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Several ground improvement techniques, which have been proven to be effective and economical solutions for increasing the lateral stiffness and strength of weak soils around piles, can often result in unnecessarily conservative large volumes of soil improvement. Additionally, there are no rigorous techniques available to analyze the seismic behavior of piles in improved soils that can be utilized in day-to-day engineering practice. In this study, a stand-alone one-dimensional finite element computer code called DYPAC (Dynamic Piles Analysis Code), which uses the beams on nonlinear Winkler foundation (BNWF) approach, was developed to analyze the seismic response of a single pile in both improved and unimproved soils. The computer code models the pile as a beam element and the nonlinear soil behavior as springs and viscous dashpots using a nonlinear p-y element, where y = displacement; and p = soil reaction per unit length of the pile. This study proposes and validates a method for modifying the p-y curves to consider the limited lateral extent of ground improvement. The p-y curves were inputted into DYPAC to analyze a series of dynamic centrifuge tests of single piles in soft clay improved using cement deep soil mixing (CDSM). Free-field site response analyses were performed using the DEEPSOIL computer program and the soil displacement-time histories were inputted into the free-field ends of the nonlinear p-y elements. The predictions made by DYPAC were validated using the centrifuge data and the results show that the DYPAC predictions are reasonable. Furthermore, the proposed method for modifying p-y curves to characterize CDSM-improved soil appears to be appropriate and practical. Moreover, the benefits of nonlinear DEEPSOIL free-field site response analyses during large earthquakes, as compared to equivalent linear analyses, were also demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The numerical simulation of boundary value problems involving a high number of pile-type structures, such as pile foundation systems of high-rise buildings, represents a standard task in computational geotechnics. Due to their ability to simplify the underlying pile modeling process and decrease the simulation runtime embedded beam formulations (EBFs) have attracted widespread interest from the geotechnical community. State-of-the art EBFs are typically equipped with nonlinear interface constitutive models to capture the soil–structure interaction behavior with reasonable accuracy. However, reliable information concerning the calibration of related parameters is limited, which decreases the confidence in the results obtained with EBFs. The present work addresses this research aspect for the first time, along with a theoretical discussion of inherent simplifications in the numerical description of the soil–structure contact associated with EBFs. The significance of selecting adequate embedded interface constitutive model parameters to ensure EBF predictions with high credibility is demonstrated by means of parametric studies. This has motivated the development of an automatic calibration software, leveraged by particle swarm optimization, that provides guidance in selecting suitable values. The effectiveness of the calibration software is confirmed by back-calculation of different pile problems with default and calibrated parameter sets. Likewise, the results provide insight into crucial factors driving the calibration framework, with a view to increasing its potential for take-up in engineering practice. Potential lines of research in the context of the automatic calibration software are explored throughout this work and may serve as valuable reference in future research. Practical Applications: The design of geotechnical problems involving a high number of pile-type structures, such as pile foundation systems of high-rise buildings or wind turbines, is routinely assisted by finite-element analyses. The computational expense of these simulations is significantly influenced by the pile modeling technique. Due to their exceptional ability to simplify the underlying modeling process and reduce the runtime to an acceptable limit, embedded beam formulations have therefore attracted widespread interest for geotechnical design tasks. As with all soil–structure interaction problems, it is essential in embedded beam formulations to accurately describe the interface behavior between the soil and the structure. This work presents the first attempt to highlight the relevance of this concern and visually describes relevant limitations resulting from an inadequate selection of interface constitutive model parameters. This observation has motivated the development of an automatic calibration software to increase the confidence in the parameter selection. The high potential of this software to increase the credibility of numerical predictions obtained with embedded beam formulations is demonstrated based on pile problems with different soil stratification layers, pile geometries, and pile arrangements. In all cases considered, the results confirm that the numerical fidelity could be significantly increased by employing calibrated parameter sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper pertains to the finite-element lower bound limit analysis (FELA-LB) of vertical strip anchors embedded in cohesionless and cohesive soils and subjected to static and earthquake forces (using pseudostatic analysis) to estimate the optimal horizontal pullout capacity using nonlinear programming (NLP) technique for isolating the optimal solution. In the developed procedure, a mesh of finite-number triangular elements and assuming a linear stress field that satisfies all the equations of internal equilibrium at all points within the soil medium, elemental interface equilibrium, boundary conditions and no-yield conditions at all the nodal points, has been adopted. In contrast to the use of linear programming (LP), as used in the early phase of the development of FELA of stability problems, in the adopted optimization scheme (NLP), the nonlinear no-yield conditions are incorporated directly, eliminating the necessity of successive linearization of the no-yield constraints. The convergence of the solutions (by varying the number of elements in the soil mesh) and extensibility of the selected stress field (by extending the mesh of elements) has been checked and ensured. The correctness of the estimated lower bound has been checked by comparing the obtained solutions with those reported in the literature. Parametric studies showing the effect of the embedment depth of the vertical anchor, soil properties, and earthquake acceleration on the horizontal pullout capacity of the vertical anchor have also been presented in the paper. Practical Applications: Anchor plates are used in the design and construction of foundation for retaining walls, sheet piles, bulkheads, transmission towers, bridge abutments, and buried pipelines to withstand the horizontal, vertical, or inclined loads. The present study adds to the existing state of art for the design and installation of anchor systems subjected to static and seismic conditions and may improve the performance of such foundation systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aiming at the condition of shield tunnel undercrossing the foundation of a pile group directly, using the settlement and inclination of the pile caps as the evaluation index, the reinforcing effect of the pregrouting of the soil around the pile foundation, the deep hole grouting behind the tunnel segment, and the combination of the two reinforcement methods are analyzed through three-dimensional numerical simulation. A reasonable reinforcement scheme is found and applied to practical engineering. The results show that for the pregrouting reinforcement of the soil around the pile, the optimal reinforcement scheme is to extend 0.5 m around the pile cap in the plane and vertically from the surroundings of the pile cap to 1/3 of the pile length below the bottom of the cap. When deep hole grouting reinforcement is adopted, larger reinforcement range and a certain range of radial reinforcement radius of tunnel section will result in a better effect of reinforcement. The combination of the two schemes is better than the single use of one. The practical application results show that the combined reinforcement scheme can effectively control the influence of shield tunnel excavation on the pile foundation of an elevated waiting hall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seismic retrofitting of existing bridges has been in practice for years to meet the stringent seismic requirements set forward by revised design codes. For retrofitting, however, bridge piers are often prioritized while less attention is given to the bridge foundations, which are equally prone to damage under seismic loadings. The current work presents a series of experimental studies in assessing the performance of 2 × 2 pile groups reinforced with micropiles in terms of head-level stiffness and damping under low-to-high levels of static and dynamic loadings, encompassing the influence of loading-induced soil nonlinearity. Practical micropiles inclinations of 0°, 5°, and 10° with respect to the vertical are studied. Experimental results reveal that the head-level stiffnesses of pile groups reinforced with micropiles, contrary to the general expectations, become smaller than the pile group without micropiles at higher levels of applied loading. To elucidate the governing mechanism for such experimentally obtained results, three-dimensional nonlinear finite-element analyses were carried out. Results from the numerical analyses support the experimental results, suggesting that the presence of micropiles may not always increase the head-level stiffness of soil–foundation systems, particularly at higher levels of applied loading where the soil nonlinearity generated at the vicinity of piles and micropiles governs the overall head-level stiffnesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The installation of many pile foundations near slopes inevitably exposes them to the influence of the slopes on the stiffness and strength of the soil–pile system, which is a significant issue involving geomechanics and worthy of concern. Therefore, a modified failure wedge model with an optimal base angle is developed to address the impact of slopes on laterally loaded piles in sand, drawing insights from previous experimental results and finite-element analyses. The objective of this model is to provide a more comprehensive and universal analysis of the lateral behavior of piles while considering a limited height slope, compared with previous models applicable in relatively limited cases. In this modified model, factors such as edge distance from the slope crest and slope height are taken into consideration. The proposed theoretical method demonstrates its capability to accurately predict the lateral response of a pile. Based on this method, an analysis is conducted to examine how slope inclination, edge distance from the slope crest, and slope height affect the soil–pile system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonal freeze–thaw (F–T) cycles significantly affect the mechanical properties of soils and the behavior of pile foundations in soils subjected to F–T cycles under different loading conditions. Soils exposed to F–T cycles can impact the performance of pile foundations. Consequently, the effects of F–T cycles should be taken into account when designing piles, particularly in cold regions such as Canada. In recent years, climatic conditions in Canada have changed due to global warming, increasing the number of F–T cycles in many regions each year. This study aimed to investigate the influence of different numbers of F–T cycles on the behavior of piles in sandy soils. Laboratory experiments were conducted on physical models of piles subjected to axial (uplift) and lateral loads combined with F–T cycles. The model was scaled using standard scaling principles, and the test apparatus was equipped with various sensors to measure temperatures, forces, and displacements. The results showed that as the number of F–T cycles increased, the lateral capacities of the piles under individual and combined loads increased steadily. The lateral load capacity increased from 350 to 430 N after five F–T cycles under individual loading and from 225 to 455 N after five F–T cycles under combined loading. However, the pile's uplift load capacity remained constant under individual and combined loads and there was no change due to F–T cycles. The results of this experimental study will be useful for understanding the behavior of piles subjected to seasonal F–T cycles and for improving the design of pile foundations in cold regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under various stress paths, the deformation characteristics represented great differences. In this paper, a series of cyclic triaxial tests have been conducted with Fujian standard sand. By comparing the constant deviatoric (CDS) and constant axial stress paths (CAS), the influence mechanism of the cyclic amplitude of the deviatoric stress was discussed. The test results showed that the stress path significantly influenced the volumetric and shear strains. The increasing and decreasing trend in the volumetric strain (ɛv) was consistent with the spherical stress (lnp). Compared with the two stress paths, the slope of the ɛv−lnp curve during the loading and unloading stages was larger under the CAS path. In the CDS path, qc almost did not affect the cumulative volumetric strain, and in the CAS path, the effect was obvious. The shear strain curve was in accordance with the direction of the stress path. As the cyclic number increased, the shear strain gradually accumulated. The shear strain accumulation under the CAS path was larger. The shear strain largely depended on the relative position between the critical state line (CSL) and the stress state of the soil during cyclic loading and unloading. Practical Applications: In practical engineering, the soil will experience various stress paths. For example, in slope or earth–rock dam engineering, where the water level rises and falls repeatedly, the soil often goes through the stress path of constant deviational stress with the cyclic increase and decrease in the spherical stress. In foundation pit engineering, the soil often experiences the stress path of the constant axial stress (CAS) with cyclic loading and unloading of the lateral stress. The stress path greatly influences the deformation and strength of soil. Therefore, the previous two stress paths are compared in this paper to discuss the influence of the cyclic amplitude of deviatoric stress. Under three different consolidation states, the cyclic amplitude of the deviatoric stress significantly influenced the volumetric and shear strains. The shear strain largely depended on the relative position between the critical state line (CSL) and the stress state of the soil during cyclic loading and unloading. Therefore, in practical engineering, if the stress path in the experiment differs from the actual value, the influence of the stress path should be properly considered. The results should be modified according to the degree of influence of each stress condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collapsibility significantly impacts the bearing capacity of pile foundations in loess areas. To improve the load-bearing capacity of piles, the pile-base postgrouting technique is widely used worldwide. However, there are still several related issues to be solved: the impact of loess collapsibility on the bearing capacity; the effectiveness of the pile-base postgrouting technique in enhancing the bearing capacity; and the diffusion pattern of the grout during the grouting process. To investigate these issues, this experiment utilizes a visual static pressure device combined with numerical simulation. According to the experiment, the maximum axial force and neutral point appeared to shift downward after grouting, resulting in a 17.5% increase in the bearing capacity of the pile foundation. Additionally, an increase in grouting pressure leads to a rise in both the number of shear cracks and the diffusion radius. As the permeability of the grout improves, the number of shear cracks and diffusion radii tend to stabilize after an initial increase. These discoveries enable a thorough analysis of the changes in side friction and base resistance of postgrouted piles in collapsible loess. Furthermore, they provide valuable references and guidance for the implementation of the pile-base postgrouting technique in loess areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prevailing design methodology for foundation pit support structures conventionally treats the pit cross section as a two-dimensional plane, facilitating the computation of soil and water pressures acting upon the retaining structure. Regrettably, this conventional approach tends to overlook the critical corner effect, particularly when the foundation pit is in proximity to a subway tunnel, where the nuanced nature of this corner effect remains indeterminate. Consequently, this research is directed toward an in-depth investigation of a deep foundation pit contiguous to a subway tunnel. A systematic evaluation and optimization of the corner effect pertaining to the deep foundation pit are undertaken through a combination of comprehensive field monitoring and simulation methodologies. The results show that a substantial mitigation in the deformation of the supporting structure, settlements of the ground surface and adjacent buildings, as well as the displacement of the subway tunnel, were achieved through a consideration of the corner effect. Notably, the ameliorative impact of adjacent buildings on the corner effect is observed. Further scrutiny reveals that the supporting structure within a distance of 12 m from the pit corner is most susceptible to the corner effect, as evidenced by a plane strain ratio (PSR) falling below 0.8. Beyond a spatial threshold of 20 m, the PSR attains a value of 1.0, indicative of a negligible corner effect and the foundation pit section existing in a plane strain state. The adjustment of pile length or diameter based on the PSR emerges as a viable strategy that can realize the construction cost optimization on the premise of ensuring the stability of the foundation pit. The impact of pile diameter variation is paramount, corresponding to a reduction in the range of PSR values below 0.8 from 12 m to 9.8 m. The corner effect is significantly diminished. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Records of pile lengths are not available for several hundred high-mast light towers (HMLTs) throughout the state of Minnesota. The foundation systems, typically steel H-piles or concrete-filled steel pipe piles connected to a triangular concrete pile cap, risk overturning in the event of peak wind loadings if the foundation piles are not sufficiently deep to provide the designed uplift capacity. Without prior knowledge of the in situ pile lengths, an expensive tower foundation retrofit or replacement effort would need to be undertaken. However, the development of a nondestructive screening tool to determine the in situ pile length—compared with replacing or retrofitting all towers with unknown foundation geometries—would potentially provide significant cost savings. The main goal of the research is the development of nondestructive evaluation testing techniques for determining in situ pile lengths using steady-state vibration and hammer-impact seismic testing. The foundation testing protocol involves (1) a preliminary site investigation to determine the shallow subsurface geometry and orientation of the foundation pile cap, (2) the use of seismic cone penetrometer (SCP) attached to a cone penetration test rig to capture the induced steady-state and impact waveforms, and (3) data-driven analysis of field testing results to determine the pile lengths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cracks develop in concrete piles under lateral static loading as the tensile stress exceeds the concrete strength, causing a decrease in the pile's flexural rigidity and influencing the load–deflection behavior. This paper presents a three-dimensional finite-element analysis (FEA) performed by PLAXIS 3D (version 2021) to investigate the impact of concrete cracking on the load–deflection behavior of laterally loaded piles in rock mass. Two FEA models were established to assess the influence of concrete cracking on load–deflection behavior. In the first model, nonlinear rock mass behavior was coupled with linear pile behavior (FEANL), while in the second model, nonlinear rock mass behavior was coupled with nonlinear pile behavior (FEANN). The three-dimensional (3D) FEA models were verified with a full-scale test case study for a deep-water pile foundation. The FEANN yields a more accurate simulation of measured deflection than the FEANL. A single run of the FEANN typically requires an entire day of computational time. Thus, a simplified approach was proposed to minimize the computational time process by incorporating the relationship of the change in pile flexural rigidity versus the bending moment (EI–M) into FEANL. In addition, the available EI–M relationships in the literature, such as the American Concrete Institute (ACI) method and beam theory, were evaluated by the EI–M relationship derived from the FEANN. The beam theory yields a lower estimate of pile flexural rigidity than the ACI method. The predicted deflection obtained through the simplified approach exhibits good agreement with the measured deflection utilizing the EI–M relationship derived from the FEANN. On the other hand, the EI–M relationship obtained from the beam theory overestimates the deflection compared to those obtained from the EI–M relationships of the ACI method and FEANN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous earthquake events indicate that pile foundations in liquefiable soils are vulnerable to damage due to the coupling of inertial and kinematic effects. Inclined piles are widely applied in structures located in liquefiable soils, but few investigations of the coupling of the superstructure–pile inertial and soil–pile kinematic effects have been conducted. To address this gap, this study adopted a three-dimensional (3D) numerical model to investigate the coupling of inertial and kinematic effects in pile foundations with different inclination angles. The pile head bending moment was employed to represent the pile response, while the soil surface displacement and structure acceleration were utilized to quantify the kinematic and inertial effects. The role of the inclination angle on the interactions between inertial and kinematic effects is herein considered for pile groups. In particular, the inertial effect significantly influences the behavior of pile groups with larger inclination angles, whereas the kinematic effect predominates the pile head moment in vertical pile groups. In this paper, the influence of the pile inclination angle, superstructure configuration, and earthquake intensity on the interactions was investigated. The principal findings revealed that the kinematic effect dominates in the vertical pile group irrespective of the properties of the superstructure, while the inertial effect plays a significant role in the response of the inclined pile groups, especially for superstructures with considerable heights. Practical Applications: Inclined piles are vulnerable to damage due to the interaction of inertial and kinematic effects during earthquakes. This study conducted a series of three-dimensional (3D) finite-element simulations to investigate the interaction of inertial and kinematic effects in pile foundations with different inclination angles. The influence of pile inclination angle, superstructure height, and earthquake characteristics was investigated. In current practices, various codes and pseudostatic methods have been adopted to sum a percentage of the inertia-induced bending moment and another percentage of the kinematic-induced bending moment. This study indicates that under certain conditions, the simple summing of the bending moment induced by the inertial and kinematic effects could be inaccurate. The present study identified several factors that influence the interaction of inertial and kinematic effects on piles with different inclination angles. The inclined piles in liquefied soil, especially for supporting tall and heavy superstructure, attention should be given to the influence of inertial effect on the pile head bending moment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flooding occurrences have become increasingly severe, posing a serious danger to end-user safety and bridge resilience. As flood fragility assessment is a valuable tool for promoting the resilience of bridges to climate change, it is of great importance to push the development of such methods. However, flood fragility has not received as much attention as seismic fragility despite the significant amount of damage and costs resulting from flood hazards. There has been little effort to estimate the flood fragility of bridges considering various flood-related factors and the corresponding failure modes. To this end, a fragility-based approach that can explicitly address the scour-hole geometry and flood-induced lateral load is presented. First, a three-dimensional finite-element model with pile foundations and surrounding soil was established to estimate the failure mode under various flood scenarios. The loadings on pile foundations were characterized by vertical loading from the superstructure, horizontal loading from the flood-induced lateral load, and the scour effect simulated through a time-history analysis. Then, all potential failure modes of bridge pile foundations in various flood scenarios were summarized. Based on extensive parameter investigations using the deterministic method, the dominant failure mode of penetration failure was determined, and a failure envelope was fitted to guide the design of the pile foundation. Upon establishing the failure mode, a probabilistic fragility analysis considering uncertainties in hydraulic, structural, and geological parameters was finally conducted using the Latin hypercube sampling (LHS) method. The results showed the effects of variation on the fragility of the pile foundation, highlighting that the deterministic analysis without considering the uncertainties in model parameters leads to underestimating the risk due to the penetration failure and the significant influence region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excavation of foundation pits can cause deformation and differential settlement to nearby pipe gallery structures, potentially resulting in significant issues such as seepage and structural damage. Based on a deep foundation pit construction project for a residential building plot adjacent to the Wuhan-Jiujiang utility tunnel, a three-dimensional finite element analysis model with cement-soil mixed wall (SMW) and trench cutting remixing deep wall (TRD)-drilled pile is established to study the impact of the excavation process on the utility tunnel. The results indicate that as the foundation pit excavation depth increases, the lateral deformation of the drilled pile support structure shows an initial increase followed by a subsequent decrease, and the maximum lateral deformation occurs at the point approximately one-third from the bottom of the foundation pit. Besides, the surface settlement exhibits an initial increase, followed by a subsequent decrease and eventual stabilization. The deformation of the utility tunnel structure causing by excavation is always within specified limit of 15 mm. Compared to the structure before excavation, the maximum values of axial force, shear force, and bending moment of the utility tunnel increases by 0.09%, 0.14%, and 4.88%, respectively. The stress variation is small, which satisfies the safety requirements for its usage, the feasibility of the TRD-drilled pile support structure is demonstrated. This study can serve as a reference for safety assessment of comparable engineering projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides universal structural design criteria for heavy industrial projects. Structural design requirements for pipe racks, steel modules, modularized equipment skids, vertical and horizontal vessel supports, and vibrating equipment foundations are discussed. An overview of loading mechanisms of various systems is provided for operational, testing, and lifting conditions. Design recommendations are provided for permanent and removable structures. Several structural idealization concepts are also proposed to ensure accurate load transfer. The theoretical basis and the merits of various methods used in the practice are also discussed. Industrial design examples are provided including multilevel pipe rack and pump foundations. The paper overviews and pieces together the engineering requirements for critical structures that are encountered in heavy industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document discusses a research paper that proposes a modified method for evaluating the stability of deep excavations in soft clays. The discussion raises concerns about the proposed method and questions the assumptions made by the authors. It suggests alternative explanations for the observed behavior of excavations in soft clays and criticizes the models used in the study for not accurately representing actual ground movement patterns caused by excavation. The author invites the study authors to respond to these criticisms. [Extracted from the article]

Enhancing the dynamic properties of expansive soils using cementitious materials has attracted the attention of many researchers over the past few decades. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can be used as partial substitutes for cement owing to their pozzolanic activity that further improves the mechanical performance of cement-stabilized soils upon curing. In this study, the effect of cement and zeolite incorporation on the mechanical behavior of expansive clay was quantified using the pressure wave velocity (Vp) indicator obtained from ultrasonic pulse velocity tests performed at different curing times. Furthermore, a polynomial model was developed to establish the relationship between Vp and zeolite replacement levels at specific curing times and cement contents. The results show that a polynomial function captured the decreasing trend of Vp upon the increase in zeolite at curing times below 14 days. Additionally, the developed equation explained the upward trend of Vp owing to the pozzolanic activity of zeolite at later curing times with an accuracy of over 92%. The coefficients of the polynomial model also increased with the increment of the cement percentage which conformed to the consecutive rise in Vp. Ultimately, the polynomial coefficients were expressed in terms of cement content and curing time using the Volterra series. Using this model, the optimum percentage of cement replaced with zeolite (Zopt), the efficiency of using Zopt instead of cement, and the percentage of zeolite replacement to achieve equivalent Vp of cemented clay samples (ZC) were estimated. The findings of this study contribute to promoting geotechnical sustainability by replacing cement with zeolite that has a considerably lower environmental footprint. Clay is a type of soil that can be found in many construction projects. For instance, many roads and buildings' foundations are constructed on clay soils. To ensure the necessary strength of the clay under the main structure, the soil should often be stabilized using adhesive construction materials such as cement. Interestingly, a portion of the cement could be replaced with other minerals not only to improve engineering performance but also to promote sustainability by lowering cement consumption. In this study, the effect of zeolite as a partial replacement for cement on the strength of clay soils was experimentally evaluated. The effect of various design parameters, such as cement replacement level and curing time, on the stability of clays was investigated using an advanced technique called the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test. Furthermore, a simple mathematical model was proposed based on the experimental results to help engineers design the stabilization plan and timely decide about the next steps of the construction process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building and ground settlement due to construction dewatering is a well-studied topic. However, most previous investigations have not considered the barrier effect of an adjacent underground structure on the drawdowns and resulting settlements. In this study, the barrier effect and its influence during construction dewatering for a metro station foundation pit is investigated. There are five aquifers at the foundation pit site, and a row of buildings supported on pile foundations, which act as an underground barrier to flow, is present on one side of the pit. On the other sides, there are no deep underground structures to impede groundwater flow. Field monitoring of the groundwater level drawdown, diaphragm wall movement, and ground and building settlements on both sides of the pit was carried out during dewatering. The results indicate that on the side with the pile foundations, the groundwater level drawdown, ground settlement, differential settlement, and angular distortion of building incurred by dewatering were relatively greater, but the diaphragm wall movements were relatively smaller. The effect of preexisting barriers should be considered in the assessment of construction dewatering-induced drawdowns, soil settlements, and building movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the random field model's consideration of the spatial variability of soil, soil properties at different locations play different roles in the reliability analysis of the foundation. Investigating the importance distribution of the random field through reliability sensitivity analysis (RSA) is beneficial for understanding how the random field affects the reliability of the foundation. However, many existing RSA methods for the random field model are deficient in terms of efficiency, accuracy, and applicability under complex engineering conditions. Consequently, this study proposes an efficient RSA method for the random field model based on the Karhunen–Loève (KL) expansion method and the first-order reliability method (FORM) to identify the important random field domain in foundation engineering. In the proposed method, the mean reliability sensitivity index (MRSI) is extended to a random field model of continuous form to characterize the importance distribution of the random field. The MRSI is analytically derived based on the results of the KL expansion method and the FORM without additional limit state function (LSF) calculations. Subsequently, the important random field domain, in which the variation of the mean of the soil property contributes significantly to the reliability index, is identified based on the MRSI. Last, two foundation engineering examples that consider the cross-correlated random fields of cohesion and friction angle, including strip footing on single-layer soil and pile in multiple-layer soil, were used to verify the proposed method. The results showed that an important random field domain with a small area dominates the variation of the reliability index of a foundation, and important random field domain area increases with autocorrelation distance (ACD). This innovative identification method holds great engineering significance, because it allows geotechnical practitioners to gain a comprehensive understanding of the failure modes and foundation treatment areas of foundations in spatially varying soil. In the random field model's consideration of the spatial variability of soil, soil properties at different locations play different roles in the reliability analysis of the foundation. Investigating the importance distribution of the random field through RSA is beneficial for understanding how the random field affects the reliability of the foundation. However, many existing RSA methods for the random field model are deficient in terms of efficiency, accuracy, and applicability under complex engineering conditions. Consequently, this study proposes an efficient RSA method for the random field model to identify the important random field domain, in which the variation of the mean of the soil property contributes significantly to the reliability index. Two foundation engineering examples that consider the cross-correlated random fields of cohesion and friction angle, including strip footing on single-layer soil and pile in multiple-layer soil, were used to verify the proposed method. The results showed that the innovative identification will allow geotechnical practitioners to gain a comprehensive understanding of the failure modes and foundation treatment areas of foundations in spatially varying soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive experimental program was performed in order to understand the mechanical behavior of model piles associated with water infiltration in collapsible loess. Real-time measurements were recorded for pile head settlement, pile shaft friction, and pile base resistance, as well as for the soil behavior, including soil settlement, volumetric water content, and soil suction. The experimental results suggest that both the pile head settlement and pile base resistance increased with water infiltration. The linear pile axial force distribution gradually changed to a "D" shape, with the maximum pile axial force occurring in the middle instead of the end stage of water infiltration. Such behavior can be attributed to a reduction in the contribution of soil suction, degradation of the pile–soil interface shear strength, and settlement of the collapsible soil. In addition, a softening model was proposed by modifying the traditional shear displacement method for interpretation of the mechanical behavior of piles in collapsible loess. There was good agreement between our experimental results and those from the literature and the results predicted using the proposed model, suggesting that the model can be used as a tool in the rational design of pile foundations in collapsible soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cavities are common subsurface anomalies that have a significant impact on the bearing capacity of footings. While cavities behave three-dimensionally, in previous studies, the analysis of cavities has been limited to two-dimensional plane-strain analysis because of the time-consuming nature and complexity of three-dimensional modeling. However, this study demonstrates that the bearing capacity factor derived from three-dimensional modeling can be up to 10 times higher than that obtained from plane-strain analysis, highlighting the importance of considering three-dimensional effects. The present paper conducted three-dimensional simulations to investigate the impact of spherical cavity on the failure mechanisms and bearing capacity of footings under undrained conditions. An extensive parametric study was performed to investigate the influential parameters, including footing width to cavity dimension ratio (B/D), cover depth ratio (C/D), overburden factor (γD/Su), and void eccentricity ratio (S/D) for both circular or square footings. The results indicate that increasing the overburden factor and void eccentricity ratio leads to a decrease and increase in the bearing capacity of the footing, respectively. Furthermore, changes in other parameters can either increase or decrease the bearing capacity depending on the characteristics of the cavity (size and location) and footing (size and shape). General solutions for the bearing capacity factor are provided for different variations of the dimensionless parameters. This study also examined various failure mechanisms, including both cavity-independent and cavity-dependent failure mechanisms, associated with circular and square footings and influential parameters. These mechanisms are categorized into three zones for cavity-independent failures and four zones for cavity-dependent failures. The changes in the influential parameters including B/D, S/D, γD/Su, and C/D lead to changes in the type of failure mechanism and the size of the failure zones, while the foundation shape does not have a significant effect on the failure mechanism. Sinkholes and underground cavities annually contribute to infrastructure damage and financial losses. The 1981 incident in Winter Park, Florida, exemplifies the real-world consequences. Previous investigations have been limited to two-dimensional models due to the time-consuming nature and complexity of three-dimensional modeling, but the real-world nature of cavities in three dimensions requires a more comprehensive understanding. This study directly addresses this need by investigating the impact of three-dimensional cavities on the bearing capacity of circular and square building foundations, also known as footings. This study thoroughly investigated the factors influencing the results, encompassing cavity size, depth, soil weight, and off-center position. It extensively explored potential footing failures, providing detailed discussions. Our findings are presented as easy-to-understand maps and charts covering a broad range of potential scenarios. These visual tools can help engineers and researchers accurately estimate the stability of a building's foundation when a cavity is present underneath. In simpler terms, this research has created a handy tool for professionals to predict the potential danger posed by hidden cavities to buildings and infrastructure. This knowledge can then be applied to ensure safer building practices, potentially saving a significant amount of money and preventing accidents in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document is a closure to a previous paper titled "Foundation Settlement and Tilt of Millennium Tower in San Francisco, California." The authors respond to comments and questions raised by discussers regarding the design, construction, and analysis of the tower's foundation movements. They emphasize that their goal was to objectively document the data and provide interpretations of the soil deformation mechanisms that caused the settlements. They encourage further investigation and analysis of the case history to advance foundation engineering practices in dense urban environments. [Extracted from the article]

Many instances of severe damage to pile foundations and pile-supported infrastructures have been caused by liquefaction-induced lateral spreading during major earthquakes, particularly in coastal areas. The current study conducted a series of shaking table experiments to determine the differences between the responses of a free- and a fixed-head group pile under lateral spreading in the presence of finned and circular protection piles. The results indicated that the maximum bending moment tolerated by nonprotected free-head piles was more than that by fixed-head piles. Also, reductions in bending moments were more significant in free-head piles in the presence of protection piles than in fixed-head piles. The bending moments of front and rear piles under restricted pile head conditions were reduced by about 31% and 21%, respectively, when finned piles were used as protection piles, while they were 34% and 42%, respectively, under free-head conditions. Furthermore, modification factors of recommended lateral pressure distribution along a pile per the current design code were determined for the protected and nonprotected free- and fixed-head pile groups of the current study and it was observed that this modification factor (CL) was highly dependent on the location of piles in a group, pile head conditions, and the presence of protection piles in the lateral spreading analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses shake table tests to examine how tunnelling affects framed construction response on different foundations. Accelerometers on different floors were mounted to examine the outcome of a utility tunnel with the help of two scaled prototype steel buildings. Three popular foundation types, i.e., isolated, mat, and pile foundation along with two scaled prototype steel building frame heights were tested. To account for the development of the ovalling effect of tunnel, both the frame models were vibrated orthogonally to the axis of tunnel by considering two ground motions, i.e., El Centro N-S (north-south) and MDR N-S as an input motion. The investigation showed that the ovalling effect of circular tunnel largely affects building displacement when it is just below the central axis. The result is the same for all foundations. As the building frame and tunnel distance increased, the circular tunnel ovalling effect decreased. Buildings built over isolated foundations are most damaged, whereas those built on pile foundations are least affected. The results obtained from the tests demonstrate that higher rise prototype sized steel buildings are more affected than low-rise frames. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pile foundations supporting high-rise buildings are generally subject to cyclic loading because of dynamic loading. The corrosion of steel materials in pile foundations is another major concern, especially for piles in a marine environment. In this study, a series of cyclic and static loading tests on model piles made of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) and seawater–sea sand concrete (SSC) and ended in a rock socket were reported. Three structural configurations (FRP tube–confined, FRP rebar cage–reinforced, and centered FRP rebar–reinforced) were adopted for the model piles. Strain along the depth of the piles was measured using fiber Bragg grating (FBG) optic sensors and an advanced distributed optical sensing technique known as optical frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR). Strain distribution, axial cyclic stiffness, and shaft friction mobilization of the piles under static and different modes of axial cyclic loading were analyzed and explored in detail. The test results indicated that the FRP tube–confined model pile showed higher confinement and cyclic capacity and lower stiffness degradation, leading to relatively more stable behavior. A high level of cyclic loading can cause microcracks to form and grow within the pile material, thereby decreasing pile stiffness. The strain profile of all the piles along the depth appeared to follow a similar trend, and fluctuations at certain points led to failure. Cyclic stiffness showed gains initially when cyclic load conditions were below a certain threshold level but degraded when loading was increased beyond it. Moreover, shaft resistance gradually increased with cycles, causing higher mobilization in the upper portion of the socket. The experimental results have provided the first systematic study on the performance of the FRP-SSC composite model piles ended in rock sockets under axial cyclic and static loadings. This will contribute to development of a potential predictive method for pile settlement and capacity for the better design of rock-socketed piles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing simplified procedures for evaluating soil liquefaction potential or for estimating excess pore pressures during earthquakes are typically based on undrained cyclic tests performed on saturated soil samples under controlled loading and boundary conditions. Under such conditions, the effect of excess pore pressure (ue) dissipation and redistribution to neighboring soil layers cannot be accounted for. Existing simplified procedures treat liquefiable layers as isolated soil layers without any boundary conditions even if dense and loose layers are very thin, permeable, and adjacent to each other. However, redistribution is likely to increase and decrease ue in the neighboring dense and loose layers respectively. Until now, no procedure short of fully coupled numerical analysis is available to estimate the importance of redistribution. This paper presents an approximate analytical procedure for assessing the effects of ue redistribution in (1) soil layers that would have liquefied if they were undrained, and (2) soil layers that would have not liquefied even if undrained. It is found that a layer that is initially assumed liquefied under undrained conditions might not even liquefy accounting for the ue redistribution to neighboring layers. On the other hand, a layer initially assumed to not liquefy can develop significant ue and can even liquefy due to pore pressure migration from the neighboring layers. Thus, accounting for redistributed ue is important for liquefaction consequence assessment quantification, particularly in systems that span the depth of these effects like deep foundations. Migration of u toward the tip of a pile can reduce its capacity, even if the tip is embedded in a dense sand layer. On the other hand, if redistribution can result in the reduction of ue in initially assumed liquefied layers, risks associated with liquefaction might be avoided. A criterion is also developed to evaluate the thicknesses of a layer below which redistribution could prevent liquefaction even if the layer is deemed liquefied according to the existing liquefaction-triggering procedures. Finally, the proposed procedure is illustrated by application to selected shaking events of centrifuge tests involving liquefaction of layered soil profiles. The predictions from the procedure matched the centrifuge test results reasonably. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In excavation engineering, most of the retaining structures are subjected to asymmetrical loads, including in asymmetrical excavation and asymmetrical overloading. However, a theoretical solution to, and deformation-controlling method for, this problem has remained elusive to date. In this work, a semianalytical solution for determining the deformation of retaining structures subjected to asymmetrical loads was derived based on the principle of minimum potential energy. The retaining structures were viewed as flexible, and the overall deformation of the retaining system was evaluated by our proposed theoretical model. This model was verified by comparing it with practical monitoring data. Subsequently, the theoretical solution was applied to analyze the stress and deformation characteristics under the conditions of asymmetrical excavation and asymmetrical overloading, which can be controlled to ensure the safety of a project. Finally, because of the requirement for a small amount of deformation in the foundation pit retaining piles, the earth pressure on the retaining piles is close to the static earth pressure. Reducing the length of the retaining pile on one side had a greater influence on the deformation on that side, but less of an influence on the other side. Thus, the proposed model can be used for optimizing the asymmetrical design of a retaining structure in order to balance the economy and safety of a project. Our design theory can be applied to a variety of engineering projects. A typical case is the Guangzhou Baiyun District Comprehensive Transportation Hub Project in China. The method was used to analyze the status of the subway foundation pit, offering a new design scheme to reduce the design length of the retaining piles, which resulted in great economic benefits in its practical application. The findings provided in this paper can be applied to the engineering of any long, narrow foundation pit that can be simplified into a two-dimensional plane–strain calculation model, being used to realize more accurate deformation control over the foundation pit envelope. The core of this calculation method is that it can accurately describe the magnitude of the earth pressure. The distribution of the earth pressure is worthy of further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although three-dimensional finite-element analysis has been introduced to foundation design for years, simplified computer-based calculations based on the spring analogy of soils and structural elements are also frequently used in many engineering projects. Using coefficients of subgrade reactions and pile stiffness is a straightforward way to design and analyze a piled raft foundation. This paper discusses the determination of the coefficients of pile reactions for embedded piled raft foundations in soft clays subjected to vertically uniform loads through a series of finite-element analyses. The geologic property was assumed to be composed of homogeneous soft clays with the shear-wave velocities varying at 100–140 m/s. The foundations with a square raft ranging from 16 to 36 m and embedment depths of 8 and 12 m were studied. Load intensity approximating 1.5 times the excavated soil pressures was considered where the maximum uniform load was applied to the foundation. The foundation settlements and reactions of the piles were obtained first from a three-dimensional finite-element analysis. For design convenience, the dimensionless pile displacements, pile reactions, and coefficients of pile reactions were developed and presented in plots. The embedment depth-to-raft size ratio, pile slenderness ratio, and pile-to-pile spacing distance-to-pile diameter ratio were examined to find their optimized correlation. Finally, a design example was given to verify the proposed suggestions. We conclude that the proposed method can be an alternative to the piled raft foundation design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seismic design of pile foundation–supported structures has gained significant attention in the last few decades; there have been several failures during moderate to severe earthquakes. Seismic soil–pile foundation–structure interaction (SSPSI) was reported as the governing phenomenon behind the failure mechanism of such structures. In this context, in this study an attempt is made to investigate the influence of SSPSI (mainly the inertial part of the interaction) in a pile-supported structural system with variation in dynamic characteristics and the ratio of superstructure stiffness to pile foundation stiffness (Ks/Kp) through physical model experiments using a shake table. The primary aim in this study is to assess the extent of the effect of dynamic soil–structure interaction in a scaled-down pile foundation–supported bridge structure in nonliquefied ground with the help of a simplistic normalized parameter, i.e., Ks/Kp, for different ranges of the period of the superstructure system. The study primarily highlights variation of the normalized lateral period of the whole interaction between the superstructure and pile foundation as a function of the practicable range of Ks/Kp, which may be helpful for designers in predicting the dynamic characteristics of the system as a first step in seismic design. Similarly, the trend of normalized spectral acceleration and displacement response at the superstructure and pile head with respect to Ks/Kp is presented for the prediction of design forces. Finally, an idealized case study prototype design problem is used to verify the outcome of the study and illustrates simplified design steps for pile foundation–supported structures in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corrosion is important in the design, maintenance, and preservation of bridge steel pile foundation systems. It is an inevitable phenomenon when steel is exposed to the environment, as metals tend to return to their lower energy state. While the corrosion rate of steel is predictable for atmospheric exposures, it is highly variable and difficult to predict for steel buried underground because of the high variability of soils. Applying a protective sacrificial layer is a common protection method to prevent corrosion. This study aims to evaluate the efficiency of a galvanized and painted galvanized steel bridge pile for achieving a 100-year service life and to economically compare them for using piles without a coating. To meet this objective, 21 steel coupon samples and nine 30 cm pile samples with galvanized coating, painted-galvanized coating, and no coating were tested in a cyclic corrosion test chamber to investigate the efficiency of each coating. The test was conducted for 600 days simulating a 100-year service life. Results from the experimental test revealed that galvanized and painted-galvanized coating methods show remarkable performance in protecting the piles against corrosion, and both methods can protect the piles from corrosion for 100 years. Further evaluation showed that, while the cost to increase the pile size was determined to be less than the premium for galvanizing or galvanizing and painting the piles for the bridge in this study, a cost–benefit evaluation for each protection measure is suggested, knowing that costs can vary widely depending on specific project requirements, location, market prices, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we instrument the foundations and towers for two onshore shallow wind turbine generators (WTGs) to evaluate foundation response, quantify in-service loads, and assess the assumptions behind WTG foundation design calculations. Measurements of pressure at the soil–foundation interface, soil strain just below foundation level, and tower moments over long periods provide insights into the operational moments experienced by the tower and the load transfer mechanisms to the foundation system. The results of this study have implications for design practices in three distinct ways: (1) the assessment of rotational stiffness calculation assumptions, (2) the evaluation of pressure distribution used in the bearing capacity formulation, and (3) the estimation of tower loads used in the tower and anchor bolt design. Our observations show that the induced overturning moments correlate well with incipient wind speeds and directions and the associated soil pressure and strain responses. The overturning moments and the response parameters relate linearly within the spectrum of measured magnitudes. However, the pressure distribution across the foundation footprint does not monotonically increase or decrease with distance from the neutral axis of the foundation base (e.g., the pressure sensed at the foundation's center close to the foundation is between 1.5 and 2 times greater than the pressures sensed at the edges). In addition, the measured soil strain as a function of cyclic moments shows that the in-service cyclic shear strains are less than 1.4 × 10−5 (i.e., two orders of magnitude smaller than the assumed design strain level). Finally, the spectrum of cyclic moments follows a semilog trend, thus indicating that operational and nonoperational loads dominate the fatigue load spectrum. Our study suggests that adequately designed WTG foundations on competent fine-grained soil result in very low operational soil shear stresses and strains, which might indicate that the current design practices are too conservative in nature. Field measurements establish load spectrums for cyclic fatigue loads for the long-term operational conditions of WTGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Piled embankments are becoming widely used to cope with engineering problems (e.g., excessive settlements, bearing failure) caused by soft soil subgrade to maintain the safety and stability of the constructed facilities. This study focused on an international motor-racing circuit currently under construction, where the underlying soft soil substratum characterized by a high void ratio and compressibility may largely influence the long-term performance of the project. Pretensioned high-strength concrete (PHC) pile-supported embankment is designed to improve this project, and its effectiveness remains to be studied. In addition, this study specifically focused on negative skin friction (NSF) and neutral plane (NP) position development, which significantly influence the bearing capacity of the pile foundation and have not been fully understood. As such, two large-scale field tests were performed on the PHC pile-supported embankments to monitor the settlement of piles and the surrounding soils. According to the monitored layered settlements, the NP development with time was quantitatively analyzed, and NP gradually moved up toward the pile top during soil consolidation. Comparison between the measurements of two test sites with and without geogrid reinforcement indicated that geogrids could not only alleviate total and differential settlements of the foundation but also contribute to the shallower final NP position. A numerical model, whose effectiveness was validated by comparing with the field measurements, was established to predict the complete variation of NP positions and explore the effects of various influencing factors through a parametric study. This study enhances the comprehension of NSF and NP development in pile foundations and provides valuable guidance for this motor-racing circuit and other related projects in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design of rock-socketed pile foundations requires careful consideration of critical construction aspects such as the socket roughness and smear for accurately estimating the shaft load capacity. Despite the effect of smear being investigated extensively over the years, previous studies are limited in accurately characterizing the effect of smear on the shaft response. This paper presents a comprehensive investigation on the load-bearing mechanisms of model smeared rock-socketed piles with different smear fabrics (configurations) at the pile-rock interface. These model piles were loaded into synthetic soft rocks while being intermittently subjected to three-dimensional (3D) X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging. Interpretations from the X-ray CT images were correlated with the pile-head load-displacement behavior to gain insights into the load transfer attributes between the pile, smear, and rock. The various interactions between these components were deduced by monitoring the micromechanics at the pile-rock interface through shaft energy utilization, interface void volume, smear volume, and sand density mapping. Based on the observations, it was inferred that the load transfer between the smear and the rock is primarily dependent on the percentage and position of smear occupancy at the interface. Results indicated that for the partially smeared interfaces, the interface mechanics are a combination of smeared and clean shafts with the residual resistances dependent upon the combined compression of smear and rock debris at the interface. Moreover, it was observed that the continuous presence of smear for more than half area of the leading faces of the pile asperities results in the smeared regions of the pile taking precedence over the unsmeared regions in governing the load-carrying capacity of the shaft. The discussions presented in this study can provide a strong base to further study the smear effect, subsequently aiding in enhancing the existing design guidelines to economically construct piles in soft rock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interactions between adjacent piled-raft foundations may induce additional settlement and cause the tilt of the structure. This case study investigates the long-term performance of a large piled-raft foundation system supporting high and heavy alumina solution storage tanks based on field measurements and three-dimensional (3D) numerical simulations. To properly consider the interactions among rafts, piles, and soils; the elastoplastic behavior of clayey and sandy soils; and the consolidation behavior of soil after construction, a 3D finite-difference code was utilized for the numerical modeling. Two undrained mechanical analyses were conducted to simulate the installation of foundations/tanks and the filling of alumina solution into the tanks, while two coupled hydromechanical analyses were performed to model the period between the two undrained stages and the stage after tank filling, respectively. The predictive capability of the numerical model was checked by comparing the simulation results first with single pile load test data and then with in situ settlement measurements at different locations of the piled-raft foundations. The long-term behavior of the piled-raft foundations was further investigated by analyzing various aspects including the axial force variation along the pile at different locations, the time-settlement relation at monitoring locations, the vertical effective stress increment and displacement of soil, and the differential settlement between monitoring locations. Based on the simulations, the tilt of the platform was mainly due to the superposition of additional stresses near the centerline of the two rows of piled-raft foundations. Finally, parametric studies were conducted to investigate the interactions among the piled-raft foundations at different pile length configurations. The results show that by properly increasing the length of the piles near the centerline of the two rows of piled-raft foundations, the differential settlement of the platforms can be mitigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The capsule expansion technique (CET) is a novel active measure to control the deformation of subsurface structures induced by underground engineering construction. CET has been applied to tunnel deformation control, but its application in pile foundations is rarely reported. In this paper, a field trial and three-dimensional coupled consolidation finite-element analysis were performed to study the interaction of capsule–soil–pile and control efficiency of CET. Field trial results verify the feasibility of CET in controlling pile horizontal deformation, and the control efficiency is 60% higher than that of Tube-a-Manchette grouting with 40%. Numerical back analyses indicate that the pile maximum displacement increases almost linearly with the expansion diameter, while the control efficiency of CET hardly changes. The total stress of the soil in front of the pile is significantly reduced by 20.3% due to the dissipation of excess pore-water pressure, resulting in the reverse displacement of the pile. High excess pore pressure induced by CET would cause the soil to bear additional stress after dissipating, leading to the reverse displacement of the soil and further diminishing the control efficiency. Moreover, control efficiency can be improved by reducing the surrounding excess pore-water pressure induced by expansion and increasing the excess pore-water pressure at the back side of the pile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hurricane and tsunami events can generate extreme water flows in nearshore regions of the United States with catastrophic consequences to coastal structures. Field records have shown that light-frame wood structures exhibit high vulnerability to wave-induced forces due to their light construction characteristics, which feature flexible connections and slender pile foundation systems. Previous research has studied the behavior of these structures under wave action, but most studies used rigid body modeling, which is shown in this study to be insufficient for capturing the force demand on these structures. Using a fluid-structure interaction (FSI) framework, this research investigated the structural and soil flexibility effects in the interaction between elevated light-frame wood structures and water flows. Study variables included the flexibility of timber-to-timber connections, soil type, pile embedment, wavelength, and wave amplitude. The study concluded that structural and soil responses to water flows can introduce strong coupled motions. Neglecting this coupling effect may underestimate the force demand on the light-frame wood structures by more than 40%. Accounting for both structural and soil flexibilities is necessary to accurately quantify the wave force demand of these structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field load tests are carried out on a single pile and piled-raft foundation (PRF) consisting of a 2 × 2 pile group with consideration of the time effect. The piles along with the raft in the PRF have been instrumented with load cells and strain gauges. Gradual compressive loading has been applied to the PRF with an increment of 10% up to the estimated safe load capacity. Settlement corresponding to the safe load is monitored for 4 months. The settlement of the PRF, axial load carried by piles, shaft friction along the pile length, moments in the raft, and load sharing ratio between piles and raft for each increment of loading are observed with respect to time. A nonlinear analysis is suggested to scrutinize the behavior of vertically loaded rigid PRFs in layered soil medium (present approach). Considering the theory of the interaction factor, an approximate procedure is implemented to analyze the nonlinearity of pile groups with a rigid raft. Additionally, the nonlinear response of piles using hyperbolic functions is presented (alternative hyperbolic function approach). A simplified method for the calculation of the flexibility matrix considering the time effect is also suggested (present time-based approach). The analyses are validated with the field results and available literature. Parametric studies have been performed to calculate the immediate and time-dependent settlements of the PRF by varying the length to diameter ratio of the pile, spacing to diameter ratio of the pile, and pile group configuration using the present approach and present time-based approach. Immediate settlements corresponding to the safe load by the present approach and alternative hyperbolic function approach are approximately 8.18% and 6.48% less than the measured settlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy piles, as an environmentally friendly means to exploit renewable energy, have attracted the attention of global researchers over the past years. Traditional heat exchanger configurations (1-U-shape, 1-W-shape, and multi-U-shape in series or parallel) have been utilized. Traditional 1-U-shape is limited by pile length, short heat transfer path, and low total heat transfer rate. Traditional 1-W-shape heat exchange tubes will cause thermal interference. Moreover, the heat exchange rate per unit tube length is not high for multi-U-shape in series or parallel. Therefore, this paper presents an efficient pile foundation heat exchanger configuration, i.e., deep penetration 1-U-shape configuration. Through a numerical study, energy pile groups with deep penetration 1-U-shape heat exchangers are investigated under continuous operation mode and intermittent operation mode. The temperature change of the piles and soil under intermittent operation mode is analyzed. Thermal performances (e.g., outlet water temperature and heat transfer efficiency) are compared under the two operation modes. Four typical monitoring points under the two operation modes are compared, and the difference in temperature variation is obtained to study the influence on the temperature field of the piles and soil. Results show that in summer mode, the temperature of the pile under intermittent operation mode presents restorability while the temperature of the soil increases gradually. Intermittent operation mode yields a lower temperature of outlet water temperature than continuous operation mode does, and therefore intermittent operation mode is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the capacity of single piles subjected to cyclic axial tension or compression load in the loess area under in situ compaction degree and extruding conditions. Four cyclic tension and compression loading tests, and two conventional tension and compression tests on single piles were carried out at a typical loess site of the Loess Plateau region of Northwest China's Shaanxi Province. A series of pretest preparations, including site leveling, steel cage production, pile formation, and soil compaction, are performed. The axial displacement of pile top, pile axial force, and frictional force of the pile side of a single pile measured in the test process were analyzed. The cyclic tension or compression load–displacement curves of the piles in loess, under the in situ compaction degree condition, show the load results in an influence of the movement trend that cannot be ignored. There is no overlap between the compression-unloading curve and tension-unloading curve. This phenomenon indicates that the cyclic loading accelerates the destruction of the pile foundation. Under an extruding condition, the difference between the maximum deformation and the minimum deformation is 2.412 mm, which is 60% of the ultimate deformation of a conventional single pile. The lateral friction of the pile shows multipeak distribution along the pile body, and the attenuation range of lateral friction strength at the pile tip is more than 50% in the failure stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, the reliability analysis and design method of vertically loaded piles embedded in spatially variable soils is difficult to be applied in practical engineering due to the huge computation effort required. To improve computational efficiency, this paper proposes a new method called the FORM–KL–LTM, which integrates the advantages of the first-order reliability method (FORM), the Karhunen–Loève (KL) expansion method, and the load transfer method (LTM). The main framework of the FORM–KL–LTM is the FORM, which is used to perform reliability analysis for the pile. The KL expansion method is adopted to carry out random discretization to generate the discrete soil parameters required by each iterative computation of the reliability index using the FORM, and the LTM is employed to evaluate the nonlinear load–settlement behavior of the pile head and to compute the values of limit state functions required by the FORM. The proposed method is computationally efficient because the number of random variables is controlled by the limit number of KL expansion terms. Based on the FORM–KL–LTM, a reliability sensitivity analysis method is proposed, which can compute the sensitivity index for measuring the relative sensitivity of the reliability index with respect to soil properties. Furthermore, a procedure for the reliability-based design (RBD) of piles embedded in spatially variable soils is established for the design of pile geometry, and a design ratio is defined to select the controlling limit state in the RBD of pile for both the ultimate limit state and the serviceable limit state. The procedure, accuracy, and efficiency of the proposed methods are demonstrated by providing an example of the reliability analysis and design of a vertically load pile in spatially variable soils. The spatial variability of soil has been recognized as an important source of uncertainty of the bearing performance of the pile, and therefore, it should be considered in the reliability analysis and design of a pile foundation. However, the methods used in the current literature, such as the discretization of a random field, the calculation of load–displacement curves, and the reliability analysis of a pile foundation, require a huge computation effort. Low computational efficiency is highly disadvantageous to designers, which makes the reliability analysis and design method by considering a soil's spatial variability difficult to be widely applied to practical engineering. Therefore, this study proposes a new method called the FORM–KL–LTM to perform the reliability analysis and design of vertically loaded piles in spatially variable soils. This method greatly reduces the number of random variables and simulations of the performance function, thus improving the computational efficiency. Based on the FORM–KL–LTM, a reliability sensitivity analysis method is proposed to carry out a sensitivity analysis of soil parameters on the reliability of a pile foundation. Moreover, this paper defines the design ratios for discussing which limit state mainly controls the failure state of the pile foundation under different soil properties and pile geometry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground fissure is the most common geological catastrophe phenomenon in Xi'an, posing a major security threat to the currently developing urban cloud rail transit system. In this paper, a 3D-FEM calculation model is established to study the influence of the intersection angles between the hidden ground fissure and the cloud rail on the deformation and failure characteristics of the structure. The findings indicate that the pile foundation is under tension in the main deformation area of the hanging wall of the ground fissure, and the negative friction zone (NFZ) appears below the neutral point (buried depth 18 m for intersection angle 30°). The pile foundation is under compression in the footwall, and the pressure it bears is less than the tensile force sustained by the hanging wall pile, and the NFZ is above the middle point. The NFZ of the pile foundation in the hanging wall and footwall increases as the intersection angle decreases. The pile foundation mainly undergoes vertical settlement, and the horizontal displacement is relatively small. The 3D movement of the pile foundation results in settlement and inclination of the superstructure of the cloud rail simply supported beam bridge, such as the pier and track beam. Therefore, the cloud rail bridge should span the ground fissure at a large angle as far as possible, and 3D adjustable support should be adopted to adjust the offset of the track beam caused by the ground fissure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Composite plate shear walls/concrete-filled (C-PSW/CFs), also known as SpeedCore systems, are a relatively new structural member in American codes and standards. Prior research has focused primarily on C-PSW/CF walls with either flange/closure plates or filled composite members as boundary elements. Walls without boundary elements have also been studied, but they are no longer permitted by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC 341-22). The reason is that composite walls without boundary elements do not provide adequate ductility for seismic design. This paper presents the results of experimental and numerical studies conducted to evaluate the cyclic lateral load behavior of C-PSW/CFs using hot-rolled structural steel members as boundary elements. The steel web plates of the C-PSW/CF specimens were connected to each other using threaded tie bars with double nut connections. Composite interaction between the steel and concrete infill was achieved using the tie bars and additional shear studs welded to the boundary elements. The composite walls were embedded and anchored to reinforced concrete foundation blocks using welded deformed bar anchors. The experimental investigations focused on the cyclic lateral load-drift responses including test observations and limit states, moment-rotation response of the plastic hinge and the section moment-curvature relationship, overall lateral stiffness, strength, and displacement ductility. The experimental results show that the specimens exceeded their nominal flexural capacities calculated using the plastic stress distribution method or fiber-based section modeling using measured material properties. The specimens had plastic hinge rotation capacity greater than 0.028 rad. and displacement ductility ratio greater than 5.2. Detailed 3D nonlinear inelastic finite element models and simpler fiber-based macro models of the tested specimens were developed and benchmarked using experimental results. The detailed 3D finite element models can reasonably simulate the global and local behavior of the specimens, and are recommended for conducting further parametric studies of composite wall design details. Simpler fiber-based macro models can efficiently simulate the cyclic lateral load behavior of the specimens, and are recommended for modeling C-PSW/CFs while simulating the behavior of multi-story building structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brittle failures were observed in pile foundations during past earthquakes due to seasonally frozen ground. This paper introduces a new geosynthetic material derived from waste tires, i.e., polyurethane-bonded rubber particles and sand, termed PolyBRuS, for application around deep foundations to improve their seismic performance in cold regions. Cyclic triaxial tests were carried out at various temperatures, confining pressures, and freeze–thaw cycles to assess the cold-weather dynamic characteristics of PolyBRuS. The results show that the material behaves as a nonlinear viscoelastic material at an axial strain of less than 1%. Its dynamic elastic modulus rises after freezing and continues to increase as temperature drops, but it is much less sensitive to confining pressures and freeze–thaw cycles; its damping ratio rises significantly with increasing axial strains and decreasing subfreezing temperatures and declines moderately with increasing freeze–thaw cycles. Compared with natural soils, its dynamic elastic modulus is similar to those of unfrozen fine-grained soils and is much less sensitive to subfreezing temperatures; its damping ratio is comparable to that of fine-grained unfrozen soils and is substantially higher than frozen soils at subfreezing temperatures. These characteristics make this material an excellent candidate to replace local soil around deep foundations for vibration reduction and seismic hazard mitigation in cold regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bridge pile capacity is a vital criterion used to assure the durability and stability of a bridge pile foundation. In fact, reliably predicting the pile capacity plays a significant role in supporting data-driven decisions for the design, construction, and quality assurance of bridge piles. While previous studies have examined black-box machine learning (ML) models for bridge pile capacity prediction, little-to-no studies were directed to integrating expert knowledge and large bridge pile data to develop an easy-to-interpret white-box ML model for estimating bridge pile capacity. Therefore, this study proposed a novel white-box expert knowledge–guided Bayesian belief network (BBN) to accurately estimate bridge pile capacity. The proposed BBN was developed based on (1) a comprehensive bridge pile data set of 2,735 data points collected from a large bridge project, (2) expert knowledge obtained from eight bridge and geotechnical experts using the systematic three-round Delphi method, (3) a variety of data preprocessing methods, and (4) parametric Bayesian learning applied to different graphical models. The performance of four different BBN models was assessed and compared based on an unseen testing set to evaluate the generalizability of the proposed BBN model. Model evaluation results indicated that the optimal BBN is a tree-augmented Bayesian network that can estimate the discretized capacity of bridge piles with an accuracy of 90.51%. The proposed BBN model was further validated by testing its generalizability performance on another data from a different location. This study contributed to the body of knowledge by providing a novel, intrinsically interpretable, and robust data-driven expert knowledge–guided model for accurately estimating the bearing capacity of bridge piles. Ultimately, this paper aims to attract more research and practical attention toward developing knowledge-based white-box models for advancing the predictive analytics of bridge pile-related data and decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document is a discussion of the article "Foundation Settlement and Tilt of Millennium Tower in San Francisco, California" by Jonathan P. Stewart et al. The authors analyze the sinking and tilting behaviors of Millennium Tower in San Francisco, focusing on the design of its pile foundation and neighboring excavations. They raise questions about the initial design, the effects of dewatering on the tower, and the settlement calculations and numerical modeling used. The authors also note inconsistencies between the predicted and observed behavior of the tower. Further research is needed to address these issues. [Extracted from the article]

Shake table experiments are conducted to assess the potential of the polymer injection technique as a liquefaction countermeasure. A large 2.9 m high (10 ft) laminar soil container on a 3.9×1.85 m (13×6 ft) shake table is employed. Mitigation of liquefaction-induced settlement for a shallow foundation is explored. In a series of two shake table experiments, the system response is studied first without (baseline) and subsequently with polymer injected into the liquefiable stratum. Each test is densely instrumented to provide insights into the dynamic response of the soil and foundation system. Furthermore, cone penetration tests (CPTs) are performed pre- and postinjection to assess the extent of soil improvement. Strong base excitation is imparted by the shake table, resulting in liquefaction and excessive foundation settlement in the original baseline test. In the second test, with the polymer injection countermeasure, a significant reduction is observed in the tendency for liquefaction and the resulting foundation settlement. After this test, careful excavation provided additional insights into the polymer's configuration within the deposit, increasing overall soil relative density, confinement and creating solidified paths for the shallow foundation load toward the lower, more competent stratum. As such, these mechanisms have the potential to allow for: (1) an increase in soil resistance to liquefaction, and (2) a significant reduction in settlement of overlying shallow foundations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing projects indicate that a large number of pile boreholes formed via cement fly ash gravel (CFG) pile construction in soft soil could produce a borehole group effect in the absence of timely backfilling. The borehole group effect could cause ground settlement and threaten the safety of adjacent buildings, tunnels, and pipelines. However, the mechanism of the borehole group effect, causing serious deformation in surrounding soil, has seldom been studied, and there exists no simple simulation method to predict the borehole group effect. In this study, a case involving CFG pile boreholes in a soft soil area causing a significant settlement of surrounding buildings was introduced. Based on this case, a centrifuge test was designed to simulate the influence of a single borehole and multiple boreholes on the surrounding soft soil. The mechanism of the borehole group effect was investigated via centrifuge tests and the finite-element method. In the case of a single borehole, a horizontal circumferential stress arch and vertical stress transfer arch were formed in the soil, which effectively limited the shrinking deformation of the borehole wall. In the case of a large number of boreholes with a small spacing, the horizontal and vertical stress arches around the boreholes affected and weakened each other. As a result, the shrinking deformation of the borehole group was greater than that of the single borehole. In other words, the borehole group effect was found to cause serious deformation in the surrounding soil. To overcome the difficulty in the simulation of a large number of pile boreholes in engineering, the borehole-type conversion and multihole merging method was proposed. The simulation results indicated that the simplified method was reasonable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the large demand to produce clean and renewable energy, offshore wind farms are extensively being used to help with economic development. Offshore Wind Turbine (OWT) structures are usually supported by various types of foundations and its selection depends on several factors such as water depth, economic costs, construction methodologies, seabed bathymetry, soil characteristics, and load characteristics. The present State-of-the-Art review focuses on OWT-monopile foundation systems embedded in multi-layered soil strata subjected to aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loading conditions. The purpose of this study is to carry out a comprehensive review on the performance of OWT-monopile foundation structures to support the design and drafting choices and thereby provide an understanding to reduce the costs. Two specific subject areas are addressed in this paper: (1) Factors affecting the performance of OWT-Monopile Foundation Systems; and (2) Experimental modeling and numerical analyses of OWT-Monopile Foundation Systems. The immediate challenge to the design of OWTs is to analyze the dynamic response of the foundation structure when exposed to both aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loads acting simultaneously. The limitations of the existing guidelines point to the need for improved design methods to obtain an economical design of OWT-monopile foundations. The use of Finite Element (FE) models is effective in studying the functioning of OWT-monopile structures. The present study suggests the development of further numerical models and modifications to the existing ones to properly assess soil-monopile interactions. This study also suggests further investigations on the design and analysis of OWT-monopile foundations considering the effect of (i) aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loading conditions with soil-monopile interactions, and (ii) multi-layered seabed characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]