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Aim: Patients' death or adverse events appear to be associated with poor healthcare decision-making. This might be due to an inability to have an adequate representation of the problem or of the connections among problem-related elements. Changing how a problem is formulated can reduce biases in clinical reasoning. The purpose of this article is to explore the possible contributions of psychoneuroendocrinoimmunology (PNEI) and psychology of reasoning and decision-making (PRDM) to support a new nursing theoretical frame., Design: Discursive paper., Method: This article discusses the main assumptions about nursing and nurses' ability to face patient's problems, suggesting a new approach that integrates knowledge from PNEI and PRDM. While PNEI explains the complexity of systems, highlighting the importance of systems connections in affecting health, PRDM underlines the importance of the informative context in creating a mental representation of the problem. Furthermore, PRDM suggests the need to pay attention to information that is not immediately explicit and its connections., Conclusion: Nursing recognizes the patient-nurse relationship as the axiom that governs care. The integration of PNEI and PRDM in nursing theoretics allows the expansion of the axiom by providing essential elements to read a new type of relationship: the relationship among information. PNEI explains the relationships between biological systems and the psyche and between the whole individual and the environment; PRDM provides tools for the nurse's analytical thinking system to correctly process information and its connections., Impact on Nursing Practice: A theoretical renewal is mandatory to improve nursing reasoning and nursing priority identification. Integrating PNEI and PRDM into nursing theoretics will modify the way professionals approach patients, reducing cognitive biases and medical errors., No Patient or Public Contribution: There was no patient or public involvement in the design or writing of this discursive article., (© 2024 The Authors. Journal of Advanced Nursing published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

How do people adapt to others in adversarial settings? Prior work has shown that people often violate rational models of adversarial decision-making in repeated interactions. In particular, in mixed strategy equilibrium (MSE) games, where optimal action selection entails choosing moves randomly, people often do not play randomly, but instead try to outwit their opponents. However, little is known about the adaptive reasoning that underlies these deviations from random behavior. Here, we examine strategic decision-making across repeated rounds of rock, paper, scissors, a well-known MSE game. In experiment 1, participants were paired with bot opponents that exhibited distinct stable move patterns, allowing us to identify the bounds of the complexity of opponent behavior that people can detect and adapt to. In experiment 2, bot opponents instead exploited stable patterns in the human participants' moves, providing a symmetrical bound on the complexity of patterns people can revise in their own behavior. Across both experiments, people exhibited a robust and flexible attention to transition patterns from one move to the next, exploiting these patterns in opponents and modifying them strategically in their own moves. However, their adaptive reasoning showed strong limitations with respect to more sophisticated patterns. Together, results provide a precise and consistent account of the surprisingly limited scope of people's adaptive decision-making in this setting., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Assessment materials must be checked for errors before they are presented to candidates. Any errors have the potential to reduce validity. For example, in the most extreme cases, an error may turn an otherwise well-designed exam question into one that is impossible to answer. In Cambridge University Press & Assessment, assessment materials are checked by multiple assessment specialists across different stages during assessment development. While human checkers are critical to this process, we must acknowledge that there is ample research showing the shortcomings of being human (e.g., we have cognitive biases, and memory and attentional limitations). It is important to provide assessment checkers with tools that help overcome or mitigate these limitations. This article is about one type of checking tool -- checklists. We describe a research-informed, collaborative project to support assessors in performing their checks of exam papers. This project focused on redesigning the instructional, training and task materials provided to assessors. A key part of this was to design checklists for assessors to use when performing their checks. In this article, we focus primarily on the approach that we took for these checklists in order to draw readers' attention to the complexity that is involved in designing them and to provide a practical example of how research can be used strategically to inform key design decisions.

We aimed to investigate differences in patients' anxiety and satisfaction between patients undergoing paper-based patient decision aid (PDA) for shared decision-making (SDM) and those receiving computer-based PDA. We retrospectively collected questionnaires before and after SDM. Basic demographic data as well as anxiety, satisfaction, knowledge acquisition, and participation in SDM were recorded. We divided our population into subgroups according to use of paper-based or computer-based PDA. In addition, Pearson correlation analysis was applied to assess the relationships among variables. In total, 304 patients who visited our Division of Nephrology were included in the final analysis. Overall, over half of the patients felt anxiety (n = 217, 71.4%). Near half of the patients felt a reduction in anxiety after SDM (n = 143, 47.0%) and 281 patients (92.4%) were satisfied with the whole process of SDM. When we divided all the patients based on use of paper-based or computer-based PDA, the reduction of anxiety level was greater in the patients who underwent paper-based PDA when compared with that of those who underwent computer-based PDA. However, there was no significant difference in satisfaction between the two groups. Paper-based PDA was as effective as computer-based PDA. Further studies comparing different types of PDA are warranted to fill the knowledge gaps in the literature., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Objectives: Producing living guidelines requires making important decisions about methods for evidence identification, appraisal, and integration to allow the living mode to function. Clarifying what these decisions are and the trade-offs between options is necessary. This article provides living guideline developers with a framework to enable them to choose the most suitable model for their living guideline topic, question, or context., Study Design and Setting: We developed this guidance through an iterative process informed by interviews, feedback, and a consensus process with an international group of living guideline developers., Results: Several key decisions need to be made both before commencing and throughout the continual process of living guideline development and maintenance. These include deciding what approach is taken to the systematic review process; decisions about methods to be applied for the evidence appraisal process, including the use of unpublished data; and selection of "triggers" to incorporate new studies into living guideline recommendations. In each case, there are multiple options and trade-offs., Conclusion: We identify trade-offs and important decisions to be considered throughout the living guideline development process. The most appropriate, and most sustainable, mode of development and updating will be dependent on the choices made in each of these areas., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Aim: To describe and discuss clinical strategies for nurses working in partnership with substitute decision-makers for people living with advanced dementia., Background: By providing person-centred care to patients living with advanced dementia, nurses are positioned to work in partnership with substitute decision-makers who make healthcare decisions related to advanced care. Because the experience of being substitute decision-makers is complex and stressful, nurses need skillsets for working in partnership with substitute decision-makers., Design: In this discursive paper, an innovative framework for working in partnership with substitute decision-makers is proposed., Method: Evidence-based findings from a systematic review provided five domain foci for the partnership framework. In each domain, two clinical strategies were discursively proposed. Clinical strategies were hypothesised from research findings and insights from the authors' nursing experiences. Then, topical literature was searched, and findings were used to support the discursively argued strategies., Discussion: To deal with complexities and reduce stress for substitute decision-makers, an innovative Nurse-Substitute Decision-Maker Partnership Framework for use in the context of advanced dementia is proposed and discussed. The partnership framework consists of five domains: Building trust, Exploring emotions, Translating quality of life, Encouraging proactivity and Negotiating families. Within these domains, ten strategies to support the practices of clinical nurses to work in partnership with substitute decision-makers are discussed., Relevance to Clinical Practice: In the framework, the ten clinical nursing strategies are designed to provide targeted care to substitute decision-makers in areas that are known to cause complexity and stress to them. The Nurse-Substitute Decision-Maker Partnership Framework has been designed to improve nurse-substitute decision-maker partnerships and reduce the stress experienced by substitute decision-makers as they work through the complexities associated with advanced dementia., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The two most popular decision-making processes are tossing a coin and playing rock, paper, scissors. In the activity described in this article, students find the theoretical probabilities of winning a coin toss and a round of the rock, paper, scissors game. They next devise strategies to win and test them out. Students then compare the theoretical probabilities they found with the experimental probabilities. The mathematical topics covered in this activity include calculating basic probability; understanding that for independent events A and B, P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B); recognizing a geometric series and applying the appropriate formula to find what it converges to; and understanding the meaning of descriptive statistics. Students were able to prove that although theoretically both games are fair in that they both give each of the two players a 50 percent chance of winning, several strategies can be employed to make each game unfair.

It is essential to establish a multi-dimensional postgraduate quality evaluation system for student assessment and training. This study aimed to explore the construction of the multiindex and hierarchical comprehensive evaluation system for postgraduate training in science and engineering based on the Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) model using Analytic Hierarchy Process. It involved 756 postgraduates in physics and engineering who were randomly selected via the Internet. Data were collected from the questionnaire about postgraduates' basic information. After collection, Factor Analysis was used to verify the rationality of the design of second-level and third-level indicators, and adjust the corresponding weights. On this basis, Cluster Analysis was used to classify the training quality of the postgraduates based on their scores on academic ability, basic quality, and social ability indicators. The results revealed that the index system includes 4 first-level indicators,12 second-level indicators and 36 third-level indicators, and different weights being assigned to the indicators according to their influence on the training quality of postgraduates in science and engineering. This study also provides some reference for the quality of science and engineering postgraduate training in Chinese universities by proposing relevant measures, which could be interesting also for international audience.

The importance of shared decision making (SDM) for informed consent has been emphasised in the updated regulatory guidelines. Errors of completion, legibility and omission have been associated with paper-based consent forms. We introduced a digital consent process and compared it against a paper-based process for quality and patient reported involvement in shared decision making. 223 patients were included in this multi-site, single centre study. Patient consent documentation was by either a paper consent form or the Concentric digital consent platform. Consent forms were assessed for errors of legibility, completion and accuracy of content. Core risks for 20 orthopaedic operations were pre-defined by a Delphi round of experts and forms analysed for omission of these risks. SDM was determined via the 'collaboRATE Top Score', a validated measure for gold-standard SDM. 72% (n = 78/109) of paper consent forms contained ≥1 error compared to 0% (n = 0/114) of digital forms (P < 0.0001). Core risks were unintentionally omitted in 63% (n = 68/109) of paper-forms compared to less than 2% (n = 2/114) of digital consent forms (P < 0.0001). 72% (n = 82/114) of patients giving consent digitally reported gold-standard SDM compared to 28% (n = 31/109) with paper consent (P < 0.001). Implementation of a digital consent process has been shown to reduce both error rate and the omission of core risks on consent forms whilst increasing the quality of SDM. This novel finding suggests that using digital consent can improve both the quality of informed consent and the patient experience of SDM. • The paper consent process is associated with errors and omissions of core risks. • A digital consent process improved error rate and omission rate of core risks. • Patients reported a higher level of shared decision making with a digital process. • Documentation of consent can be reliably standardised with an electronic record. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are millions of children attending English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) government schools for their basic education. The vast majority of these are in countries across the Global South. In these contexts, EMI policy decisions are rarely based on educational arguments while global learning discussions exist with limited engagement with the challenges of EMI. This is despite a significant evidence base that highlights the widespread impact that EMI has both on educational quality and inequalities. A recent British Council position paper suggests that EMI research tends to be descriptive, perceptions-based and lacking in theoretical underpinning. This paper responds to this critique by bringing together critical theories of social and epistemic justice to develop a series of questions that could be used to interrogate the multiple ways that EMI impacts children's basic education in the Global South.

Introduction: Previously, we identified eight effective consultation skills to support decision-making in the voluntary surrender of older adult drivers' licences in super-aged Japan. This study aimed to clarify the transferability of these skills., Methods: We collected text data by interviewing 11 safe-driving counsellors (four police officers, four clerical staff and three nurses) in the License Division of the National Police Agency from February to March 2022. Interviews were semi-structured and conducted by telephone or email. During the interview, participants were asked to recall their experiences as counsellors providing decision-making support to older drivers and to compare their experiences with the eight consultation skills. We analysed the content of the responses by quantitative text analysis with KH Coder 3 software., Results: As a characteristic of the words and phrases used by counsellors in their narratives about consultation skills, the most frequently extracted words from among 3147 words were think, parties and family, and promote had the highest mediation centrality. The eight subgraphs were 'Respecting the will of relevant parties from their standpoint is natural', 'Listening attentively and empathetically to relevant parties is effective', 'Presenting objective data to guide decisions is successful', 'Showing cognitive functioning test results is often effective', 'Counselors with medical expertise can elicit positive counseling outcomes', 'Intervention by medical or police counselors facilitates the decision to surrender voluntarily', 'Counseling skills need to be improved' and 'A diagram of the 8 skills is helpful for inexperienced counselors'., Conclusion: The results suggest that the eight consultation skills have similarities and are transferable. This transferability might contribute to practical application or cohort follow-up study research. These skills can be incorporated into counsellor training, and counsellors can be expected to use these skills in the future. Regardless of the safe-driving counsellor's years of experience, the skills can help them provide uniform and accurate support in decision-making regarding the voluntary surrender of older adult drivers' licences. These skills are a promising approach to help older adults lead safe and secure lives as they age., (© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The financial motivation to earn advertising revenue has been widely conjectured to be pivotal for the production of online misinformation 1-4 . Research aimed at mitigating misinformation has so far focused on interventions at the user level 5-8 , with little emphasis on how the supply of misinformation can itself be countered. Here we show how online misinformation is largely financed by advertising, examine how financing misinformation affects the companies involved, and outline interventions for reducing the financing of misinformation. First, we find that advertising on websites that publish misinformation is pervasive for companies across several industries and is amplified by digital advertising platforms that algorithmically distribute advertising across the web. Using an information-provision experiment 9 , we find that companies that advertise on websites that publish misinformation can face substantial backlash from their consumers. To examine why misinformation continues to be monetized despite the potential backlash for the advertisers involved, we survey decision-makers at companies. We find that most decision-makers are unaware that their companies' advertising appears on misinformation websites but have a strong preference to avoid doing so. Moreover, those who are unaware and uncertain about their company's role in financing misinformation increase their demand for a platform-based solution to reduce monetizing misinformation when informed about how platforms amplify advertising placement on misinformation websites. We identify low-cost, scalable information-based interventions to reduce the financial incentive to misinform and counter the supply of misinformation online., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

This study investigated the effect of an electronic boycott of foreign products on the purchasing rate of Jordanian consumers for products from Beirut Lights company for hygienic paper manufacturing. This study collected data from 310 consumers purchasing products from Beirut Lights Company for Hygienic Paper Manufacturing using questionnaires. This study employed the Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) approach and analysed the data. The results revealed that electronic boycotts (consumer animosity, consumer ethnocentrism, consumer efficacy, and product judgment) have significant and positive effects on purchasing rates. The results revealed that a 1% increase in Consumer Animosity would lead to an 18.5% increase in Purchasing Rate. Additionally, the results demonstrated that Purchasing Rate would increase by 15.2 percent with a 1% increase in Consumer Efficacy. Also, the results revealed that a 1% increase in Consumer Ethnocentrism would lead to a 23.5% increase in Purchasing Rate. Similarly, the results revealed that a 1% increase in Product Judgement would lead to a 44.1% increase in Purchasing Rate. For Western multinational corporations focused on expanding their foothold in the world's biggest consumer market, this study's conclusions have crucial consequences for decision-makers and management. The suppressed and intense emotion of hostility, which is a remnant of past hostilities, needs much more attention from the Beirut lights firm, which manufactures hygiene paper in Jordan. In other hostile market scenarios, the conclusions of this examination may be applicable to a strategic study of the boycott model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the care of adolescents, health care providers often face situations raising ethical concerns or dilemmas, such as refusal of a treatment or hospitalization, or request of confidentiality while engaging in risky behaviors or facing unplanned pregnancy. This position paper provides concrete avenues as how to assess the adolescent's capacity for autonomous decision making, e.g. the patient's competence in a specific situation, and how to elicit informed choice or consent. To do so, professionals need to be sensitized and trained as how to assess the cognitive and socio-psychological development of the young patient. Another challenge for the health professionals is to balance the needs to support patient's autonomy while offering secure guidance and protection if needed. To optimize such a process, they establish a climate of trust and empathy that will allow the patient to participate freely in the decision. In addition, especially when the decisions have potentially important consequences on the health and life, the professionals include, with the adolescent's permission, parents, caregivers or other significant adults, as well as they may request the opinion of other members of the health care team or expert colleagues such as ethicists.

In this practice-based pedagogical paper, we, the university faculty of Education, Food and Nutrition, Sociology, and History in the U.S., describe how we started a Reflective Practice Teaching Circle at our institution for interdisciplinary dialogue about the effective use of social media (SM) for teaching and learning. Our discussions led to the design of the Social Media Entry Model that educators can use for decision-making. We begin this paper with a brief synthesis of scholarly literature describing students' SM use and how higher education faculty use SM to support 21st-century skills development. Next, we describe the institutional, individual, and pedagogical barriers that prevent faculty from embracing SM as a teaching and learning tool. Based on our shared vision and praxis, we present the Social Media Entry Model and describe how educators can use it when deciding how to integrate SM into the formal or informal curriculum. Through our narratives, we illustrate how we use a variety of SM platforms and different entry points in the model to enhance students' 21st-century skills. We also discuss the legal and ethical issues that educators must consider to ensure that university students use SM in a socially responsible manner.

This paper presents a midterm review of a 4-year factor analysis project aimed at validating an outcome-based assessment of study-abroad programs attended by Japanese students. This paper outlines how the results from the initial two years captured changes in perceptions and reasons for studying abroad. It found that students have become increasingly focused on how the experience will impact their future careers. This is a shift from those who studied abroad before the COVID-19 pandemic. Those students motivations for studying abroad were primarily internal and experiential, such as wanting to improve their language skills and experience life in another country, or external and passive reasons arising from the circumstances or opinions of family or friends. The research also indicates how awareness of this shift could assist administrators in designing and conducting successful international experiences.

This design case details the design process of a multiple-choice assessment of socio-scientific systems thinking. This assessment is situated within a larger project that aims to understand the ways students use multiple scientific models to understand complex socio-scientific issues. In addition to the research component, this project entails developing curriculum and assessment resources that support science teaching and learning. We begin this paper by framing the needs that motivated the design of this assessment and introducing the design team. We then present a narrative outlining the design process, focusing on key challenges that arose and the ways these challenges influenced our final design. We conclude this paper with a discussion of the compromises that had to be made in the process of designing this instrument.

ICT advancements have enabled more online activities, resulting in several cyberethical behaviours. The literature documents the prevalence of plagiarism and online fraud, among others. While behaviour has been explained by several theories, as scholarship and research advance, frameworks are modified to include more constructs. This paper proposes a developed framework for studying cyberethical behaviour in North Central Nigeria, with a focus on exploring the factors that influence individuals' attitudes, awareness, and perception of cyberethics. The framework is based on a modified reasoned action approach model and incorporates key constructs such as attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and awareness of cyber ethics. An adapted questionnaire was used as an instrument for collecting quantitative data. This study used multistage sampling. A sample size of 989 north-central Nigerian female university postgraduate students was selected from a population of 9,000. Perception and attitude toward cyberethical behaviour were positively correlated. Perception, awareness, and attitude toward cyberethical behaviour correlated. Perception and awareness significantly affected cyberethical behaviour. The study aims to provide insights into the factors that shape individuals' decision-making processes regarding cyberethics and to identify potential areas for intervention and education. The paper also discusses the importance of promoting cyberethics in Nigeria, given the increasing use of technology and the growing threat of cybercrime. The proposed framework offers a valuable tool for researchers and policymakers seeking to understand and address cyberethical behaviour in North Central Nigeria.

Through historically oriented critical discourse analysis this article considers how the messages regarding the purpose of higher education, as presented in prospectuses of four case study institutions, have been impacted by massification and marketisation in England between 1977 and 2018. The prospectuses of four higher education institutions of different status were analysed to trace how discourses relating to the value of an undergraduate degree could be identified in the prospectuses. The findings suggest that while the prospectuses presented multiple rationales as to why students should undertake degrees, there was a significant increase in focus on graduate transitions to employment and a parallel hollowing-out of information relating to course content. The study found that over the period the vocabularies drawn on to present the value of a degree have become homogenised, yet the rationales given for undertaking tertiary study became more numerous and complex, making diversity of institutional offers difficult for prospective students to differentiate.

Purpose: The aim of this paper, using the intuitionistic fuzzy (IF)–set based Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluation (PROMETHEE) method, is to create multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) mechanism that evaluates the papers according to the offset print quality, separately for each of the CMYK colors. Thanks to the mechanism, the most suitable and the most unsuitable paper for printing is determined. Design/methodology/approach: With the IF PROMETHEE method, respectively, deviations are calculated by linear criteria type; the overall IF preference relation matrix is obtained. Finally, the positive and negative outranking flows are calculated; by obtaining net outranking flows, all papers are ranked from best to worst for printability. Findings: Based on the results of the MCDM algorithm; the best offset printing quality is Matte Coated 115 gr. for cyan, magenta and black and Glossy Coated 115 gr. for yellow. The worst offset printing quality for all papers is 70 gr. III. low grade paper. According to the findings, when all colors are examined, the best paper for offset printing quality is coated papers; the worst paper is III. low grade papers. Originality/value: The creation of mechanism that evaluates all criteria together leads to the most accurate result. Cases of hesitation are also addressed using an IF-based algorithm; all criteria were assigned individual importance levels, and a single result was obtained by activating all of the criteria simultaneously. Therefore reasons, this is paper that will bring innovation and shed light on studies in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reviews have long been recognized as among the most important forms of scientific communication. The rapid growth of the primary literature has further increased the need for reviews to distill and interpret the literature. This review on Reviews and Reviewing: Approaches to Research Synthesis encompasses the evolution of the review literature, taxonomy of review literature, uses and users of reviews, the process of preparing reviews, assessment of review quality and impact, the impact of information technology on the preparation of reviews, and research opportunities for information science related to reviews and reviewing. In addition to providing a synthesis of prior research, this review seeks to identify gaps in the published research and to suggest possible future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Academic journals rely crucially upon the willingness of academics to review papers and for them to provide high-quality review reports. The purpose of this Editorial is to assist reviewers for Tourism and Hospitality in providing review reports that will be helpful to the journal editors in making decisions about whether to accept, reject or require revisions to papers that are submitted to the journal. It provides reviewers with a 'peep behind the curtain' of what can sometimes seem a rather opaque paper review process, with the aim of clarifying the purpose and format of the review process, and thereby to gain a greater appreciation of what it required of them. Several tips for writing high-quality review reports are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision prediction based on neurophysiological signals is of great application value in many real‐life situations, especially in human–AI collaboration or counteraction. Single‐trial analysis of electroencephalogram (EEG) signals is a very valuable step in the development of an online decision‐prediction system. However, previous EEG‐based decision‐prediction methods focused mainly on averaged EEG signals of all decision‐making trials to predict an individual's general decision tendency (e.g., risk seeking or aversion) over a period rather than on a specific decision response in a single trial. In the present study, we used a rock–paper–scissors game, which is a common multichoice decision‐making task, to explore how to predict participants' single‐trial choice with EEG signals. Forty participants, comprising 20 females and 20 males, played the game with a computer player for 330 trials. Considering that the decision‐making process of this game involves multiple brain regions and neural networks, we proposed a new algorithm named common spatial pattern‐attractor metagene (CSP‐AM) to extract CSP features from different frequency bands of EEG signals that occurred during decision making. The results showed that a multilayer perceptron classifier achieved an accuracy significantly exceeding the chance level among 88.57% (31 of 35) of participants, verifying the classification ability of CSP features in multichoice decision‐making prediction. We believe that the CSP‐AM algorithm could be used in the development of proactive AI systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper used graduation statistics of the Namibian secondary higher education over two decades to determine linkages to human capital of the youth and its multiplication into economic development. The paper assessed the effect of regional differences to show historic educational discrimination and why the education reform was required to correct the skewed past. It was hypothesized that the educational reform would result into improvements of the academic levels within the disadvantaged regions and anticipated that the correction will partly have negative effects on the previously advantaged regions. By applying panel data, the paper attempts to simultaneously address the complex relationships of development, education, and the underlying causalities within the economic system of Namibia. Concepts in the testing of socio-economic components are done by looking at confounding logics, stochastics, and the use of latent variables to determine linkages by using the canonical correlation method. This approach could be extended in future as guide for decisions on education. Our study shows that the implementation of the Namibian education reform resulted into increased enrolment numbers, but unfortunately also into the declining of academic levels, combined with the narrowing of learners' outputs. The reform response in the previously disadvantaged regions was slower than expected. Findings of the longitudinal data show that education levels in Namibia partly contributed towards human capital formation to multiply into economic development. The study shows that the method of analyzing linkages between cause and effect by means of causality provides advantages for analysis. The results confirm findings that human capital formation has a positive effect on the country's economic status, but for efficacy analysis of policy, we need regional information.