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Background and Aims: The intercropping has great advantages in production gain, resources use and soil quality improvement. However, the effects of perennial forage legumes intercropped with annual grain crop on soil alkali-salinity was not well revealed. This study aimed to propose a spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)/alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) intercropping and reveal whether this cropping system could ameliorate soil salinity. Methods: A two-year field experiment was conducted under 3 cropping systems at 3 irrigation amounts in the inland arid area of northwestern China. The cropping systems were sole spring wheat cropping (W), 12 rows spring wheat/4 rows alfalfa intercropping (W12A4) and 8 rows spring wheat/4 rows alfalfa intercropping (W8A4), and irrigation amounts included 450 (full irrigation amount, If), 360 (moderate irrigation amount, Im) and 180 mm (low irrigation amount, Il). Results: The intercropping system, especially W8A4, could more decrease soil salinity, pH and topsoil bulk density, and increase soil water content, topsoil porosity, and Ca2+ and Mg2+ contents, compared to W. Soil electrical conductivity was positively correlated with topsoil bulk density and negatively correlated with topsoil porosity, which were enhanced by intercropping and irrigation. There was weak correlation between soil electrical conductivity and soil water content. W12A4 and W8A4 led to reduction in contents of Na+, K+, Cl−, and SO42−, while Ca2+ and Mg2+ accumulated in the soil. Conclusion: Intercropped alfalfa and spring wheat could reduce soil salinity, improve soil structure and ions balance. It was recommended that W8A4 with 360 mm irrigation could be extensively used in the arid area of northwestern China, gaining grain and forage production, and helping reduce salt accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A walnut–wheat intercropping pattern is practiced widely in southern Xinjiang to alleviate the contradiction between the lack of cultivated land resources and to increase economic value. Previous studies have confirmed that an alley cropping pattern could change the microclimate by supplying additional ecological functions such as windbreak, light interception, water conservation, etc. Cereal aphids (including Sitobion avenae, Rhopalosiphum padi, Metopolophium dirhodum, etc.) are commonly spread pests that harm wheat plants. But, the difference in population numbers between local patterns is still unknown. Pesticide reduction is the national strategy in China to alleviate the contraction between the demand of grain yield and environment protection. Plant protection-unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) spraying pesticides are the most efficient method to control pests. However, compared to traditional artificial spraying method, how the UAV spraying method affect the control effect of reduced concentration pesticide is unclear. In order to address this problem, we conducted field investigations at Zepu county in southern Xinjiang to test the difference between walnut–wheat intercropping and wheat monocropping patterns for three consecutive years. And, we employed the field experiments to ensure the effectiveness of the reduced concentration common pesticides through the UAV spraying method. In conclusion, we conducted a comparison of the control effects of two spraying methods under conditions of reduced pesticide usage. Our findings revealed that the population of cereal aphids was larger in the intercropping pattern compared to the monocropping pattern. Although the control effect of the reduced treatment was lower than the regular dosage, some treatments still demonstrated sufficient capability to eliminate aphids, particularly when considering the effect within major varieties. Additionally, the use of the UAV spraying method exhibited a satisfactory effect when compared to the traditional artificial spraying method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating forage crops into the continuous winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cropping system can be used for increasing rural population income and maintaining grain production on the Loess Plateau. The objective of this study was to comprehensively evaluate economic yield (EYyield), dry matter yield (DMyield), crude protein yield (CPyield), wheat equivalent yield (WEyield), and food equivalent yield (FEUyield) when incorporating annual forages (oat [Avena sativa L.], soybean [Glycine max L.], and vetch [Vicia sativa L.]) into the traditional fallow‐winter wheat system from a 4‐year (2016–2020) experiment on the Loess Plateau of China. Results showed that incorporating annual forages into the continuous wheat system significantly increased system productivity. Among the four growing seasons, average system DMyield values for fallow‐winter wheat (F‐W), oat‐winter wheat (O‐W), soybean‐winter wheat (S‐W), and vetch‐winter wheat (V‐W) were 10348.52, 13854.15, 14679.94, and 12185.29 kg ha−1, respectively. The average wheat EYyield values were 3777.82, 3115.19, 4020.76, and 3180.71 kg ha−1, respectively. The average forage DMyield values were 0.00, 5497.19, 4284.64, and 2817.50 kg ha−1, respectively. The S‐W system had the highest DMyield and CPyield (1350.10 kg ha−1), and also had DMyield with the smallest variation (CV = 15.21%). The O‐W, S‐W, and V‐W systems produced FEUyield values that were 48.67%, 68.46%, and 30.53%, respectively, greater than the F‐W system. When considering market prices and yields, the S‐W system increased wheat gain yield and had the highest WEyield (6607.90 kg ha−1). Therefore, in consideration of forage quality, winter wheat production, and system productivity, we recommend the S‐W system for local farmers on the Loess Plateau. Core Ideas: Integrating annual forage crops into the continuous winter wheat cropping system increased productivity.The forage oat had the highest dry matter yield, but the soybean had the highest crude protein yield.Planting soybean into fallow‐wheat system when consideration of quality, digestibility, and production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil degradation and high environmental costs impede agricultural production in North China. A 6-year field experiment was conducted to determine the effects of tillage practice and nitrogen application rate on changes in soil fertility and wheat yield. Four tillage systems (rotary tillage without maize straw return through 6 years, RT; rotary tillage with maize straw return through 6 years, RS; deep tillage with maize straw return through 6 years, DS; and rotary tillage through 2 years followed by deep tillage next year with maize straw applied for two cycles, RS/DS) and three N levels (HN, 300 kg N ha−1, refers to traditional farming practice; MN, 0.75 × HN, 225 kg N ha−1, to recommended N rate; and LN, 0.5 × HN, 150 kg N ha−1, to reduced N rate) were tested. The soil organic carbon, labile organic carbon, inorganic N, available phosphorus, and available potassium under straw return treatments were significantly higher than RT in the 0–30 cm soil layer (p < 0.05). The microbial diversity, invertase, urease, and alkaline phosphatase activities also increased when maize straw was returned. Tillage practices could distribute maize straw in different depths of the soil and then affect soil nutrients, enzyme activity, and microbial diversity. The RS treatment presented the greatest effects in the 0–10 cm layer, while more significant impacts were observed in DS and RS/DS treatments at the 10–30 cm depths. The levels of soil nutrients and enzyme activity increased with an increased N rate. Compared to that under LN, wheat yields increased under HN and MN treatments, whereas there were no significant differences between HN and MN (p > 0.05). An increasing tendency of grain yield was observed in DS and RS/DS, while conversely so in RS. RS/DS had lower farm costs than DS during the study duration. Thus, RS/DS at 225 kg N ha−1 is the best method for improving soil fertility and wheat yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat/soybean rotation is an important double-cropping system in the Huang-Huai-Hai plain of China. Continuous soybean cropping could cause soil quality deterioration and plant growth inhibition. However, the effects of continuous wheat/soybean cropping on soybean rhizosphere microbes remain largely unknown. In this study, we compared the soybean yield and rhizosphere soil microbial community between continuous winter wheat/summer soybean (W/S) with two harvests in one year and winter wheat/summer soybean-winter wheat/summer maize (W/S-W/M) with four harvests in two years. The results showed that the soybean yield in the W/S group significantly (p < 0.05) declined within the first two years. The W/S-W/M showed higher soybean yield and soil fertility index than the W/S group. The sequencing results revealed that cropping rotation had a higher impact on the fungal community than the bacterial community. The W/S group showed 22.08–23.01% higher alpha diversity of the fungal community, but the alpha diversity of the bacterial group did not vary significantly in this group. The fungal community composition in the W/S and W/S-W/M groups differed significantly. In the W/S-W/M group, a higher relative abundance of plant growth-promoting fungi (e.g., Mortierella), nematophagous fungi (e.g., Plectosphaerella), and biological control fungi (e.g., Coniothyrium) was observed. In the W/S group, a higher relative abundance of lignocellulose-degrading fungi (e.g., Trechispora, Myceliophthora, Botryotrichum, and Coniochaeta) and pathogenic fungi (e.g., Pyrenochaetopsis and Cyphellophora) was observed. LEfSe analysis demonstrated that Mortierella, Myceliophthora, and Trechispora could serve as crucial biomarkers. Mortierella was positively associated with available P levels and negatively associated with NO3−-N levels and pH while Trechispora showed the opposite trend. The findings of this study could enhance the current understanding of the mechanisms associated with the continuous wheat/soybean cropping obstacles and ensure the sustainability of agricultural production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accumulation of cadmium in rice (Oryza sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a serious threat to the safe use of farmland and to the health of the human diet that has attracted extensive attention from researchers. In this review, a bibliometric analysis was performed using a VOS viewer (1.6.18, Netherlands) to investigate the status of cadmium contamination in rice and wheat growing systems, human health risks, mechanisms of Cd uptake and transport, and the corresponding research hotspots. It has a certain reference value for the prevention and control of cadmium pollution in rice and wheat planting systems in China and abroad. The results showed that the Cd content in rice and wheat planting systems in the Yangtze River Basin was significantly higher than that in other areas of China, and the Cd content in rice and wheat grains and the hazard quotient (HQ) in Hunan Province was the highest. The average Cd concentration exceeded the recommended limit by about 62% for rice and 81% for wheat. The main reasons for the high Cd pollution in rice and wheat growing areas in Hunan are mining activities, phosphate fertilizer application, sewage irrigation, and electronic equipment manufacturing. In this review, we demonstrate that cadmium toxicity reduces the uptake and transport of essential elements in rice and wheat. Cadmium stress seriously affected the growth and morphology of plant roots. In the shoots, Cd toxicity was manifested by a series of physiological injuries, such as decreased photosynthesis, soluble protein, sugar, and antioxidant enzyme activity. Cadmium that accumulates in the shoots is transferred to grains and then passes up the food chain to people and animals. Therefore, methods for reducing cadmium content in grains of rice and wheat are urgently needed, especially in Cd-contaminated soil. Current research on Cd pollution in rice and wheat planting systems focuses on the bioavailability of Cd, soil rhizosphere changes in wheat and rice, and the role of antioxidant enzyme systems in alleviating heavy metal stress in rice and wheat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green manure with appropriate amount of chemical nitrogen fertilizer can increase crop yield, but also aggravate soil carbon emissions. However, it is unclear whether incorporation of green manure into the cropping pattern with reduced nitrogen amount can alleviate this situation and enhance carbon sequestration potential. So, a field experiment with split-plot design was set up in 2018 of northwest China, and studied the effects of nitrogen reduction on crop productivity, carbon emissions, and carbon sequestration potential in 2021–2023. The main plots were two cropping patterns, including multiple cropped green manure after wheat harvest (W-G) and fallow after wheat harvest (W). Three nitrogen application levels formed the split-plots, including local conventional nitrogen amount (N3, 180 kg ha−1), nitrogen amount reduced by 15% (N2, 153 kg ha−1) and 30% (N3, 126 kg ha−1). The results showed that W-G increased grain yield of wheat and energy yield of wheat multiple cropped green manure pattern. The multiple cropped green manure after wheat harvest with local conventional nitrogen amount reduced by 15% (W-GN2) had the significant increasing-effect, and increased grain yield of wheat by 9.6% and increased total energy yields by 39.3% compared to fallow after wheat harvest with local conventional nitrogen amount (W–N3). Relative to W–N3, W-GN2 did not significantly increase carbon emissions of wheat season, and increased total carbon emissions of cropping pattern by 11.1%. Compared to multiple cropped green manure after wheat harvest with local conventional nitrogen amount (W-GN3), W-GN2 decreased carbon emissions by 5.8% in wheat season and decreased by 3.9% in the whole cropping pattern. Therefore, W-GN2 gained high carbon emission efficiency based on grain yield, and were 9.9% and 11.2% higher than W–N3 and W-GN3, respectively. In addition, W-GN2 enhanced soil total nitrogen, carbon, and organic carbon contents, compared with W–N3, thus increasing soil carbon sequestration potential index (net primary productivity/carbon emissions). We conclude that multiple cropped leguminous green manure after wheat harvest with local conventional nitrogen amount reduced by 15% can enhance crop productivity and carbon sequestration potential of farmland in arid areas. [Display omitted] • Wheat multi-cropped green manure with reduced N by 15% (W-GN2) increased wheat yield. • W-GN2 alleviated soil carbon emission (CE) and improved carbon emission efficiency. • W-GN2 increased soil total nitrogen, total carbon, and organic carbon contents. • W-GN2 improved soil carbon sequestration and NPP/CE value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field cultivation practices have changing the carbon and nitrogen cycles in farmland ecosystem, soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) were the important pa- rameters in maintaining soil quality and increasing agricultural productivity, however, N application's effects on the SOC and TN storage capacity under intensive wheat- maize cropping system remain unclear. Therefore, we investigated the characteristics and relationships of SOC and TN for wheat-maize cropping system under nitrogen treatments. In doing so, continuous applications of four nitrogen application rates were examined: 0, 180, 240 and 300 kg ha-1 (N0, N180, N240 and N300, respectively). Wheat yields under N180 and N240 were significantly higher than that under N300, while the maize yields under N180, N240 and N300 were significantly higher than that under N0 by 79.79, 85.23 and 86.85%, respectively; the TN content and storage were significantly higher under N240 than that under other N levels in 40-60 cm soil layer after wheat growing season; the SOC content and storage under N180 and N240 were significant higher than that under N300 in 20-40 cm after maize growing season. The correlations between SOC and TN contents (or storage) were stronger after wheat planting than maize planting. These findings provide a basis for further studies on the effect of long-term N application on SOC and TN storage, crop quality and nitrogen use efficiency under wheat-maize cropping systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of wheat, maize and rice accounts for more than 90% of the total grain production of China. Assessing the impact of climate warming on suitable planting regions, especially the potential northern planting boundaries of these crops, is therefore critical to help guide agricultural policymaking and further maintain food security. In this study, we analyzed the effect of climate warming on the potential northern planting boundaries of three specific crops (winter wheat, spring maize, double and triple rice cropping systems) during two time periods (1961–1990 and 1991–2020) using meteorological data from 2437 national weather stations. Results show that the potential planting boundaries of these crops present a northward movement and a westward expansion during the time period of 1991–2020 under the background of temperature increase compared with the time period of 1961–1990. Moreover, the boundaries of winter wheat and spring maize also show a trend of expansion to high-altitude areas (e.g., the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau). The average moving distance of these crops ranged from 20 km to 300 km. In general, the potential planting boundaries of winter wheat, spring maize, double and triple rice cropping systems changed significantly due to climate warming, and the suitable planting area was increased. Our study aims to provide a more recent and accurate result than those of previous studies, which is expected to strengthen our understanding of the effect of climate change on the potential northern planting boundaries of the three main grain crops in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intensive cereal production has brought about increasingly serious environmental threats, including global warming, environmental acidification, and water shortage. As an important grain producer in the world, the rice cultivation system in central China has undergone excessive changes in the past few decades. However, few articles focused on the environmental impacts of these shifts from the perspective of ecological footprints. In this study, a 2-year field trial was carried out in Hubei province, China, to gain insight into carbon footprint (CF), nitrogen footprint (NF), and water footprint (WF) performance. The three treatments were, namely, double-rice system (DR), ratoon rice system (RR), and rice-wheat system (RW). Results demonstrated that RR significantly increased the grain yield by 10.22–15.09% compared with DR, while there was no significant difference in the grain yield between RW and DR in 2018–2019. All of the calculation results by three footprint approaches followed the order: RR < RW < DR; meanwhile, RR was always significantly lower than DR. Methane and NH3 field emissions were the hotspots of CF and NF, respectively. Blue WF accounts for 40.90–42.71% of DR, which was significantly higher than that of RR and RW, primarily because DR needs a lot of irrigation water in both seasons. The gray WF of RW was higher than those of DR and RR, mainly due to the higher application rate of N fertilizer. In conclusion, RR possesses the characteristics of low agricultural inputs and high grain yield and can reduce CF, NF, and WF, considering the future conditions of rural societal developments and rapid demographic changes; we highlighted that the RR could be a cleaner and sustainable approach to grain production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Straw return is an effective measure to promote sustainable agriculture by significantly improving soil fertility. At present, few studies have been conducted on the most effective carbon enhancing management measures for various crops. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis using data collected from 184 literature sources, comprising 3297 data sets to analyze the carbon increase effects of straw returning in three main crops (rice, maize, and wheat) in China and to explore the influence mechanism of natural factors, soil properties, straw return measures, and cropping systems on the carbon enhancement effect. The study showed that straw return significantly increased soil organic carbon and the rate of increase was higher for wheat at 15.88% (14.74%–17.03%) than for rice at 12.7% (11.5%–13.91%) and maize at 12.42% (11.42%–13.42%), with varying degrees of improvement in other soil physicochemical properties. Natural factors have the greatest impact on the carbon increasing effect of rice fields, reaching 28.8%, especially at temperature between 10 °C and 15 °C, less than 800 mm precipitation, low latitude, and short frost-free period. Maize and wheat are most affected by soil properties, reaching 41% and 34.5% respectively. Furthermore, field management practices also play a pivotal role, organic carbon increasing obviously was observed when the C/N ratio of exogenous nutrients is bigger than 20 with the low initial organic matter. Shallow tillage and less than 7.5 t hm−2 straw returning with 3–10 years to the field are ideal for rice and maize. Crop rotation, especially in drylands, increased soil organic carbon more significantly than continuous. The results of our analysis can provide valuable insights into the effect of straw return on carbon increase. In the future, the soil carbon can be improved by adopting rational cropping patterns and straw return measures with taking into account climate and soil characteristics for different crops. [Display omitted] • The effects of straw return on soil organic carbon in three major crops were studied using meta-analysis. • SOC levels significantly increased for rice, maize, and wheat after straw return. • The impact of natural factors, soil properties, straw return measures, and cropping systems varied for different crops. • The increase in SOC for rice was largely influenced by natural factors, while for maize and wheat by soil properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approaches to meet increasing demand for cereals while improving agricultural resource use efficiency have been extensively studied. However, the dominant intensive agricultural paradigm still considers high yield and increased nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) to be contradictory goals. The objective of this study was to determine whether increased yield requires a proportional increase in N application. Two groups of N treatments were compared at 33 field sites in four wheat producing provinces of China. With a high-yield system (HY), the average yield, PFPN and AEN were 42.3, 37.6 and 38.7% higher than current farming practice (CP), respectively. The average estimated maximum grain yield for HY was 8563 kg ha–1 over 2 years, 2007 and 2008, which was 44.2% higher than under CP (5938 kg ha–1). The optimal N rate for HY was 185 kg ha−1, which was significantly higher than that under CP (149 kg ha−1). The increased wheat yield with HY was accompanied by 24.1% increase in optimal N rate. Significant relationships were found between 0-N (unfertilized control) yield and the estimated maximum yield and AEN with HY and CP. There were also decreasing trends for PFPN and AEN with increasing N rate in HY and CP. These on-farm observations indicate that achieving increased yield does not require a proportional increase in the amount of N fertilizer, which provides a win–win opportunity to meet food demand while improving NUE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rice-wheat (RW) cropping system is one of the most prevalent double-cropping systems used to farm the Jianghan Plain in China. However, it can lead to low wheat yields and reduced nitrogen use efficiency compared with dryland wheat (DW). We evaluated wheat yield and nitrogen use efficiency for two rotations (summer rice-winter wheat and summer soybean-winter wheat) from 2017 to 2019 and applied the results to improve nitrogen management for planting wheat after rice in the Jianghan Plain. Field experiments were conducted over two years with two nitrogen treatments: traditional nitrogen management (M1: 90 kgNha-1 was applied at sowing and jointing, respectively) and optimized nitrogen management (M2: 60 kg N ha-1 was applied at sowing, wintering and jointing, respectively). The highest total wheat production was achieved under M2 for both cropping systems and the two-year average yield was 6,128 kg ha-1 in DW and 6,166 kg ha-1 in RW. The spike number in DW was 15% higher than RW in M1 and 13% higher in M2, but the kernel per spike and 1,000-grain weight was lower than RW. The nitrogen accumulation of DW was 24% higher thanRWin M1 and 33% in M2. Compared with RW, DW had higher NO3 - content in the soil surface layer (0-20 cm) and a higher root length density (RLD) in the deeper layer (40-60 cm), which may account for the higher N uptake in DW. Our results show that the grain yield of RW was comparable to that of DW by optimum nitrogen management. The rice-wheat cropping system combined with optimum nitrogen management may be of economic and agronomic benefit to the wheatbelt in the Jianghan Plain in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The land surface characteristic influences climatic environments by controlling the land surface energy and water fluxes. Although large progresses have been made in coupling detailed crop models into land surface models, there is much room left for improved estimates of surface fluxes in double cropping system, such as the winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)–summer maize (Zea mays L.) system under intensive influences of climate change and human activities in the North China Plain (NCP). Here, we modeled the growth and surface fluxes in winter wheat–summer maize double cropping system in the NCP through modified SiBcrop model. The parameters related with the crop growth in winter wheat and maize sub-models were emphasized to better simulate the seasonal dynamics of phenology phase, leaf area index (LAI), and latent (LH) and sensible (SH) heat fluxes. Observational data for phenology, LAI, and energy fluxes were compiled from Yucheng and Guantao stations, to calibrate and validate the SiBcrop model. The results showed that the adjusted SiBcrop captured better the seasonal dynamics of phenology, LAI, LH, and SH, relative to the original code. The largest biases in model results were in SH when horizontal advection prevails and in LH when there is summer maize senescence. Sensitivity analysis illustrated that growth duration, emergence date, LH, SH, and Bowen ratio were quite sensitive to sowing date of wheat, and growth duration and emergence and harvest dates to sowing of maize. The calibrated SiBcrop also simulated the LH and SH well at Guantao station. The adjusted SiBcrop is capable of assessing the responses of surface biophysical processes to the changes of human management and climate change in the double cropping system in the NCP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonal drought is a limiting factor for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production in the southwest hill regions of China. During a 4-yr field experiment conducted in Jianyang, Sichuan Basin, we evaluated the effects of production-system residue retention on water use, physiological characteristics, and grain yield of winter wheat grown in a relay strip cropping system. Four treatments were used: whole-period without mulch or irrigation (NM), no mulch plus irrigation at sowing and jointing (NMI); whole-period mulch without irrigation (WM); and fallow-period mulch without irrigation (FM). The results were that irrigation and straw mulch increased yields by 0 to ~42% and water use efficiency (WUE) by 0 to ~30%, compared with NM, especially in dry years. Improvement in grain yield under residue retention was attributed to increased spike number. Residue retention significantly improved the following crop parameters; tiller numbers, aboveground dry mass accumulation, soil moisture, root length density, and root surface area at critical growth stages, as well as inhibiting leaf chlorophyll loss after anthesis. The FM achieved greater performance on the above parameters than WM. Enhanced grain yield was largely influenced by changes in WUE, gravimetric soil water, SPAD value and dry matter accumulation. In conclusion, residue retention over the fallow period is instrumental in conserving soil moisture, delaying leaf senescence and improving wheat production. This treatment was also the most convenient for farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cypyrafluone, a novel hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD)-inhibiting herbicide, can successfully control a wide species of grass and broadleaf weed in wheat fields. However, the dissipation behaviors and terminal residues of cypyrafluone in wheat fields remain unclear. Here, a simple, accurate, and dependable approach for the analysis of cypyrafluone in soil, wheat plant, and grain was constructed utilizing an adapted QuEChERS extraction combined with UPLC-MS/MS. For accurate quantification, matrix-matched calibrations with high linearity (R2 >0.99) were employed to eliminate matrix interference. The method possessed high accuracy with recoveries in the range of 85.5%− 100.6% and precision with relative standard deviations < 14.3%, as well as high sensitivity with limits of quantifications of 0.001 mg kg−1 in the three matrixes. The dissipation kinetics and terminal residues of cypyrafluone were determined at two separate locations with different climates, soil types and cropping systems in 2018. The half-lives of cypyrafluone in soil and wheat plant were 1.47–1.55 d and 1.00–1.03 d, respectively. At harvest, the terminal residue values of cypyrafluone detected in wheat plants were 0–0.0025 mg kg−1 and 0.0044–0.0057 mg kg−1 at the recommended dose and 1.5 times of the recommended dose, respectively, and 0.0049 mg kg−1 of this herbicide was detected in grain at 1.5 times of the recommended dose, which was below the maximum residue limit (MRL). Finally, the risk quotient for cypyrafluone ranged from 0.33% to 0.81% (<1) for different age groups in China, indicating that the impact of residues from the cypyrafluone application on wheat was acceptable. These findings above will offer scientific guidelines for cypyrafluone application in the wheat field ecosystem. [Display omitted] • Cypyrafluone is a new HPPD-inhibiting herbicide applied POST in wheat fields. • An UPLC-MS/MS method combined with modified QuEChERS was developed. • Its dissipation dynamics and terminal residues were investigated in field conditions. • The chronic dietary risk due to residues of cypyrafluone in wheat was acceptable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yield components play a decisive role in regulating the potential crop grain yields, and their formation is greatly influenced by in-season nitrogen (N) management, as N is essential of optimizing crop growth. To test the applicability of critical N dilution curve based instantaneous N nutrition index (NNI) and integrated NNI (NNI inte) in-season prediction of grain yield and its components in wheat. This study evaluated the applicability of the critical N dilution curve for predicting grain yield and yield components in wheat by establishing the relationships of NNI and NNI inte with relative grain yield (RY), dry matter (RDM), number of spikes (RPN), number of grains per spike (RGN), and grain weight at different growth stages of wheat. Data were acquired from six multi-N rates field experiments conducted in eastern and central China. The RY, RPN, and RDM were estimated by NNI and accumulated NNI inte during different growth stages of wheat. The higher R2 values of relationships observed during the middle to later growth stages compared with early growth stages indicated that the early growth stages might not be suitable for estimating wheat grain yield and yield components. The NNI inte specifically during booting to anthesis stage showed improved accuracy estimating the number of grains per spike compared to other stages. Overall, the estimation performance based on accumulated NNI inte was superior compared to NNI or NNI inte during the single growth stage of wheat. The above models provided comprehensive and accurate estimates dry matter at maturity, grain yield and yield components as early as the anthesis stage. The findings provided valuable insights for predicting grain yield and yield components in intensive wheat cropping systems, and also offer practical guidance for precisely scheduling N management. • Wheat grain yield and yield components were estimated by NNI and integrated NNI (NNI inte) during different growth stages. • Single-stage NNI (booting) allows earlier estimates of dry matter at maturity and spike number. • Single-stage NNI inte (anthesis) only improved the estimation performance of grain number. • NNI inte over multiple consecutive stages could better estimate dry matter at maturity, grain yield, and spike number. • The models can comprehensively and accurately estimate grain yield and yield components as early as the anthesis stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil CO 2 emissions respond differently to different tillage practices. However, limited information is available regarding the impact of conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT) on soil CO 2 emissions and the primary controlling factors or processes. The goal of this study is to derive the relationship of soil CO 2 emissions with soil physicochemical properties from differently tilled soils in a typical winter wheat summer maize rotation system. We hypothesized that soil tillage practices would impact the soil carbon cycle by modifying soil physical and chemical properties, which would in turn affect the soil CO 2 emissions. The study was conducted from 2018 to 2022 with two tillage practices using a randomized complete block design with three replicates. A leading international real-time monitoring system in situ was used to collect soil CO 2 emission data. Cumulative soil CO 2 emissions were reduced by 28.7% in maize and increased by 9.0% in wheat under NT as compared to CT. On an annual scale, the cumulative CO 2 emissions were decreased by 20.5% in NT as compared to CT. Maize season accounted for 70% 78% of soil CO 2 emissions. NT improved the aboveground biomass by 7.74% and 6.44%, and grain yields by 10.2% and 4.49% for maize and wheat, respectively. The soil CO 2 emission intensity of maize was reduced by 35.9% under NT as compared to CT. No significant differences were discovered under the two tillage practices for soil CO 2 emission intensity of wheat. For maize, NT increased the bulk density, subsequently decreasing soil temperature and increasing soil moisture. NT also led to higher soil organic carbon and total nitrogen content, ultimately resulting in a significant reduction in soil CO 2 emissions. For wheat, NT increased soil bulk density, further increasing soil moisture and lowering soil pH. NT thus resulted in lower soil organic carbon and total nitrogen content, ultimately leading to enhanced soil CO 2 emissions. Some of these observations might not be consistent with theoretical predictions, which indicated that the unconsidered factors of actual field conditions might have much significant effects. Overall, NT can be extensively used as an eco-friendly cropland tillage practice based on its positive effects of reducing CO 2 emissions and increasing crop yields. [Display omitted] • CO 2 emission variations by tillage were evaluated by the structural equation model. • No-tillage (NT) decreased CO 2 emissions by 28.7% in maize and increased by 8.99% in wheat. • Annual CO 2 emissions were decreased by 20.5% under NT than conventional tillage (CT). • Maize season accounted for 70% 78% of soil CO 2 emissions. • CO 2 emission intensity of maize was reduced by 35.9% under NT compared with CT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tillage practice can change soil properties, regulate crop root development and nutrient availability, thus affecting crop growth and yield. However, the effect of no tillage (NT) and deep tillage (DT) on crop yield relative to conventional tillage (CT) under varied environmental and management conditions is unclear in China. We assessed the yield response of wheat and maize to NT and DT relative to CT based on collected field data (518 observations) with a meta-analysis. In general, NT led to negative yield response of both crops relative to CT, whereas maize presented a positive yield response (6.0 %) to NT in sandy soil, and crop yield responses to NT were not significantly different among environmental and management factors. DT significantly increased the yield of wheat (8.7 %) and maize (8.2 %) over CT. For wheat, the yield response to DT was similar across soil textures, climate conditions, experiment durations, N fertilizer rates, and residue managements; however, the interval DT every 2–3 years (13.2 %) and monoculture (13.9 %) increased yield response than the continuous DT (8.4 %) and double cropping system (8.9 %), respectively. The yield response of maize to DT was greater in semidry region (16.1 %) and under high N fertilizer rate (>300 kg N ha−1) (16.1 %), interval DT (12.4 %) compared with those in humid (7.5 %) and semi-humid (6.8 %) regions, low N fertilizer rates (<300 kg N ha−1) (6.9 %−7.5 %), and continuous DT (7.8 %), respectively; but other environmental and management factors did not affect its yield response. Overall, NT presented similar yield of wheat and maize to CT, while DT significantly enhanced their yields; this analysis revealed the crucial environmental and management factors influencing yield response to tillage practices in China, we also gave some suggestions on selecting appropriate tillage methods to realize high crop yield or/and agricultural sustainable development. • NT led to negative yield response of wheat and maize relative to CT. • DT significantly enhanced wheat and maize yields over CT. • Interval DT and monoculture presented better effects on crop yield response to DT. • Environmental and management factors should be considered to enhance yield using DT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many fertilization guidelines have been established to recommend the proper nitrogen (N) application rate to optimize grain yield. However, environmental impacts and grain nutritional quality such as protein content have not received enough attention. To optimize regional N fertilizer management in China, a total of 1212 and 1110 sets of data from a literature survey and field experiments were used in a regression analysis to determine the relationships of N application rate with winter wheat grain yield and protein content, respectively. Regional N rate recommendations were estimated with the linear-plus-plateau model and were between the N rates used to maximize grain yield and protein content. The recommended N rates for the winter wheat–summer maize rotation (WM), winter wheat–rice rotation (WR), and rainfed winter wheat (RW) regions in China were 208–230 kg ha −1 , 150–195 kg ha −1 , and 117–134 kg ha −1 , respectively. These values were comparable to or lower than the investigated farm average in each region; however, calculated based on the linear-plus-plateau model, the recommended N rate in each region achieved 1–19% greater grain yield and 2–9% greater protein content compared with the farm average yield and protein content. Compared with the excessive N input group, the recommended N rates increased the N partial factor productivity (PFP N ) of wheat by 7–11, 8–14, and 18–24 kg kg −1 and gained an additional profit of 214–228, 91–354, and 465–476 USD ha −1 in the three regions, respectively; in addition, the recommended N rates reduced the residual inorganic N, nitrate leaching, and direct nitrous oxide emissions by 8–27%, 29–52%, and 19–36% in the three regions, respectively. These findings suggest that this N recommendation method provides an option to balance the yield, grain quality, income, nitrogen use efficiency, and environmental impacts of winter wheat production in China and similar cropping systems around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation Agriculture (CA) has been shown to improve cropping system performance around the world. However, there is limited research on this practice in the annual double cropping areas of the North China Plain and consequendy limited uptake of the technology by the farming community. Data from a field experiment (2005 to 2011) conducted in Daxing, Beijing, China, were used to compare the effects of tillage practices, namely permanent raised beds (PRB), no-tillage (NT), and traditional tillage (TT) on growth, yield, and water use of winter wheat ('Triticum aestivum L.) and summer maize (Zea mays L.). Results demonstrated that PRB increased soil water content (0 to 0.3 m [0 to 0.98 ft] depth; >8%) and reduced bulk density by 5.1%. Permanent raised bed soil temperatures were stabilized during winter wheat and summer maize production, compared to N T and T T treatments. Over the six years, P R B yields increased by >3% and gross production water use index (GPWUI) improved by >2.5% compared to TT, due to improved soil properties and crop performance. However, the impact of the changed management practices was not realized until the final two seasons, when yields improved by >6%. Accordingly, differences in farming profits, when viewed over the six years were intangible, but improved significantly by >20% in the final two seasons. These improvements in soil properties, yield, and water use are of considerable importance for food security and sustainable agriculture in the North China Plain; however, limited understanding of the farming system and extended timeframes required before realizing beneficial returns continue to limit widespread adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Straw incorporation has multiple effects on greenhouse gas emissions and soil productivity. However, few studies have comprehensively evaluated the effects of long-term straw incorporation. An ongoing long-term straw incorporation experiment in a rice–wheat cropping system in China was established in 1990 and was used in the present study to evaluate the net global warming potential (NGWP) and the net economic benefit (NEB) of the straw return. The following four field treatments were included: a control (CK); N, P and K fertilization (NPK); fertilization plus a moderate rate of straw application (NPKS1); and fertilization plus a high rate of straw application (NPKS2). We calculated the increase in the soil organic carbon (SOC) and the straw-induced emissions of CH 4 and N 2 O, which were expressed as the global warming potential (GWP) in units of CO 2 -equivalent (CO 2 -eq) at the 100-year scale. The straw-induced NEB was defined as the difference between the economic income, which was calculated by multiplying the increase in straw-induced crop grain yield by the grain price, and the economic loss was computed by multiplying the increase in straw-induced CO 2 -eq emissions by the carbon price. The results showed that long-term straw incorporation significantly increased the CH 4 emissions and the topsoil SOC density. The GWP of the straw-induced CH 4 emissions was 3.21–3.92 times that of the straw-induced SOC sequestration rate, suggesting that long-term direct straw incorporation in the rice–wheat systems worsens rather than mitigates the climate change. Additionally, continuous straw incorporation slightly enhanced the rice and wheat grain yields, contributing to the production of the NEB. We determined that under the current carbon price, ranging from 2.55 to 31.71 EUR per ton CO 2 -eq, the direct straw incorporation will produce a positive NEB, ranging from 156 to 658 RMB ha −1 year −1 , if the grain yield prices do not fluctuate, which does not provide a significant incentive for farmers to change from their traditional direct straw incorporation pattern. Considering the other benefits that the straw application produced, such as improving soil fertility and the water retention capacity, we recommend that the government should establish an incentive for ecological compensation to encourage farmers to implement proper straw incorporation, such as composting straw under aerobic conditions before application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fallow-winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (F-W) is the major cropping system for wheat production on the Loess Plateau of China. Integrating forage crops into the summer fallow season could improve crop yield, water productivity, and rainwater use efficiency, but this process is limited by the inter- and intra- annual variable precipitation. A 3-year (2016–2019) field experiment was conducted on the Loess Plateau to investigate the effects of fallow-winter wheat, oat (Avena sativa)-winter wheat (O-W), soybean (Glycine max)-winter wheat (S-W), and vetch (Vicia sativa)-winter wheat (V-W) systems on dry matter yield, water use, water productivity, and precipitation use efficiency under three interannual rainfall scenarios: a 30% decrease in rainfall (R-30%), normal rainfall (CK), and a 30% increase in rainfall (R+30%) by a rainfall-collection-redistribution device. In 2017–2018, under the CK scenario, the F-W, O-W, S-W, and V-W system wheat yields were 3.39, 3.63, 4.30, and 3.24 t ha−1, respectively, and the system yield values were 11.28, 16.72, 16.40, and 14.27 t ha−1, respectively. Compared to the CK scenario, the F-W, O-W, S-W, and V-W system yields increased by 22.9%, 34.5%, 20.4%, and 33.8% in 2016–2017 under the R+ 30% scenario, but the system water productivity decreased by 19.9%, 41.8%, 19.6%, and 32.4% in 2017–2018 under the R-30% scenario. Compared to those of the F-W system, the O-W, S-W, and V-W system yields significantly increased by 48.2%, 45.4%, and 26.5%, respectively, and the system water productivity increased by 51.5%, 47.3%, and 25.17%, respectively, in 2017–2018 under the CK scenario. The system precipitation use efficiency also increased by 29.3%, 42.9%, and 28.9% in 2018–2019 under the R+ 30% scenario. Across the three growing seasons, the F-W system had the highest wheat yield in the dry growing season. The S-W system had the highest dry matter yield, water productivity, and precipitation use efficiency in the normal and wet growing seasons. Therefore, we recommend the F-W system for local farmers when considering saving more soil water and maintaining wheat yield in the dry growing season. In normal and wet growing seasons, we recommend the S-W system for local farmers considering that the system increases productivity and improves environmental sustainability. • The O-W system had the highest forage yield, but it decreased the winter wheat yield in dry conditions. • The S-W system increased productivity and precipitation use efficiency in normal and wet conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Nutrient Expert (NE), is designed through adoption of 4R nutrient stewardship. • Results show that NE achieved higher yields, higher profitability, and lower environmental risks. • An outstanding advantage of NE is user-friendly and can be easily acquired by all farmers with smartphones. Fertilizer has revolutionized crop production, but a lack of evidence-based fertilizer usage has resulted in negative economic and environmental ramifications, particularly for smallholder farmers. This study aimed at developing an innovative nutrient recommendation approach, Nutrient Expert (NE), for improving yields of maize, wheat, and rice while optimizing fertilizer input through adoption of 4R (applying the right source of nutrients at the right rate, time and place) nutrient stewardship technologies, and evaluating the large-scale performance on crop productivity and the environmental impact of cropping systems. Thus, we compared NE to current farmers' practice (FP) and soil test-based fertilizer application (ST) for 1,534 farm field experiments in order to validate the benefits of NE on both crop productivity and environmental protection in the main cereal production areas in China. Overall, the NE treatment achieved 4.4 % higher grain yield and 5.8 % more profit over FP, more yield for rice, but no differences for maize and wheat over ST. Nutrient Expert required 29.0 % and 14.7 % less fertilizer N than FP and ST, respectively. The NE recommendations improved the nitrogen (N) recovery efficiency by 10.8–13.4 percent points over FP across the 1,534 sites. Using the NE approach, on average, reactive N losses and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were reduced by 36.2 % and 21.5 % over FP, 16.0 % and 9.9 % over ST, respectively. The NE, as a user-friendly tool, is widely applicable across farm types and climatic regions. It could be beneficial for improving fertilizer use efficiency and maintaining strategic food security for smallholder production areas in China where N fertilizer is inappropriate and usually over applied. This approach could potentially be expanded to help reduce N losses and GHG emissions in other regions globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cropping system models are widely used to assess the impacts of and adaptation practices to climate change on agricultural production. However, crop growth simulations at large scales have often lacked consideration of variation in crop cultivars, which were represented by different sets of genetic coefficients in crops models. In this study, taking the phenology of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as an example, we compared four different strategies for upscaling genetic parameters in phenology simulations at large scales with two experimental datasets. The first dataset was from field experiments comprising 40 different spring wheat cultivars at Altay (2014) and Yangling (2015–2017) station; the second dataset was historical (2010–2014) observed phenology records from 57 national agro-meteorological observation stations in China. The four strategies were the representative cultivar estimated at a single site (SSPs), the representative cultivar estimated at the 57 sites (NRPs), the various representative cultivars estimated at different agro-ecological zones (RRPs), and the virtual cultivars generated from the posterior distributions (VCPs). The posterior distributions aforesaid were established based on the calibrated parameter values of the 40 different spring wheat cultivars planted in Yangling. Then, 1000 sets of VCPs were randomly sampled from the posterior distributions. The results indicated that both the SSPs and NRPs strategy obtained large errors and uncertainties in spring wheat phenology simulations in China since only one representative cultivar was used. The RRPs strategy achieved the second high and the highest accuracy in anthesis and maturity data simulations. The VCPs strategy obtained the highest accuracy in anthesis simulation but relative larger errors in maturity simulation. The VCPs strategy can be directly used in large-scale crop growth simulations without tedious process of calibration. Hence, this strategy is recommended in areas where observations are scarce and for model users who not good at model parameter estimation. • Four upscaling strategies for estimations of regional genetic parameter were compared. • Applying a single cultivar in regional crop growth simulations produced large errors. • Posterior distributions of spring wheat cultivar-genetic parameters were generated. • Using posterior distributions simplified parameter estimations and increased accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollution from the paddy fields has posed a threat to surface water quality, and the reactive N in runoff has been recognized as the dominant contributor. In the rice-wheat systems of eastern China, replacing wheat (Triticum aestivum) with Chinese milk vetch (CMV) (Astragalus sinicus) is known to reduce total fertilizer N use and associated N losses during winter; however, the function of the rice-CMV system in controlling the N runoff loss was overlooked during the summer rice-growing season. Over 6 years, we monitored soil mineral N, plant N accumulation, rice grain yield, N agronomic efficiency (AE N), and N runoff in rice-CMV fertilizer N rate-response experiments and made comparisons with the conventional N inputs in rice-wheat rotation. Aboveground CMV residues added 65–116 kg N ha−1 yr−1; therefore, by adjusting the fertilizer time, the rice in this system required 44–56% less N fertilizer to produce rice yields equivalent to the 270 kg N ha−1 (district average, C270) used in the rice-wheat system. In all fertilizer N application treatments, 120 kg ha−1 seemed to be the threshold that ensured the soil N supply, the N accumulation at rice critical stages, and consequently, the current level rice yield. The corresponding runoff N averaged 9.3 kg ha−1 season−1, which was 51.8% less than that in C270 (19.3 kg ha−1 season−1). Cumulative N runoff (total N and NH 4 +-N) correlated strongly with fertilizer N input for any single year (sample size = 108, P < 0.01). Application of 30–120 kg fertilizer N ha−1 gave an equivalent AE N , which indicated that the integration of CMV and fertilizer N could increase the agronomic efficiency of N fertilizer applied to the rice. Rotating paddy rice with CMV instead of wheat, together with the suitable adjustment of N fertilizer, could sustain rice yield and gain the utmost environmental benefits from rice-based agroecosystems. [Display omitted] • Sharp reduction and adjustment of N fertilizer sustained rice yields in rice-CMV rotation. • Incorporating CMV residues reduced N fertilizer use by 150 kg N ha−1. • 51.8% less of runoff N ran from paddy field in the optimum rates (120 kg N ha−1) of rice-CMV system. • The incorporation of CMV residues increased fertilizer N use efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North China Plain (NCP) is an important production base for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) in China, but intensive continuous winter wheat and summer maize (WM) double-cropping system (control) has also created the high carbon footprint (CF) ecological problems. It is imperative to build a new rotation pattern that not only achieves direct and indirect low greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, but also takes into account the grain security. CF metrics (per unit area (CF a), per unit economic output (CF e) and per unit kg grain yield (CF y)) were calculated for a two-year crop rotation experiment established at the Wuqiao Experimental Station, from October 2016 to September 2018. The treatments were eight alternative crop sequences grown in the first year, followed by WM in the second year. Alternative crop sequences included (1) WM, (2) fallow, (3) spring maize, (4) winter wheat, (5) spring sweet potato (Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill), (6) spring peanut (Arachis hypogaea Linn.), (7) winter wheat-summer peanut, and (8) potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) - silage maize. The results showed that fallow → WM and winter wheat → WM were weak absorption sinks of net GHG, and other rotation patterns were all net sources during the experimental period, while the seven rotation patterns could attain 48%–94% of grain crops yield in control. Spring sweet potato → WM and winter wheat - summer peanut → WM, had no significant differences with control from three different CF perspectives. Spring maize → WM, spring peanut → WM, and potato - silage maize → WM produced more CF than control. Therefore, fallow and planting winter wheat alone in the first year of novel two-year rotation patterns reduced CF in the NCP, planting spring sweet potato and winter wheat-summer peanut increased net income without increasing CF and without compromising grain security, which could attain 1.53 and 1.12 times of the control. The research preliminary showed that winter wheat → WM, spring sweet potato → WM and winter wheat - summer peanut → WM were feasible to trade off of grain production and reducing CF. • Exploring the novel rotation patterns and trying to ensure grain security while reducing carbon emissions. • Compared with winter wheat and summer maize (WM), fallow→WM and W→WM were weak absorption sinks and required fewer resources. • Spring sweet potato→WM and W-summer peanut→WM increased net income, without increasing CF and compromising grain security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A water-energy-food relative index for cropping systems at the field scale is proposed. • Synergy among water, energy and food in the North China Plain is evaluated. • Sustainable systems can balance crop production while reducing resource depletion. Extreme climate change, rapid population growth and economic development drive a growing demand for resources, which lead to energy, food, water and their intertwined nexus becoming increasingly important. Agricultural decisions considering the interconnections among water, energy, and food are critical. The consumption of large amounts groundwater and non-renewable energy by the predominant traditional wheat-maize cropping system has caused a serious water shortage in the North China Plain (NCP), which is a large food production region in China. This situation has strained the relationship between water/energy consumption and food production. It is important to seek synergy in the water-energy-food nexus. This paper proposed a relative index of water-energy-food (WEF RI) based on different values of resource consumption and use efficiency between treatment systems and control system to analyze the synergy between water utilization, energy consumption and food supply in different cropping systems at the field scale. The goal is to seek a sustainable cropping system to balance crop production while reducing energy consumption and water depletion. In this case, different systems including monocropped maize (Zea mays) (MM), intercropped maize and soybean (Glycine max) (MS), relay cropped of maize with pea (Pisum sativum) (MP) and potato (Solanum tuberosum) (MO), rotation of maize with spinach (Spinacia oleracea) (MI) and ryegrass (Secale cereale) (MR), and using traditional wheat-maize (Triticum aestivum) (MW) as a control. MM, MS, MP and MO were the best systems within a particular range of food supply reduction. The WEF RI of the MM/MS system was the highest (2.96/2.78). Compared to the MW system, the groundwater consumption of MM/MS was reduced by 73.84%/73.84%, and non-renewable energy inputs were reduced by 48.01%/48.30%; however, the food supply decreased by 48.05%/51.70%. The WEF RI of the MP system was 1.98. In comparison with the MW system, the groundwater consumption of the MP system was reduced by 28.46%, and the non-renewable energy inputs were reduced by 42.68%. However, the food supply decreased by 37.13%. The WEF RI of MO system was 1.92. Compared to the MW system, the groundwater consumption of MO was reduced by 11.47%, non-renewable energy inputs were reduced by 32.14%, and the food supply only decreased by 26.27%. In conclusion, we theoretically proposed the following references for cropping systems in the NCP: MM and MS are implemented when the areas has extreme water shortages, MO is implemented when a less than 30% reduction in the food supply capacity is acceptable, and MP is recommended if a 30%–40% reduction in the food supply is acceptable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overexploitation of groundwater and the excessive application of nitrogen (N) fertilizer under the intensive double cropping system are responsible for the groundwater level decline and potential contamination in the North China Plain (NCP). Alternative cropping systems have the potential to alleviate current groundwater and N problems in the region, while there are limited studies simultaneously focusing on the impact of a change of cropping systems on crop yields, groundwater consumption, and N leaching. In this study, Field observed experiments of double-cropping system (i.e., winter wheat–summer maize) and mono-cropping system (early sowing maize) were used to calibrate and validate the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM2). Then, the validated RZWQM2 model was used to evaluate the long-term crop growth and environmental impact under the local winter wheat–summer maize rotation system with practical irrigation (WW-SM_pi) and auto-irrigation (WW-SM_ai), and three alternative cropping systems (single early maize, SEM; winter wheat–summer maize and single early maize, WW-SM-SEM; winter wheat-summer maize and double single early maize, WW-SM-2SEM). The net consumption of groundwater and N leaching under WW-SM_pi were 226.9 mm yr−1 and 79.7 kg ha−1 yr−1, respectively. Under the local rotation system, auto-irrigation could increase crop yields and N leaching. Compared with the WW-SM_ai, the alternative cropping systems, WW-SM-SEM, WW-SM-2SEM, and SEM, significantly decreased the net consumption of groundwater by 49.3%, 63.0%, and 97.8%, respectively (147.5–292.9 mm), and N leaching by 53.5%, 67.5%, and 89.6%, respectively (50.0–83.7 kg ha−1). However, the yields of the three alternative cropping systems were reduced by less than 30% (12.2%, 20.1%, and 29.7%, respectively). The simulated results indicated that appropriately decreasing the planting frequency of winter wheat is an effective approach to reduce groundwater overexploitation and N contamination with a relatively limited reduction in grain yields. The results could provide a scientific basis for cropping system adjustment in guaranteeing sustainable regional water and grain policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind erosion is a major environmental problem in arid and semi-arid regions, where it has significant impacts on desertification and soil degradation. To understand the effects of cropping systems and tillage methods on the reduction of soil wind erosion, wind tunnel investigations were performed on soil samples from an irrigated field in an experiment conducted in semi-arid northwestern China in 2016–2018. Three cropping systems for annual spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)/maize (Zea mays L.) strip intercropping (W/M), a two-year wheat-winter rape-maize rotation (WRM), and a two-year wheat-maize rotation (WM)) were each evaluated with two tillage methods (conventional tillage without wheat straw retention (CT) and no-tillage with 25–30 cm tall wheat straw (NT)). The mean rate of soil erosion by wind with NT was 18.9% to 36.2% less than that with CT. With increasing wind velocity, the rate of soil erosion by wind increased for both CT and NT but was faster with CT than NT. Soil wind erosion occurred with a wind velocity ≥14 m s−1, and NT greatly decreased the rate of soil erosion when wind velocity exceeded 14 m s−1. W/M, WRM, and WM with NT increased non-erodible aggregates by 53.7%, 53.7%, and 54.9% in 2017, and 51.3%, 49.6% and 44.6% in 2018, respectively, than conventional tillage. At a height of 0–20 cm, the rate of soil transport with CT decreased with increasing height. The volume of soil transport at a height of 0–4 cm and soil transport percentage at a height of 0–4 and 0–20 cm (Q0–4/Q0–20) with NT were less than with CT. These findings show that NT with cropping system intensification can be an effective strategy for resisting wind erosion in irrigated semi-arid regions, thereby reducing the negative environmental impacts of crop production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Replacing fallow by forage crops improved the PUE CP and system WUE CP by 20% and 28%, respectively. • Inserting forage crops to FWFW system increased CP yield by 31% while decreased net income by 25% compared with FWFW. Diversifying the summer fallow (F)-winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (W) cropping system by replacing summer fallow with forage crops could increase forage yield and precipitation use efficiency in the Loess Plateau region of China. However, its influence on protein productivity is unclear and it is unknown whether improvement in protein productivity will increase soil water extraction and economic input. A three-year (2011–2013) field experiment was conducted to investigate the rotational effect on system productivity, economic benefit, and sustainability when summer fallow was replaced with forage rape (Brassica napus L.) (R) and common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) (V). Results showed that the rotation system with forage crops did not alter soil water storage of subsequent winter wheat. Compared with the FWFW rotation system, the rotation system with forage crops improved precipitation use efficiency of crude protein yield (PUE CP) and system water use efficiency of crude protein yield (WUE CP) by 20 and 28% respectively. The greatest crude protein productivity (CP yield) was achieved with the RWRW rotation system, followed by the FWRW and RWVW systems, and CP yield with these systems was 51, 21, and 36% greater than that with the FWFW system, respectively (P < 0.05). In contrast, net income in the FWFW rotation system had the greatest value (U.S. $2,005 ha−1), 27, 20, 34, and 29% greater than that in the FWVW, RWVW, FWRW, and RWRW systems, respectively (P < 0.05). Consequently, the alternate rotation system of FWFW and RWRW is recommended for local farmers when considering both profitability and sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Modeling yield, evapotranspiration and economic profit in different cropping systems using APSIM under projected climate scenarios. • Maize and wheat yield underwent significant reduction in projected scenarios compared with the baseline data. • Plant transpiration have not changed significantly between scenarios, but evaporation decreased in some conditions markedly. • Lucerne-winter wheat rotation presented the greatest potential of the sustainability under projected scenarios. Agriculture in the semiarid region is undergoing radical changes driven by global warming and increasing incidences of extreme weather events. Predicting and evaluating the responses of crop yield and water use patterns of rainfed cropping systems according to future temperature and precipitation changes could provide important information regarding adoption of climate-smart farming systems that could offer great resilience and sustainability. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential changes in agronomic productivity, hydrological balance and economic profitability of cropping systems with perennial legumes and rotation on the Loess Plateau of China affected by different future temperature and precipitation scenarios using APSIM-based modeling. Five different cropping systems were investigated: (i) continuous maize (Zea mays) (M), (ii) continuous winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) (W), (iii) continuous lucerne (Medicago sativa) (L), (iv) maize-wheat-soybean (Gyleine max) rotation (MWS) and (v) lucerne (4-yr)-winter wheat (2-yr) rotation (LW) in Xifeng, Gansu, China. Five series of temperature and precipitation changes scenarios (no changes in atmospheric CO 2 concentrations were considered) based on RCPs (representative concentration pathways) were integrated into scenario simulations, including the baseline scenario (1980–2010), mid-century scenarios of RCP4.5 (M45) and RCP8.5 (M85), and end-century scenarios of RCP4.5 (E45) and RCP8.5 (E85). The results showed that, compared with baseline simulations, mean maize yield under RCPs decreased by 6.7 %–37.7 %, and the mean wheat yield decreased by 1.7 %–23.6 %. Lucerne yield consistently increased by 7.2 %–12.3 % under M45 and E45. Although different cropping systems affected the yield to a certain extent, only the difference between the wheat yields of W and MWS was significant (P < 0.05). On a cropping system level of every 6-yr (totally five phases for a scenario of 30-yr), the temperature and precipitation changes did not significantly affect plant transpiration (T c) per phase. For all systems except L [which received its highest soil evaporation (E s) per phase in baseline], the greatest E s per phase was found in the E85. L tended to provide greater T c per phase and evapotranspiration (ET) per phase (ranging from 1219 to 1332 mm and 2910–3034 mm, respectively), followed by LW. L and MWS presented the highest and lowest E s per phase (1636–1724 and 1592–1677 mm), respectively. The gross profit (GP per 6-yr phase) and water productivity (WP per 6-yr phase) of L were the greatest among all cropping systems (11.5–13.7 thousand US$ ha−1 per phase and 3.72–4.41 US$ ha-1 mm-1 per phase, respectively), followed by LW and MWS. For M, W and MWS, the GP per phase and the WP per phase were predicted to be greater under the baseline than under any of the RCPs, whereas M45 and E45 scenarios improved the GP per phase and WP per phase of L and LW compared with those of the baseline. In general, we advocate that LW-based systems have the greatest potential for producing acceptable yield and economic profit under future temperature and precipitation scenarios for this local environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]