students (Germany) and in others they shall primarily support teachers (United Kingdom, Canada). Our analysis shows the tendency of regular education to delegate the therapeutic dimension of its practice. This means that, internationally, increasing employment of assistants could contribute to teachers' de-professionalisation and undercut the aim of inclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we investigated the representation of countries and continents in the publication of six English language journals of sport and exercise psychology from 1997 until 2011. We selected all articles (N = 2093) published in theJournal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,The Sport Psychologist,Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,Journal of Sport Behavior,Psychology of Sport and Exercise, andInternational Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychologyduring 1997–2011 and all proceedings (N = 2034) in the last four World Congress of Sport Psychology (1997, 2001, 2005, and 2009). Then, we classified them by country and continent where the first author's institution was located. Five English-speaking countries (USA, UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand) represented 82% of the total publications in the six journals and 38.5% of congress proceedings. These were followed by five European countries (France, Germany, Greece, Norway, and Belgium) accumulating 10% of the total publications. The continents of Asia, Africa, and Latin America represented less than 4% of the publications but 28.2% of congress proceedings. There was a very high correlation between continents' representation in journal editorial boards and journal publications. Reviewers and readers should be aware of systematic errors that might happen in the review process of submitted manuscripts describing studies which have been conducted in non-English-speaking countries but which are eventually rejected in English language journals of sport and exercise psychology. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Using OECD input/output tables at current and constant prices, this paper analyses the performance of the construction sector of eight highly industrialized countries -- Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Japan and the USA -- in the 1970s and 1980s. First, the main characteristics of the data set with country and time coverage are briefly introduced. Then, a set of simple indicators is used for comparative purposes, namely to assess the construction sector's diminishing role in terms of share in gross output, value added and GNP. Analysis focuses also on technologies, with emphasis on the relative role of manufacturing and services inputs. Lastly, standard measures of linkages are used to determine the main sources of induced output that are created by the push and pull effects of the construction sector on the rest of the economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boundary regimes consist of multiple discursive and material registers in media, politics, law and everyday interaction. We show how "safety" and "danger," as key concepts of symbolic boundaries, produce particular understandings of Muslim masculinities. In Canada, the government discussed (but did not enact) placing single Syrian men at the bottom of the admissible to-be-resettled refugee list in 2015. In Cologne, Germany, refugee men were accused of sexually assaulting a large number of women in 2015. Focusing on "safety" and "danger" discourses, we show that symbolic boundaries had limited material impact in Canada while they informed major legal changes in Germany. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As notions of human capital and personal autonomy have become integral to constructions of social membership, we have witnessed the incursion of market mechanisms into many areas of social life. Immigration policy has been no exception to this trend. By tracing policy developments in Canada and Germany, this article examines the extent to which human-capital citizenship has come to shape immigration policy across policy regimes. Examining economic and family immigrant admissions, the article tests two sets of propositions. First, that human-capital citizenship has come to transform economic immigration policies in ways that have stratified core rights – that is, residence and family unification rights – by skill level, rather than economic contribution. As a second proposition, the article contends that economic considerations are being increasingly applied to immigrants who arrive through non-economic streams. As the desirability of immigrants has come to correspond to their rank in the labour market hierarchy, the accompanying process of market invasion has led to an increasing blurring of longstanding normative and policy distinctions between economic and non-economic immigration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study empirically examines the sources of fluctuations in hours worked in Canada, Germany, Japan and the U.S. It is particularly motivated by Galí's (1999) VAR study, which demonstrates that a positive technology shock reduces hours worked, at least in the short run. However, in the present study, a technology shock is identified without recourse to Galí's long-run restriction, which has been subject to active controversy. Furthermore, this study uncovers other important sources of fluctuations in hours worked to reflect the concern, raised by numerous studies, that technology shocks leave most variations in hours worked unexplained. Specifically, there are six shocks underlying our model, and they are identified using a set of sign restrictions. The empirical results confirm that in all four countries, a positive technology shock significantly reduces hours worked. This technology shock, along with labor supply and demand shocks, accounts for most of the short-term variations in hours worked. As the forecasting horizon increases, technology and demand shocks become less important, whereas labor supply shocks contribute to explaining the bulk of long-run variations in hours worked. Finally, the empirical relevance of Galí's longrun identification restriction is tested and the results are related to those obtained using the sign restriction model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quality of parent-child interactions and family relationships has a powerful influence on children's development and well-being. The International Parenting Survey (IPS) is a brief, web-based survey developed to provide a cross-national, community-level, population snapshot of the experiences of parents related to raising children. The IPS was developed as a planning tool to assist policy makers and community agencies plan, implement, and evaluate parenting programs and as a tracking tool to evaluate parenting support programs in different countries. We report the preliminary psychometric properties of the IPS on various domains of measurement in an international sample of over 9,000 parents. Moderate to high reliabilities were obtained for all domains of measurement. High internal consistency reliabilities (α = .88-.97) were obtained for the domains of children's behavior and emotional maladjustment, for parental self-efficacy, parental distress and parental beliefs. Moderate levels of reliabilities (α = .52-.83) were obtained for domains of parental consistency, coercive parenting, positive encouragements, and parent-child relationships. Overall, the measure appears to have satisfactory reliability justifying further psychometric validation studies in population level studies of parenting. Examples of uses of the IPS are described and directions for future research and policy explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: It has been argued that social security disability assessments should directly assess claimants’ work capacity, rather than relying on proxies such as on functioning. However, there is little academic discussion of how such assessments could be conducted. Method: The article presents an account of different models of direct disability assessments based on case studies of the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Norway, the United States of America, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, utilising over 150 documents and 40 expert interviews. Results: Three models of direct work disability assessments can be observed: (i) structured assessment, which measures the functional demands of jobs across the national economy and compares these to claimants’ functional capacities; (ii) demonstrated assessment, which looks at claimants’ actual experiences in the labour market and infers a lack of work capacity from the failure of a concerned rehabilitation attempt; and (iii) expert assessment, based on the judgement of skilled professionals. Conclusions: Direct disability assessment within social security is not just theoretically desirable, but can be implemented in practice. We have shown that there are three distinct ways that this can be done, each with different strengths and weaknesses. Further research is needed to clarify the costs, validity/legitimacy, and consequences of these different models. Implications for rehabilitation: It has recently been argued that social security disability assessments should directly assess work capacity rather than simply assessing functioning - but we have no understanding about how this can be done in practice. Based on case studies of nine countries, we show that direct disability assessment can be implemented, and argue that there are three different ways of doing it. These are “demonstrated assessment” (using claimants’ experiences in the labour market), “structured assessment” (matching functional requirements to workplace demands), and “expert assessment” (the judgement of skilled professionals). While it is possible to implement a direct assessment of work capacity for social security benefits, further research is necessary to understand how best to maximise validity, legitimacy, and cost-effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Burden sharing has long been a goal of NATO. This article examines how three major alliance members—Canada, the UK, and Germany—are currently approaching defense issues, and the contributions they are making to the larger Western defense effort. It will reveal that Canada and Germany continue to spend little on defense, and seem broadly content to watch their military forces gradually weaken. On the contrary, however, the UK remains a major defense spender, although its fiscal situation poses a continuing challenge. For NATO to survive, the US must insist that it expects all alliance members to contribute more equitably. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A group from Germany, Canada, and the United Kingdom undertook country-specific scoping reviews and stakeholder consultations before joining to holistically compare migration and maternity in all three countries. We examined four interlinking dimensions to understand how international migrant/minority maternal health might be improved upon using transnational research: (a) wider sociopolitical context, (b) health policy arena, (c) constellation, outcomes, and experiences of maternity services, and (d) existing research contexts. There was clear evidence that the constellation and delivery of services may undermine good experiences and outcomes. Interventions to improve access and quality of care remain small scale, short term, and lacking in rigorous evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although high-income countries share and value the goal of protecting children from harm, national data on child maltreatment and the involvement of social services, the judiciary and health services remain relatively scarce. To explore potential reasons for this, a number of high-income countries across the world (Belgium, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Korea, Switzerland and the United States) were compared. Amongst other aspects, the impact of service orientation (child protection-vs-family-services-orientated), the complexity of systems, and the role of social work as a lead profession in child welfare are discussed. Special consideration is given to indigenous and minority populations. The call for high-income countries to collect national data on child maltreatment is to promote research to better understand the risks to children. Its remit ranges well beyond these issues and reflects a major gap in a critical resource to increase prevention and intervention in these complex social situations. Fortunately, initiatives to close this gap are increasing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I think I always knew that sport was political, in the ‘small-p’ sense that those in sport and those outside it continually jostled over the decisions and conditions that determined meanings, opportunities and rewards. I also came to realize when I studied and then became involved in the Fitness and Amateur Sport Program that the different mainstream Canadian political parties – the Progressive Conservatives, the Liberals and the New Democratic Party – brought different perspectives and priorities to Canadian sport policy. But during the 1960s, none of them took strong political positions on the sport issues of the day; it was almost as if they agreed with the widespread mantra that ‘sport and politics do not mix’. So, I was well along in my athletic and political careers before I discovered that there had been an explicitly political, openly contestative sports movement a generation earlier, and that that movement had not only opposed the 1936 Olympics in Germany but also attempted to hold their own counter-Olympics in Barcelona. This revelation came in a footnote in Richard Mandell'sThe Nazi Olympics, published in 1971, and during the next few years, as I weighed into the debates about the 1976 Olympics in Montreal, I began to uncover the debates about Olympic sport that had occurred 40 years previously. This article is the first result of those efforts. It was an eye-opening experience, particularly as I knew many of those who had taken part in the earlier debate, but who had never mentioned it, including my own father. The experience whetted my appetite for sport history and led me back to graduate school to learn how to do it better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germany's vocational education and training (VET) and corresponding teacher-education programmes are known worldwide for their integrated framework. Government legislation unifies companies, unions and vocational schools, and specifies the education and training required for students as well as vocational teachers. Changing from the Diplom programme model to the Anglophone Bachelor and Masters degree model has raised concerns for VET teacher preparation. It is within this context that we explore Germany's VET teacher-education system and current academic debates. We further investigate challenges in the development of Canada's VET teacher-education programmes and suggest some policy borrowing from the German model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers news brief about National Associations as of November, 2012. The 30th World Federation of Occupational Therapists (WFOT) Council Meeting and a series of workshops was held on March 2012, in Taiwan, hosted by Taiwan Occupational Therapy Association. The American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) Annual Conference and Expo is to be held on April 25-28, 2013, in U.S. A Seminar-Workshop titled "Doing Social Inclusion", was held on September 2012 in Greece.

Political parties have a massive impact upon individual political careers. The article looks at the patterns of vertical career linkages in four federal systems. It finds strong differences in both quantity and quality of such patterns. The findings suggest that institutional settings matter but also distinct party trajectories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the results of transition studies in the UK, Germany, USA and Canada, the virtues of analysing the structural contexts, institutional arrangements and the young peoples' action orientations are presented. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, school and the labour market have become more and more decoupled and transition routes more uncertain. From a structural perspective, the sorting of school leavers into different transition pathways according to their educational achievements contributes to the reproduction of social inequality. From the actor' perspective, transition uncertainty requires that young adults develop agency (planful and adaptive competence) in order to manage meaningful decisions between alternative pathways to employment. By relating the concept of agency to intuitive rationality and biographical choice, various action strategies are presented that document how young people from different social origins actively pursue individual goals when choosing to follow or to change transition pathways. In contrast to an emphatic reading of the individualisation thesis, comparative transition studies show that only socially privileged and educationally successful youths succeed in transforming their agency into self-reflexive projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the idea of introducing intelligence studies as an academic discipline in several countries including Canada, Germany, and the U.S. During the 1970s, many official inquiries, startling revelations, conspiracy theories, and some popular fiction and films, helped awaken academe to the relevance of intelligence to the policies and conduct of international affairs. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency aims at encouraging the inclusion of intelligence content in teaching.

This Editorial introduces the Special Issue on 'Biotechnology Clusters and Beyond'. Drawing on the interventions of five commissioned articles from Canada, Germany, Israel, the UK and the US it suggests that biotechnology clusters are interesting and important intellectually and for policy deliberation. They pose questions about basic cluster theory because localized networks, though intense, may not be as extensive as global ones infirm practices, especially as these evolve over time. Moreover, innovation is more deeply embedded in the publicly landed science base than for 'Porterian' clusters. Regarding innovation, biotechnology is also less obviously Schumpeterian, there being little market-driven 'creative destruction', and is arguably, with its strong emphasis on both large- and small-firm 'capabilities'—Penrosian—an emphasis in clustering research and applications that warrants further investigation. Finally, at the specific technology-exploitation phase, market interactions assert themselves over milieu characteristics because scientists know the value of their discoveries and there is accordingly high appropriability associated with such knowledge capabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United States experienced a substantial decline in undergraduate degrees in economics from 1992 through 1996, followed immediately by a modest recovery. This cycle does not conform to overall degree trends, shifts in the gender composition of undergraduate populations, or changing interests of female students in any of the four countries. There is no evidence that changes in the “price“ of a degree to students, tightened marking standards or degree requirements, or changes in pedagogical methods caused the cycle. Jobs for economics graduates declined in the United States between 1988 and 1990 and thereafter recovered. With a two-year recognition lag, the pattern of employment prospects fits the U.S. slump in economics degrees perfectly. Unfortunately, employment patterns in the other three countries are inconsistent with the degree cycle. The explanation that fits the economic degree pattern best is interest in business education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the Chinese-western scholarly interaction. China has signified its willingness to strengthen ties with western universities and maintain or increase the flow of scholarly exchange. Chinese leaders are confident that their scholars will absorb from the West techniques that will be useful for a modern, independent China. An examination of China's academic exchange with Great Britain, France and West Germany was undertaken, and the exchange policies and programs of the U.S. Canada and Japan in relation to China was reviewed.