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This paper is framed by the Relevance Theory as applied to the translation of a pun in Quentin Tarantino's cult film Pulp Fiction into nine dubbed versions. Entitled “the story of the family of tomates”, this pun is particularly difficult to translate because of its linguistic and cultural characteristics. The paper starts by classifying the kind of pun in question and describing its function in the original film. From here, the paper proceeds to a close examination of each of these translations, using Relevance Theory in the analysis of how each version revises the pun for the target audience. The analysis instead focuses on interpretative similarity, rather than fixed or standard equivalence to the source text. In this case, the study will establish how each translation develops the intended meaning of the pun by adjusting to the cognitive environment of the target audience. This paper therefore adopts Relevance Theory, which explains how individuals process information with regard to context and cognitive effort involved, in testing how well the translations could maintain original humor and communicative intent without being strictly tied to specific lexical or syntactic structures in the source text. It is also beyond the surface linguistic features, taking into consideration how pragmatic factors-like cultural references and the audiences' expectations-are accounted for in each dubbed version. This article, then, insists on the preeminence of pragmatic context over literal lexical and syntactical equivalence. In so doing, the research provided challenges the more traditional notions of translation fidelity-particularly in instances where puns or other wordplay resist direct translation. Relevance theory in this analysis examines the complications of humor translation and how these different dubbed versions face such challenges, while fidelity to source materials is imposed on them with imperatives to engage their particular target audiences. _____________________________________________ Resumen Este artículo, basado en la Teoría de la Relevancia, examina la traducción de un juego de palabras del icónico film Pulp Fiction de Quentin Tarantino a través de nueve versiones dobladas. El juego de palabras, conocido como “la historia de la familia de tomates”, presenta desafíos únicos de traducción debido a sus matices lingüísticos y culturales. El estudio comienza categorizando el tipo de juego de palabras y definiendo su función en la película, para luego analizar en detalle las distintas traducciones, aplicando la Teoría de la Relevancia para evaluar cómo cada versión adapta el juego de palabras a su audiencia. En lugar de buscar una equivalencia fija o estándar con el texto original, el análisis prioriza la similitud interpretativa, considerando cómo cada traducción reconstruye el significado del juego de palabras adaptándose al entorno cognitivo de la audiencia. La Teoría de la Relevancia, que se centra en cómo las personas procesan la información según el contexto y el esfuerzo cognitivo, ofrece un marco para evaluar si las traducciones preservan el humor original y la intención comunicativa sin seguir de manera rígida las estructuras léxicas o sintácticas del texto fuente. El artículo enfatiza la importancia del contexto pragmático sobre la equivalencia léxica y sintáctica directa. De este modo, el estudio cuestiona las nociones convencionales de fidelidad en la traducción, especialmente cuando se trata de juegos de palabras, que a menudo presentan dificultades para ser traducidos de manera literal. A través de la Teoría de la Relevancia, el estudio ilumina las complejidades de la traducción del humor y muestra cómo las diferentes versiones dobladas equilibran la fidelidad al material original con la necesidad de atraer a sus respectivas audiencias. Palabras Clave: Traducción del chiste; Teoría de la relevancia; Correspondencia de juegos de palabras; Tipo de lector; La historia de la familia de tomates; Traducción de juegos de palabras

The paper discusses the changes in humor that have occurred since the advent of the internet, in the past quarter of a century. The cognitive mechanisms that produce humor have not changed. However, since 2000, roughly when the Internet 2.0 (social web) is said to have started, there have been some minor changes at the level of slang, and especially the introduction of emojis, emoticons, and emotes. At the discursive level, the introduction of large group conversations (polylogues) is a major difference. Internet humor tends to be short. Probably the most significant innovation of humor since 2000 is the introduction of memes (“image macros” i.e., images plus text) and meme cycles (i.e., groups of memes that are thematically or formally related). Another interesting phenomenon is the blurring of the distinction between online satirical texts and fake media, to the point that it is sometimes hard to distinguish between parodies, actual news stories, and constructed stories (fake news). This has contributed in part to the widespread use of humor as a cover to spread white suprematist or neonazi propaganda. Another significant change is the advent of the participatory culture of social media, where the users (the audience of traditional media) become prod- users (i.e., they produce the media themselves), taking advantage of the affordances of the media. Yet another change is the blending of mirth and embarrassment, two emotions that were considered incompatible until “cringe humor” became popular in internet humor. In particular, the paper focuses on transmedial humor. Humor is found to be a transmedial constant, however the inter semiotic translation process required to transfer the text from one modality to another is found to affect in small but not indifferent ways the humor itself. _________________________________________________ Resumen Questo articolo discute i cambiamenti dall’avvento della rete (internet), a partire dal 2000. I meccanismi cognitivi dell’umorismo non sono cambiati, ma ci sono stati alcuni cambiamenti nello slang, e l’introduzione di emoji, emotes, ed emoticons. Al livello de discorso, si nota l’avvento di conversazioni tra gruppi larghi. I testi comici tendono alla brevità. La maggiore novità è stata l’avvento dei memes (“image macros”) che consistono di immagini spesso con testo sovrapposto e dei cicli di meme, cioè gruppi di meme connessi tematicamente o formalmente. Altro fenomeno interessante è la perdita di distinzioni tra le notizie fasulle (fake news) e la satira, al punto che a volte è difficile distinguere tra di loro. Questo ha contribuito parzialmente all’uso di materiale comico da parte di gruppi neonazisti e di estremisti della destra per celare e diffondere la loro propaganda. Un altro cambiamento è l’avvento della cultura participatoria su internet (social media) in cui i consumatori di media ne diventano produttori, utilizzando appieno le “affordance” dei media. Un altro cambiamento ancora è la commistione dell’allegria e dell’imbarazzo, due emozioni che erano considerate incompatibili, prima dell’avvento del “cringe humor.” L’articolo riconcentra particolarmente sulla transmedialità. Il comico è una constante transmediale, tuttavia la traduzione intersemiotica necessaria a trasferire il testo da un medium a un altro influenza in maniera minore ma non indifferente il comico stesso. Parole chiave: Transmedia ; Umorismo ; Traduzione intersemiotica ; Internet; Memes

Productive Tensions in the Translation of Humor: Theoretical insights and practical challenges The overlap between translation and humor has often been controversial at both theoretical and practical levels. For this purpose, a critical perspective was adopted to approach these overlaps between the two domains and their respective theoretical models. This paper explores the intellectual and professional challenges posed by the common ground between translation studies and practices compared to humor studies and practices, as a development of a prior publication that has been highly influential over the years, Zabalbeascoa (2005). This study aims to highlight the lines of demarcation between translation practices and humor production as a social phenomenon within the framework of textual communication. It reflects the impact of social factors (social dynamics, biases, and traditions) on translation and humor. To this end, the paper classifies translation theories according to the degree to which they are sensitive to or able to account for humor in source texts and their translations, thus revisiting the main theories (including Vermeer, Toury, Lefevere, Delabstita, Attardo) in the ‘new’ light of how they deal with humor. The paper also includes a proposal for the ideal conditions for humor translation, including translator competencies, translation criteria, distribution, reception, and other social factors. This paper provides a new list of common factors between translation and humor practices pertaining to social bias and acceptance. ________________________________________ Resumen En este artículo se esbozan los retos intelectuales y profesionales que plantean los factores compartidos entre la teorización y la práctica de la traducción en relación con la teorización y la práctica del humor, como evolución de una publicación anterior que ha tenido una gran influencia a lo largo de los años, a saber, Zabalbeascoa, P. «Humor and translation—an interdiscipline», publicado en Humor Journal, vol. 18, nº 2. 2005, 185-207. Con este fin, el artículo clasifica las teorías de la traducción según el grado en que son sensibles o capaces de dar cuenta del humor en los textos fuente y en sus traducciones, incluyendo las teorías más populares (Vermeer, Toury, Lefevere, Delabstita, Attardo) a la «nueva» luz del papel que otorgan al humor. El artículo también incluye una propuesta de las condiciones ideales para la traducción del humor, incluyendo las competencias del traductor, los criterios de traducción y los factores de distribución, recepción y otros factores sociales. Por último, se propone una nueva lista de factores comunes entre la traducción y las prácticas humorísticas en lo que respecta a los prejuicios sociales y la aceptación. Palabras clave: Biblia, Chiste, Entretenimiento, multimodal, Skopos, Teoría, Traducción literal

The drastic language shift that Algeria has witnessed in recent years, notably towards English, has gained significant ground. This paper examines the evolving dynamics of scientific discourse translation in Algeria. Since gaining independence in 1962, Algeria has been closely associated with Francophone networks, with the French historically dominating scientific communication. However, in recent decades, English has gained predominance in scientific discourse, surpassing French. Through a comprehensive review of academic literature, this paper explores the historical context that has shaped Algeria’s linguistic landscape, leading to this significant transition. The study delves into concepts such as language shift, domain loss, terminology, and translation to understand their impact and relationship within multilingual research contexts. By examining these concepts, the paper seeks to illustrate how they have influenced the shift towards English in Algerian scientific communication. Additionally, the paper investigates the underlying motivations for the increased adoption of English as the primary language of scientific discourse among Algerian researchers and institutions. Key factors include the influence of international scientific norms, the availability of extensive English language resources, participation in global research collaborations, and the enhanced visibility that English provides in the global scientific arena. While this transition to English offers numerous opportunities for Algerian researchers, such as improved access to international research networks and increased publication potential, it also presents challenges. Linguistic and cultural barriers may hinder effective communication and collaboration, potentially impacting the quality of research and its dissemination. The paper concludes by analyzing the intricate ramifications of these translation trends and their implications for Algeria’s scientific research landscape. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing strategies to support researchers through this transition and ensuring their successful integration into the global scientific community.

A Few Guidelines for Productive Translation Studies The paper is based on the concept of “productive Translation Studies”, understood as a science of translation anchored in the present and designed to help both translators and translation scholars. To provide some directions for productive Translation Studies, the paper starts with a diachronic analysis of the discipline. The field acquired its autonomy in the 80s when it was no longer considered a branch of linguistics. Nevertheless, translation scholars have manifested some hesitations in the past and there are aspects to be rectified. To establish the aim and methodology of the discipline, a clear definition of translation (both as a process and as a product) is needed. In addition, the nature of Translation Studies should be discussed: whether they are a scientific field or a branch of humanities and to what extent they are interdisciplinary. This historical overview is also used to discuss the “ages” of Translation Studies, as defined by Jean-René Ladmiral. Thus, prescriptive Translation Studies fix some general principles of a “good” translation and have a theoretical nature; descriptive Translation Studies rely on comparative and contrastive methods, analysing translation as a product; inductive Translation Studies aim at discovering what happens in the translator’s mind and are not developed yet; productive Translation Studies are connected to the reality of the market and provide methodological principles to translators and translation scholars to facilitate their work. In the final part of the paper, the author describes several strategies to be followed by contemporary Translation Studies. One step is to put an end to the scientific hesitations of the past and to have a coherent approach. Then, the debate concerning translation dichotomies (such as the possibility or impossibility of translation, faithfulness, and unfaithfulness in translation, translating form or translating meaning) should be left behind because it is unproductive. Connecting theory and practice and putting in contact with translators and translation scholars is another objective. Translation critics should give up the sacralization of the source text: in fact, any approach should put the translator on center stage to empower him/her. A double approach – psychological and sociological – may be needed to understand the translator’s choices: the psychological approach is based on the Theory of Sense, while the sociological analysis takes into consideration the constraints of the market. New technologies should become a topic of research. Also, translation studies should be rendered into various languages to disseminate new ideas and trends.

Artificial Intelligence and Language Technologies in the Field of Translation The present paper deals with the opportunities which language technologies and artificial intelligence might offer for translation professionals. The paper also examines and elucidates that these technologies might contain possible problems, hurdles and obstacles. But the researcher reinforces that they also possess the necessary skills, competencies and prerequisites for the successful implementation and use of these technologies as illustrated in the Literature Review and Discussion parts of this research. It has also been shown that the successful implementation of such tools requires both institutional and technical prerequisites. A not inconsiderable problem, however, is the question of the what extent to which and whether the significance of the digital translator can also be adequately illustrated and clarified in the non-institutional private sector. Current developments in this respect unfortunately tend to point to the opposite, i.e. to the degradation of his role to a mere "helper" of the machine that (apparently) does most of the translation work. Translators, then, will ultimately only be able to truly benefit from language technology and artificial intelligence if their status is not further compromised as a result. It is not very helpful if productivity and speed can be increased, but in inverse proportion to this, the fees constantly decrease, because it is made to appear that the computer is now doing most of the work. The end result of this development would be the digital slave rather than the highly professional digital language mediator. The paper projects that language technologies and artificial intelligence potentially offer benefits in the sense that they promote a better understanding and functioning of the symbiosis between humans and machines through the automation and streamlining of certain language-related workflow processes, i.e., a set of tasks that can be performed primarily - or even entirely - through workflow automation and with the help of content management software. Through the various past research on the subject and through secondary data analysis it has been analysed and stated in the paper that the potential acceleration of work processes improves overall efficiency by requiring less time to complete the same tasks. Therefore, this study evidently establishes the argument that artificial intelligence allows human actors to focus on more meaningful tasks associated with quality control, while routine and especially technical tasks are delegated (for the most part) to the machine. This also leaves more time for creative aspects. Artificial intelligence and language technology are not only relevant for translating, but also for interpreting, even if progress in this area is still somewhat slower and a paradigm shift has yet to occur. In this regard, conference interpreting is of particular interest. Problematically, the relevant software has so far lacked the cognitive, cultural, intellectual, and emotional skills that inevitably underlie qualitatively responsive interpretation. But at least it is possible to improve the interpreter's preparation for a meeting or conference. The relevant tools have so far only a supporting role to play. Language technologies and artificial intelligence potentially offer benefits in the sense that they promote a better understanding and functioning of the symbiosis between humans and machines through the automation and streamlining of certain language-related workflow processes, i.e., a set of tasks that can be performed mainly - or even entirely through workflow automation and with the help of content management software. Further development of artificial intelligence, machine translation has recently made significant progress. Nevertheless, it is common practice to first subject the machine-translated text to review or proofreading by a human translator. Post-editing is the process of using a machine-translated text as a basis and having it improved by a human translator. This means that the human translator ultimately creates the final translation.

The problems that translators of fiction, especially novels, face when translating dialects from one language to another vary because dialects are distinct as much as cultures and language systems are distinct. It is noticeable that Palestinian authors use colloquial language in dialogues and special expressions, striving to attain aesthetic and cultural merits or more realism in the text. Thus, an accurate translation of literary dialect is necessary to preserve the effect of the colloquial language that increases the authenticity of the testimony and adds a sense of reliability since mistranslation of it might undermine the subject matters of the literary work. Therefore, studying dialect translation issues by situating these studies into their contexts can be very effective since it helps both translators and readers recognize their own functionality. This paper examines Nancy Roberts’ translation of the Palestinian dialect from Arabic into English in Ibrahim Nasrallah’s Time of White Horses. It seeks to identify the problems experienced by the translator when dealing with dialect in the novel under study. It also focuses on how the loss of translation can lead to the loss of repertoire of implications embedded in the dialects employed in Nasrallah’s Time of White Horses. The data of the study consists of Palestinian dialect utterances and expressions and their English translations. The novel is teeming with utterances having traces of the Palestinian dialect. However, the researchers analyze a number of random examples that are assumed to be the most representative of each function on basis of their own judgment. The paper analyses the source text dialectical utterances for their functions as well as their socio-cultural implications. The study involves a descriptive analysis in tandem with a comparative textual analysis. The data of the ST will be classified according to their different functions, and then data will be compared with their English counterparts to examine the different strategies used in translating the dialect. House's model (1997) of register analysis in tandem with Venuti’s (1995) theory of domestication and foreignization is adopted as the theoretical framework of the analysis. In light of these models, the study proceeds to discuss translation strategies used to deal with dialect and how these strategies affect the implications and messages encoded in dialectical usage. Furthermore, it deals with dialect markers and the extent to which these markers were preserved in the target text. We suggest in this article that Nasrallah’s use of local dialect in his work is testimonial and historical in attitude. The dialect the author uses retrieves collective memories that local collective memoirs also share while bearing witness to historic events remembered and commemorated. The study reveals that there are mismatches in the register variables between the source and the target text considering that the majority of the dialectical utterances are standardized. It also shows that Palestinian dialect performs various functions in the novel such as signalling familial relationships, signalling social distance, asserting the Palestinianism of the story, generating humor, and codification. Furthermore, the study reveals that the identity of the dialect is attained through phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical markers. Standardization of dialect markers conceals the traces of the existence of dialect in the text. Thereby, the study contends that domesticating the dialect markers utilizing standardization strategy threatens and undermines the contours of the national identity of dialect and consequently the national identity of the text as whole. Thereby, domesticating the dialect by the means of standardization hurdles the functions meant by the employment of Palestinian dialect in the text as well as the Palestinianism of the text constructed through the use of dialect.

The addition/removal combination, related to translation, observed in the process of recreation constitutes the means of attenuation of the cultural, environmental and temporal differences between the audiences of the two plays. I propose to examine the process of adaptation and/or rewriting of the play (Na'im al-Shayatin), inspired by Tartuffe through the function of the translator as author. Given the highly evocative dimension of language, through the emanation of waves of expression of innuendo, new equations are observable for obtaining the meanings suggested in the target language and culture. Undoubtedly, an original way to reapprehend the latter. I raise questions about how the director works for re-creation in a different artistic environment using translation as a process. Due to the disparity in the audiences' environments and cultures of the two plays, the director resorted to adaptation and rewriting by combining addition and deletion. He negociated as a mediator to adapt the original work to the new audience and communicate the main ideas of the original play, which are hypocrisy and deceit through religious falsity, woman and marriage issues and family conflicts. To do so, he made changes to the playwriting in order to free the theatrical performance from its original terms. Indeed, Tartuffe is historically known as "The Impostor" or "The Hypocrite". The audience is aware of the latter’s blatant dishonesty. It is also ware that he is a clever and skilled hypocrite rather than a naive or illiterate fake. These ideas were reproduced as main themes in the Algerian play Na'im al-Shayatin. I analysed them in this paper using the Freytag pyramid through exposition, rising action, climax and denouement. Rewriting incorporates different levels and varieties of creativity in translation when removing boundaries between the source and target works. This process compeles the marriage of two extremely different environements into one mold. Eventhough worldwide communities represent many points of cultural disparity, they sometimes gather around some common socio-cultural traits and it is upon this very point that the researcher would shed focus in the current paper. In such contexts, the author can play a double-layered function that fluactautes between creating and translating. The latter is not an automatic literal process especially in literary domains where psychological factors like feelings and emotions are highly demanded. The factor of the human being in such contexts is not inveitable; literary translation is mainly a human endeavour. Consequently, the re-appearance of the same character in transcultural literature should not be considered a peculiar incidence. Instead of looking at literary works as unique and matcheless, one should reconsider this state of affairs to have the most of the teansuclutral literary experience. In Na'im al-Shayatin, the director, who was stuck between two extremes, was given the function of a secondary concept "recycler", propelling him toward a forthcoming narrative that is nothing less than the creative incarnation of his translation. On the one hand, he faces the challenge of staying authentic to the original play's vivacity, wit, and attractiveness. On the other hand, he is confronted by the difficult task of expressing the content autonomously in a hidden challenge of separating the act of translating from the creative process. Through this, Belkholdja re- tartuffed the original play by giving it a fresh perspective.

Humor Across Cultures: Exploring Italian and Spanish comedy through audiovisual translation It is common knowledge that language is the most evident manifestation of idiosyncrasies and that it undoubtedly allows cultural elements of a very different nature to be expressed. Among these elements is the aspect related to humor, the transposition of which from language/culture A to language/culture B often poses major challenges for the translator. In this paper, we aim to address this phenomenon from the perspective of verbal humor and cultural references. Our analysis will focus on Italian and Spanish, two languages generally considered cognate due to their common historical background. The reason for this choice is justified by the limited number of scientific contributions in this field of study. Based on a corpus created from the transcriptions of the Italian and Spanish subtitles of an Italian series called Incastrati, available on Netflix, our interest will be devoted to analyzing how the two languages express certain aspects of humor. To this end, regarding the methodology, we will adopt a qualitative approach aimed at evaluating the translation results given by audiovisual translation in terms of comparative analysis. Additionally, our analysis will be based on the translation procedures proposed by renowned scholars in the field of audiovisual translation, such as Agost (1999), Fuentes Luque (2001), Chaume (2012), and Martínez Tejerina (2016). We aim to observe whether humor is expressed in the same way in both Spanish and Italian, to confirm or refute that the linguistic proximity between Spanish and Italian facilitates the translation process. In the conclusions, it appears that the proximity between Spanish and Italian, in many cases, does not facilitate the process of interlinguistic transposition. For this reason, the translator/subtitler is occasionally required to make appropriate changes and adaptations to render humor effectively. ______________________________________________ Resumen De todos es sabido que la lengua es la manifestación más evidente de una idiosincrasia y permite, sin duda, expresar elementos culturales de muy distinta naturaleza. Entre estos elementos se halla la vertiente relacionada con el humor, cuya transposición de una lengua/cultura A hacia una lengua/cultura B suele plantear importantes desafíos para el traductor. El objetivo de este artículo es el de abordar el humor desde la perspectiva de las referencias culturales. Nuestro análisis se centrará en el italiano y el español, dos lenguas consideradas históricamente afines. La razón de esta elección se justifica por las escasas contribuciones científicas en este campo. A partir de un corpus creado mediante las transcripciones de los subtítulos en italiano y español de la serie italiana « Incastrati », disponible en Netflix, nuestro interés se dirigirá a analizar cómo las dos lenguas expresan determinados elementos humorísticos. Metodológicamente, adoptaremos un enfoque cualitativo y comparativo destinado a evaluar los resultados de la traducción audiovisual. Además, el análisis considerará los procedimientos traslativos propuestos por destacados estudiosos de traducción audiovisual, como Agost (1999), Fuentes Luque (2001), Chaume (2012), Martínez Tejerina (2016).Nuestro objetivo es observar si el humor se expresa de la misma manera en español e italiano, para confirmar o desmentir que la afinidad lingüística es un elemento que facilita el proceso de traducción. De las conclusiones se desprende que la proximidad entre estos dos idiomas en muchos casos no agiliza el proceso traductor. Por este motivo, el traductor/subtitulador se ve obligado de vez en cuando a realizar las modificaciones y adaptaciones oportunas para plasmar eficazmente el humor. Palabras clave: Humor; Traducción Audiovisual; Lenguas Afines; Español-Italiano; Técnicas y estrategias de traducción

Using Humor in French as a Foreign Language Class: A case study with comics Since the emergence of the communicative and then task-based approach in foreign language teaching, humor has been left aside to the benefit of an “efficient” language perspective. This vision limits the language to a communication tool and forgets all the implicit and cultural weight any language act supposes, as has established Bougherra in 2007 by defending an “esthetical- ludic-referential competence”. This paper proposes to introduce humor in a French class for foreigners through a didactic activity field tested, easy to build and to adapt in different teaching contexts, operable from the beginner level to the advanced one. The project uses the website birdsdessines.fr, which publishes every day new comics created by any user and at the same time offers a very user- friendly content creation tool. Guiding the learners into it step by step, starting from understanding those comics and arriving at creating some new ones, will allow them to discover and understand different humor types, but also reproduce them. We will present three different educational uses based on this website, implemented in two Italian universities in groups going from the beginners to the B1 level. We will observe how the learners familiarize themselves with humor’s presence in their language path, understand its mechanism, and finally manipulate it themselves in the foreign language. Finally, we will verify that the learners have developed a true capacity for understanding and creating humor, but also that their relation to the learning process has been positively impacted, by analyzing the comics they produced. Since this project has been carried out on a small scale, we intend to inspire foreign language teachers to reproduce it and hopefully confirm our results. Thus, we aim to demonstrate how it is possible and beneficial to expand the existing pedagogical approaches by including a true “humor competence”, as defined by Harakchiyska and Borisova as a transversal capacity to understand, react to and produce jokes. ________________________________________________ Résumé Depuis l’avènement des approches communicatives et actionnelles dans l’enseignement des langues étrangères, l'humour a été laissé de côté au profit d’une vision “efficace” de la langue. Cet article se propose de l’introduire en classe de FLE à travers une activité didactique, simple à mettre en place et à adapter à des contextes d’enseignement différents, et ce dès le niveau débutant. Grâce au site birdsdessines.fr, qui publie quotidiennement des bandes dessinées créées par les utilisateurs inscrits et met à disposition un outil de création très facile à prendre en main, les apprenants peuvent découvrir et comprendre différents types d’humour, mais aussi chercher à les reproduire ou à en créer d’autres. Nous présenterons donc trois exploitations pédagogiques différentes basées sur ce site, mises en œuvre dans deux universités italiennes auprès de groupes allant du niveau débutant complet au B1. Ces exploitations permettent d’habituer progressivement les apprenants à la présence du comique dans leur parcours linguistique, de leur en faire comprendre les mécanismes, et de les conduire à le manipuler eux-mêmes en langue étrangère. Nous constaterons au terme de ces parcours que les apprenants développent non seulement une réelle capacité de compréhension et de production de l’humour dans la langue étrangère, mais aussi que leur rapport à l’apprentissage de la langue en est affecté positivement. Nous invitons ainsi les enseignants de FLE à s’inspirer de ces séquences et espérons montrer comment il est possible et souhaitable d’élargir les approches pédagogiques actuelles pour y intégrer une véritable “compétence humoristique”. Mots clés: Français Langue Étrangère ; Bande dessinée ; BirdsDessinés ; Rire ; Efficacité pédagogique ; Enseignement des langues ; Humoristique

Strange Ways of Laugh: Transcultural humor in the matamorphosis of the Western genre This paper focuses on laugh and the evolution of its representation in classical and post-classical Western movies. It deals with film chronology, mythology, and cultural heritage, the impact of migration and migrant cultures on the raising of the American way of laughing, and the startup of a new kind of transcultural and hybrid humor building, introduced and successfully screened by the Italian authors of the so-called Spaghetti-Western set and mostly filmed in Spain, and, later on, by the international authors of the so-called Gay Western. Spaghetti and Gay Western movies strongly reshape, stress, and exploit gender and macho stereotypes, highlighting hidden aspects of the classical genre they are reshaping. The methodology is comparative and cross-cultural (dealing with film history and film criticism; translation studies; movie industry & production; ancient mythology; with American and European studies and cultural studies). The results clearly highlight what happened to laughing men (and women) and why it happened the way it happened all along the Western movie history. It has also been revealed that the humorous and surreal-surrealist effect of the late Western genre is often linked to the revival of a series of countercultural stereotypes about Mexico, depicted since the Mexican Revolution as a land of transgression and escape, and associated with an imaginary of altered perceptions, influenced by plant drugs and alcohol. Looking back from the many comedic, caricatured, and paradoxical excesses of this diverse series of tributes and reincarnations, it is perhaps easier to reassess the true extent of the heroicomic and humorous potential of the Western genre, amplified, reinvented, revitalized, and reintroduced into circulation by the spaghetti Western and its clichés. Many recent authors and moviemakers. like Eastwood, Tarantino, Rodriguez, Coen Brothers, and others, revisited the postmodern tradition of the new Western and its heroicomic legacy. _________________________________________ Abstract Il presente studio si occupa della risata e delle sue rappresentazioni nei film Western del periodo classico e moderno. Vengono affrontate, in quest'ottica, diverse e significative questioni di cronologia e di mitologia, analizzate specialmente dal punto di vista dell'impatto che il contatto tra culture diverse ha avuto nella nascita e nello sviluppo dell'identità culturale americana e in particolare nella formazione composita del senso dell'umorismo americano, declinato in rapporto ai diversi spazi la cui conquista e colonizzazione ha caratterizzato la formazione della nazione, lungo il continuum tra discriminazione razziale e integrazione. I territori di frontiera, la guerra civile e i confini con il Messico hanno vertebrato e segmentato un immaginario polarizzato. Tale immaginario è stato rivisitato e ricreato da tutti i generi del cinema americano, e in particolare dal Western, che, più di altri, ha avuto fortuna anche in Europa. In questa chiave ha svolto un ruolo decisivo l'evoluzione umoristica ed eroicomica del genere tra gli autori di western all'italiana, che hanno girato i loro film in Spagna, e, successivamente, anche tra gli autori di omo-western, che hanno reso del tutto esplicita la tensione omoerotica tipica del genere. Tutte queste trasformazioni hanno valorizzato molto il potenziale umoristico correlato ad un uso non innocente e consapevole dei clichés sessisti, sia sfruttandoli direttamente che mettendoli in caricatura. La metodologia di analisi seguita per questo lavoro è comparativa e transculturale e si avvale di rimandi alla storia del cinema e della sua industria, alla storia della traduzione, alla critica cinematografica, alla mitologia classica, agli studi culturali e al confronto tra i diversi codici dellumorismo tipici civiltà americana e di quella europea. Le conclusioni mettono in luce di che cosa ridono e come lo fanno gli uomini e le donne del West quando la loro risata viene rappresentata sullo schermo, diventando un elemento capace si accompagnare e caratterizzare l'evoluzione storica dei genere Western e delle sue convenzioni. Parole chiave: Film western; Tradurre l'umorismo; Spaghetti Western; Gay Western; Divinità che ridono; I duri non ridono

Maitena Burundarena: feminism and humour in Spanish-Intralingual and interlingual translation This paper focuses on the translation of comics, a type of so-called “subordinate” translation that is typically subject to space and time constraints – respectively, the limited space available in each speech bubble and the need for written text to render actions effectively in a few words and to qualify a character, so as to allow the audience to understand his or her psychology. Specifically, the article examines the case of the Argentinean cartoonist Maitena Burundarena (an author known for her humorous production), observing the double transposition of her work (“Mujeres Alteradas 5”, 2001 and “Superadas 1”, 2002): from Rioplatense Spanish into Peninsular Spanish and into the interlingual Italian version. With regard to intralingual translation, we will reflect on the need to have a version adapted for an Iberian audience, also with reference to the humorous rendering of text and image and from a contrastive perspective. Focusing on interlingual translation into Italian, the difficulties that emerged during the translation process will be analysed, observing how the use of certain strategies sometimes leads to conflicts and losses in the final product that alter the scope of the humorous intent of the prototext. The affinity between Spanish and Italian, two cognate languages, hides many pitfalls in translation. In order to compensate for some of these linguistic and cultural losses, particularly related to culturally marked terms or colloquial expressions, alternative translation solutions will be proposed. While in some cases a literal translation will be suggested, more creative renderings will also be proposed, so as to more closely respect the author's intentions. ________________________________________ Abstract Questo saggio si occupa di studiare la traduzione del fumetto, un tipo di traduzione “subordinata”. Essa è infatti sottoposta a restrizioni di spazio (quello chiuso della nuvoletta, che contiene parole o pensieri di un personaggio) e idealmente anche di tempo, poiché tali espressioni devono saper rendere, in pochi condensati termini, le azioni, ma pure qualificare un personaggio, così da consentire al pubblico di comprendere la sua psicologia. Nello specifico, il testo prende in esame il caso della vignettista argentina Maitena Burundarena, osservando la doppia trasposizione della sua opera (“Mujeres Alteradas 5”, 2001 e “Superadas 1”, 2002) dallo spagnolo rioplatense allo spagnolo penisulare, fino alla versione interlinguistica in italiano. Per quanto concerne la traduzione intralinguistica, si rifletterà, in ottica contrastiva, sulla reale necessità di disporre di una versione adattata per un pubblico iberico, anche in riferimento alla resa umoristica di testo e immagine. In merito alla traduzione in lingua italiana, verranno analizzate le difficoltà emerse durante il processo traduttivo, osservando come alcune strategie di resa nella lingua target evidenzino talvolta dei conflitti e delle perdite nel prodotto finale che alterano la portata della nota umoristica del prototesto. L’affinità tra spagnolo e italiano nasconde infatti molte inside nella traduzione. Allo scopo di compensare alcune di queste perdite linguistiche e culturali (di termini culturalmente marcati e colloquialismi) si proporranno soluzioni alternative di traduzione, in alcuni casi suggerendo una traduzione letterale, in altri, una versione maggiormente creativa rispetto a quella ufficiale, così da rispettare più fedelmente il messaggio originale. Parole chiave: Fumetto femminista; Maitena; Tradurre interlinguisticamente; Umorismo; Variante Rioplatense

Between Equivalence and Effectiveness: Korean Humor in Multimedia Translation Humor can be defined as a cognitive experience aimed at eliciting laughter and amusement, particularly when conveyed through language in various forms (cf. Salmon, 2004). Its primary function is to provoke laughter in the listener, with the expectation that this effect will be preserved in translation. However, the multifaceted nature of humor, which encompasses linguistic, cultural, situational, and contextual elements, presents a significant challenge in achieving an adequate translation, particularly between languages as linguistically and culturally distinct as Korean and Italian. The translation of humor is widely recognized as one of the most challenging tasks for translators, due to its intricate nature and the profound interconnection between its nuances and the necessary linguistic, cultural, and contextual expertise. In relation to the Korean language, substantial comparative research has been conducted involving foreign languages such as English, Japanese, Chinese, and German. The objective of this study is to present a contrastive analysis of the subtitling of wordplay in Korean audiovisual content, motivated by the significant interest in this area over the past two decades, especially within the field of audiovisual translation. Therefore, the analysis will be focused on the humorous content of the movies and series, particularly wordplay, as these elements are deeply rooted in cultural specifics and require a high level of creative translation effort. It is of the utmost importance that the target language be shaped in such a way that idiomatic phrases, collocations, proverbs, or fixed expressions reflect a form of idiomaticity that preserves the original humor structures. In this regard, considerable emphasis will be placed on the concept of “cultural translation” and the issue of the “other.” The objective of this paper is to investigate the feasibility of translating humorous elements, despite the inherent challenges that may arise in each case. The examination of selected examples will assist in identifying a variety of potential solutions, some of which may prove effective, and facilitate a rapid parallel comparison between the languages under study. ____________________________________ 초록 유머를 웃음을 유발하는 인지적 경험으로 정의할 때 (Salmon, 2004), 청취자로 하여금 재미를 느끼고 웃음을 터트리게 하는 효과는 다른 언어로 번역되는 경우에도 동일하게 기대된다. 그러나 유머는 본질적으로 언어적, 문화적, 상황적, 맥락적 요소를 포괄하는 다면적 성격을 가지고 있기에 특히 출발어와 도착어가 한국어나 이탈리아어와 같이 언어적, 문화적으로 상이할 때 이를 적절하게 번역해 내는 작업은 굉장히 까다롭기에 마련이다. 특히 유머 번역은 출발어와 도착어 양자의 언어적, 문화적 맥락을 세밀하게 읽어내는 전문성을 필요로 하기에 번역가들이 직면하는 큰 어려움의 대상이 된다. 한국어의 경우 영어, 일본어, 중국어, 독일어 등을 대상으로 하는 유머 번역 관련 연구들이 수행되어 왔다. 이에 여기에서는 한국 영화와 드라마에 등장하는 유머의 이탈리아어 번역을 사례로 대조언어적 분석을 수행하는 것을 목표로 한다. 본 논문에서는 무엇보다 문화적 특수성이 강하게 반영되는 언어유희적 요소에 집중하였으며, 특히 출발어의 유머가 지닌 언어적 구조를 최대한 살리는 노력이 요구되는 관용구, 연어, 속담 등을 주요 분석 대상으로 삼아 유머의 번역 가능성 및 번역 전략을 탐색하고자 한다. 본 논문에서 제시하는 세부적인 유머 번역 예시에 대한 검토 및 분석을 통해 유머 번역이 수반하는 잠재적 어려움과 그 해결책을 가늠해 볼 수 있기를 기대한다. 키워드: 유머; 시청각번역; 문화번역; K-드라마

This paper attempts to show that the surge of a world pandemic known as COVID-19 has allowed the local languages of Cameroon to supplant the official languages, English and French in their daily use to fight against the pandemic or to prevent the population from the threat. To reach the people at the grassroots, local languages have been used as the main channel. The pandemic is therefore looked at as a contributor to the dynamics of small languages, mainly in Cameroon, favouring their greater use for better communication and sensitisation. Relying on the community-based approach, triggered by personal observation and community involvement, the paper demonstrates that COVID-19 has allowed the enrichment of the local languages or national languages of Cameroon with new words, and has vivified their use in an environment where they are dominated by some world killer languages like English and French. The paper concludes that the dynamics of the local languages would also benefit a lot from an interconnectedness among language committees and health care specialists who will develop entangled discourses in the local languages to reach a larger majority of peoples at the grassroots, and by doing so, creating more new words that will perpetuate the lexical dynamics of the involved languages.

This paper aimed at investigating the role of multimodality in promoting Algerian English as Foreign Language students’ critical thinking skills. The vital role of critical thinking skills in education makes English as foreign language teachers integrate distinctive strategies into their lessons to promote their use by students. However, the most suitable strategy is the one that enhances the interaction between teachers and students. Multimodality allows making meaning and interaction between individuals since it covers a mixture of modes. The latter assists the flexibility of interaction and then it can enhance cognitive abilities. Thus, multimodality can be considered as a workable strategy that fosters students’ critical thinking skills. This paper was important in the sense that it attempted to investigate the extent to which those students can use critical thinking skills, and to describe the role of multimodality in promoting them among English as Foreign Language students. The method adopted in this paper is descriptive one for which the researcher used two data gathering tools: a questionnaire and an interview. The questionnaire was administered to four teachers and eighty-third year students from the department of English, at Biskra University, but the interview was aimed only at the teachers. It was found that students still face difficulties in using critical thinking skills; basically, higher-order thinking ones. They mostly preferred multimodality as a strategy to promote these skills and to minimize the difficulties they faced. The findings showed that there were conflicting answers among the teachers: On the one hand they confirmed the usefulness of multimodality in promoting their students’ critical thinking skills, but on the other hand they implemented another strategy. Therefore, it was recommended to find out the reasons why this strategy was not used by teachers though they confirmed its usefulness regarding the promotion of critical thinking skills on the part of students.

This paper explores the effect of globalization on the translation industry and the demands it places on translators. The paper argues that translators are not only individuals with some knowledge of the source or target language, but they also often act as mediators between the discourse of the source culture and the discourse of the target audience. To be a successful translator, one has to possess the knowledge of both the general culture of the target audience, specialized knowledge within the domain of that particular text, and perfect knowledge of the target language, not to mention the ability to detect any particularities in the source text and language. The article argues for the imperative of equipping modern interpreters and translators with a set of extra-linguistic assets imposed by the modern economic structure of the world. The paper traces back the history of the English language as an example of the domineering linguistic power that has been solidified by socio-political and economic status leading up to considering it a globalized code. The outcome of this universal metamorphosis has reached such a point that it requires from people worldwide and namely in specific areas of trade to adapt to these exigencies. In this sense, global and business exchanges cannot be successfully realized without a strong probability of understanding the message issuing from the other. Hence the need to create interlinguistic agents that are able to minimize the existing nuances between people of the world primarily for universal economic reasons. Those people are supposed to reach beyond the linguistic requirements for the act of translation and to embrace the demands of the specific business field or area which in is in itself a part of competency within the boundaries of modern training impositions. The article contends as well for the need on the part of modern translators to embrace modern technological innovations that are supposed to be shielded to support the human trials to bring in concrete shape poles-apart nations. In a globalized world, technology invades all life domains where translation studies are no exception. The paper concludes by suggesting strategies for translators to position themselves as assets to their organization and to counteract the belief that anyone with language experience can translate.

The present research paper attempts to examine the attitude of the Labour Government 1945-51 towards the process of decolonisation in British West Africa and whether the party, with its socialist agenda, was able to initiate any new course different from that of the capitalist, imperialist Conservatives. To inquire into this, the paper sheds light on the colonial policies adopted by the Labour Party before 1945 and after to show how far the Party’s actions once in office were consistent with its resolutions once in opposition. Previous historical research on British decolonisation dating back to the late 1950s presented the Party as playing a major role in unscrambling the empire and assigned it a positive role in Africa. However, the chief limitation of this historiographical genre is its lack of objectivity as it did not make use of primary sources. Relying on some archival sources and adopting an analytical approach, this study argues that the Labour government of 1945-51 did not mark a new move towards decolonisation in West Africa. Contrary to what has often been assumed, the Party’s approach to colonial questions was not different from that of the Conservative Party. Labour adhered to the political, economic, social and ideological constituents that defined the culture of imperialism. Its colonial policy was neither innovative nor did it involve any revolutionary break with the past official colonial policy. A major influential factor had been British national self-interest.

This paper examines the phenomenon of Arabic fansubtitling of Western stand-up comedy through a sample of fifteen clips found on YouTube to evaluate how fansubtitlers approach the extra- linguistic cultural references in the clips. In this textual analysis of the sample clips, we identify some of the techniques most commonly used in rendering the extra-linguistic cultural references such as retention of the original reference, omission, or literal translation. We conclude that literal translation is the most common problem in rendering the meaning of cultural references. To help the viewer interact with the clips, we recommend keeping the original reference and providing a short explication which would often give the viewers the best experience of the clip and the cultural knowledge contained in it. This paper argues that despite the problems with the quality of some of the subtitles they produce, fansubtitlers are changing the profession of translation. Some have developed creative ways to explain the cultural references using pictures, animations, and glossary lists. Moreover, they contribute to the globalization of Western culture, but at the same time reshape the discourse around these clips by integrating them within local debates about politics, social customs, and ethics. Those clips emerge as sites where viewers contend with identity and their place in the world.

This paper traces Joyce’s linguistic techniques of void and gaps as he went about when writing Dubliners, and reveals what is implied in some of the stories and most importantly shows how through ellipses and fragments, his characters’ attempt to achieve decolonization. The main issue of explicit communication in colonial societies is replaced by such linguistic aspects where postcolonial writers like James Joyce tend to express their ideas of decolonization through the implicitness of language to deliver political messages. Hence, and in order to solve the problem of the explicit limitations of language, this paper attempts to reveal the covert messages of the stories by studying ellipses and fragments. While void and gaps portray negative connotations, the methodology used here to fill in the blanks of ellipses and fragments focuses on the information investigated, explored and then implemented by the reader to complete the unfinished thoughts and solve Joyce’s mysteries. Filling out ellipses are investigated mainly in the stories of “The Sisters” and “A Little Cloud” where characters are helped by the reader, who fills out these ellipses, to escape their colonial ordeals into a more hopeful world. Similarly, fragments show the characters’ struggle to achieve linguistic decolonization by completing the unfinished thoughts and utterances especially in the stories of “Eveline” and “Clay”. By analysing the discourse that takes place between the characters in these stories, the reader may reveal what has been left implied and will show how by filling out ellipses and completing fragments, characters may achieve decolonization. Additionally, the role of annexes in this article gives a more concrete proof of the use of ellipses and fragments as decolonial tools by presenting statistics of their usage in the stories and thoroughly analysing their implicit interpretations. Ultimately, findings will prove that those who struggle with the explicitness of censoredl anguage in politically disturbed environments will find other means to express their thoughts of freedom through the analysis of what language implies and not what is overtly expressed. Thus, the readers are allowed to reconstruct ellipses and fragments to come up with more comprehensible ideas of what is linguistically required to achieve decolonization.

Survey-based, the paper evaluates the syllabus of a classical drama course designed for first year applied students (2016 - 2019) at the Higher Institute of Languages of Gabes, Tunisia (ISLG). The paper will refer to the problem of capturing the attention of business English learners who have often asked about the use of attending a drama tutorial in the age of digital humanities. It studies the challenges of teaching and also learning drama in a Post-Jasmine Tunisian revolution context. The lack of motivation is the main challenge for teaching drama in a foreign context. Learners face difficulties at grasping the significance of a classical dramatic text and they often get blocked at the literal meanings of the text. The present paper aims at showing the role of redesigning drama syllabus in achieving better learning outcomes, in creating active learners and in making the drama course a more beneficial course to business English students. A qualitative method will be deployed to evaluate the drama syllabus, to perceive students ‘preferences and to fix new pedagogic parameters. Data analysis is meant to recognize the pedagogic needs of business English students, to compare them to fundamental students and to understand their challenges. Developing certain awareness about the challenges of learners is a fundamental step for reaching pedagogic efficiency. To reach the conclusion about the importance of students’ engagement, the paper will be divided into two major parts. The first part approaches the problem of motivation and students’ preference for modern drama over classical drama by foregrounding a gender-oriented change in students’ attitudes throughout the course. The second section deals with an analysis of the survey and it highlights the role of variety in enriching drama syllabus. The final goal of the paper is to conclude that teaching drama in a foreign context becomes pleasurable for both teacher and learner when students start to be involved and to create a dialogue between different and incomparable cultures. Some recommendations for redesigning the drama booklet will be suggested in the light of the students’ responses. Responding to the needs of learners is another tool for achieving pedagogic efficiency.

Study of Intralinguistic Interference in FLE: The Impact of Homographs and Pronouns on the Learning of Complements and Definite Articles at Osun State University-Nigeria Linguistic interference is a psycholinguistic phenomenon which slows down the learning process of the target language due to the existing similarities between it (L2) and the one already acquired (L1). Many research works had been carried out on linguistic transfer and interference. However, among those works, only a significant few have underscored the intra-linguistic interference as a trap associated with understanding the homographs, personal pronoun complements and definite articles in the class of French as a foreign language FLE. Therefore, this paper evaluates the grammatical implications that the distinctions between le, la, la les as personal pronoun complements and definite articles in Allah n’est pas obligé by Ahmadou Kourouma have on Anglophone French learners. The theoretical framework adopted to foreground our claims is linguistic transfer and interference. Percentage (%) is the scale used to interpret their performance while data are analysed based on textual analysis. The text is purposively selected to situate our analysis in the context of a postcolonial Francophone African literary text whose learning is always complicated among Anglophone and Yorubaphone French learners. Five questions were asked to evaluate the language skills of the seventy-five (75) third-year students at Osun State University across twenty corpora drawn from the work. The morpho-phonetic similarities between the definite articles and the personal pronoun complement inhibit the comprehension of instructional materials. In conclusion, contextual interpretation and more rigorous study of the grammatical subject matters are suggested to both teachers and learners, respectively, to eliminate the confusion associated with the teaching and learning of the homographs. To significantly improve academic performance among non-French-speaking learners, authorities should implement the pragmatic interventions outlined in this article, involving teaching professionals and learners alike.

Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) serves as an effective theoretical framework for analysing post-method pedagogy, providing valuable insights into the complexities of educational practices. This framework integrates social, cultural, and historical contexts, allowing for a comprehensive perspective that examines patterns influencing educational processes, cognitive development, and equitable education. At the heart of CHAT is the concept of expansive learning, which emphasises the continuous improvement and evolution of teaching methods over time. This approach advocates for adaptive and innovative practices that respond to the dynamic needs of learners and the ever-changing educational environment. By incorporating CHAT into post-method pedagogy, educators can significantly enhance their teaching practices, fostering more democratic, versatile, and effective methods that engage all students. This paper delves into the impact of CHAT on education, tracing the foundational narrative of its development through the contributions of three generations of influential scholars, from Lev Vygotsky to Yrjö Engeström. CHAT distinguishes itself by moving beyond mere rote cognitive accumulation, offering a conceptual toolkit for refining, and leveling pedagogical practices. Key elements of CHAT include the division of labour, which defines roles within the teaching and learning process, and mediating means, which involves the tools and resources utilised in learning. The central theme of expansive learning underscores the ongoing improvement of teaching methods, illustrating CHAT's practical application in English language instruction. By fostering inclusive learning environments, CHAT effectively addresses real challenges faced today in education. For educators seeking to strengthen their teaching methods, adopting CHAT offers a transformative pathway which is accessible to everyday teachers striving for positive change in their instructional practices. Integrating CHAT dynamics into teaching holds significant promise for those committed to continuous improvement in the field of education.

The present paper examines two notions in the ideology of translation, namely biased and unbiased tones as can be illustrated in 10 examples taken from BBC website along with their translations into Arabic by BBC Arabic in 2018 and 2019. The paper first argues that BBC bulging with news items and their translations provided by BBC Arabic should have the same inherent qualities like reciprocal biased and/or unbiased tone as both channels presumably advocate the same general policy. Contrary to this initial assumption, the paper shows that a biased-Source Language (SL) item may have an unbiased-Target Language (TL) text (i.e., translation) or unbiased SL text might have a biased and/or unbiased translation, mainly for two reasons: (1) audience-oriented translation in which the lexical choices made in translation do not occur in a vacuum, but are often influenced by an ideology tilting towards the expectations of a specific audience; and (2) linguistic aspects whereby the two languages, i.e. English and Arabic have little linguistic reality.

The present research paper is an attempt to embark on a postmodern narrative mode of identifying, comprehending, elucidating and restructuring what was written in the past. It is for reshaping and redefining the constructed image of other by distorting the stereotypical images of Other. Thus, the research paper presents a lift of narratives to another level by giving voice to the other and by presenting their own accounts. This research paper underlines the guidelines for postmodern authors to defend against and correct the existing distortion of postcolonial subjectivities and positions in postmodern times.

The reform of the American health care system and its magnitude has always been a contested issue between the Democrats and Republicans. In this respect, the political struggle over health care repair has intensified during the enactment and implementation of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) adopted by President Barack Obama. In an attempt to analyze the polarization concerned with this system’s reform, particularly the ACA as a case study, this paper employs the metaphor theory introduced by the American cognitive linguist George Lakoff. This theory utilizes the metaphor of “nation as family” to refer to the two major ideologies composing the American political spectrum, namely liberalism and conservatism. Through employing a Lakoffian model of family-based morality, this paper seeks to provide a careful examination of the liberals’ tolerant and empathetic standpoint towards public health care expansion on the one hand, and the conservatives’ commitment to anti-ACA welfare provisions on the other hand. Accordingly, it attempts to explore areas of debate including universalizability of health care access, the interference with the market, and the issue of abortion and contraception. My paper draws the conclusion that the Democrats’ unlimited approval of the ACA and Republicans’ vehement resistance to it stem from principled moral choice rather than mere partisanship.

The present paper aims at providing a theoretical overview of English for Specific Purposes as one of the major areas of EFL teaching since its beginnings in the 1960s. It presents the developments related with the theoretical aspects concerning ESP and needs analysis as the cornerstone in designing ESP courses in English language teaching and learning. The most influential ESP teaching theories are summarised briefly, beginning with register analysis which paved the way for course designers to design specific courses based on teaching the linguistic features of a language to the urgent need for developing communication and translation. At the end, based on the nature of the hotel industry, the purpose of this paper is twofold: 1) to mention some previous case studies related to hotels because most of the linguistic researches conducted by ESP specialists focused in particular on the formal aspects of a language especially in the academic field and neglected the needs of the occupational settings; 2) to discuss the major needs of the employees in hotels and the significance of translation in this industry and therefore proposing possible solutions to overcome any deficiencies.

No wonder that knowledge of how words pair in L2 has been a missing part in many EFL classes and a peripheral element in many syllabi in Algeria. Virtually, many of the current teaching practices still seek to focus learners’ attention on the role of grammar in the acquisition process under the assumption that grammar has a generative power of language and learners can in turn produce L2 by mastering the different grammatical structures. This tendency resulted in considering lexis, mainly collocations, as subservient to grammar. As a result, learners’ writing has become grammatically well-polished but replete with idiosyncratic wording due to lexical mistakes and deficiency in collocations. Hence, this paper aims at assessing the extent to which developing EFL learners’collocational competence through an explicit contrastive approach can help them produce native- like natural writing. To undertake this research, an experimental and control group of first year English majors were recruited. The former was taught collocations explicitly through a contrastive approach, while the latter was taught English with no focus on collocations. Data were collected from corpora produced by these students in pre and post-tests. Analysis of the findings indicates that pointing out to EFL learners the difference of collocational restrictions between L1 and the target language promotes this learners’collocational competence. Besides, downplaying grammatical mistakes and emphasizing collocational accuracy inside the classroom is very likely to result in learners producing strongly collocated words in their writing. In the light of these findings, the present research paper concludes with some pedagogical implications.

The present paper attempts to synthesize the United States policymakers’ decisions on the course of the second half of the 1940s. Personal judgements and bureaucratic agency converged to give birth to a latent but emerging confrontation with the former Soviet Union. The international system shifted to become bipolar and the two superpowers' behaviors became more antagonistic. This paper emphasizes the American perspective of the rising confrontation, and the fateful United States' decision-makers' view of the situation during that period.

The present paper gives an account of a cross-regional study of lexical obsolescence in Tacawit. It aims to compare the rates of lexical erosion across three regions: the Aurès Massif, Occidental Aurès and Oriental Aurès. The data of the study were collected as part of a doctoral research project on contact- induced lexical erosion in Tacawit. For purposes of brevity, however, this paper is confined to the analysis of the data obtained from one semantic domain, namely animal lexicon. Six basic concepts denoting six species were examined. The study revealed significant differences in the rates of lexical erosion between the three regions. The Massif retained most of the Berber variants, and, to a lesser degree, Occidental Aurès. In Oriental Aurès, however, there was a general tendency towards lexical replacement. This regional variation in lexical maintenance reflects different social tendencies within Aurès towards the effects of contact between Berber and Arabic.

Academic programs across disciplines often require a foundational knowledge of history as an essential component for earning degrees in various areas of expertise. In the context of translation programs, the history of translation may either be offered as a distinct and separate course or integrated into practical translation courses. Since the 1980s, scholars in the field of translation have recognized the significance of historical research and have actively developed methods and theoretical approaches to establish this as a discipline in its own right. Presently, there is an abundance of material on the history of translation, accompanied by a concerted effort to construct a historiography specific to the field. Despite the vast array of bibliographic resources available, one notable lacuna in Translation Studies pertains to effectively introducing the historical dimension of translation to students who may grapple with comprehending this extensive body of theoretical knowledge and understanding the contribution of a historical approach to the act of translating. This article seeks to illuminate strategies for familiarizing students with the historical dimension of translation within the framework of a translation history course. The overarching aim is to underscore how translation history can contribute to students' development of a robust theoretical background on the translation phenomenon while enhancing their practical skills. Additionally, the paper explores the potential resistance students may harbour toward the perceived utility of a historical approach in addressing practical translation issues. Furthermore, the discussion delves into the role of Bibliographies of Translation Studies, which collate scholarly publications on translation, as comprehensive academic tools essential for systematizing existing yet often fragmented knowledge in this specific scientific domain. The research methodology employed is theoretical exploration, focusing on concepts such as history and historical research in translation, the objectives of a translation history course, and the design of course content along with methods for assessing student performance. The fundamental conclusion drawn is that the historical approach to translation is intricately connected to the act of translating, emphasizing the need to integrate translation history into translator training at higher education institutions. The recommendation is to offer translation history as a standalone course within translator training programs, featuring clearly defined goals and a strong orientation toward the practical aspects of translation. The envisioned objective of a "History of Translation" course is not only to address students' knowledge gaps but also to instill curiosity and research skills, fostering a lifelong learning mindset crucial for translation practice. Such an approach is anticipated to cultivate a "translation culture" among learners, contributing to the development of their self-awareness and enhancing their standing as professionals in the translation industry.

Various Variations from Having Nothing to Being Nothing, an Analysis of Madeleine Thien’s Do Not Say We Have Nothing (and its French Version) as a “New” Historical Novel Traditionally, historical novels have been subjected to various negative preconceptions and have often been categorized as lowbrow. Despite their popular and commercial success, authors of such novels rarely win prestigious literary awards. However, 'Do Not Say We Have Nothing,' a historical novel by Madeleine Thien published in 2016, was critically acclaimed and received high praise, winning two major Canadian prizes— the Scotiabank Giller Prize and the Governor General’s Literary Award for Fiction. It was also shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize. Its French translation, 'Nous qui n’étions rien,' also gained significant recognition, as Catherine Leroux, Thien’s translator, was awarded a Governor General’s Literary Award for the French version in 2019. The novel has been translated into thirteen other languages, another significant sign of consecration. In this paper, two questions will be explored. Firstly: what characteristics of 'Do Not Say We Have Nothing' (and of its French translation 'Nous qui n’étions rien') explain its critical success? Secondly: do these characteristics match those of the 'new' historical novel? 'New' historical novels are here understood as well-documented, complex, and intertextual works that started to appear in the 1980s and tend to break away from the tradition of historical novels based on bewildering action and detailed descriptions, often written in plain language. A general finding is that the appreciations of the juries of two important English-language literary prizes in Canada, as well as many reviews published in different journals and magazines, mention that the book’s complexity and the reflections it prompts are two major positive aspects of the novel. As for the writing itself, whereas Thien’s style has been deemed 'simple,' consistent with traditional historical novels, Leroux’s version does not appear to be as accessible. Nevertheless, it was lauded by critics and the Governor General’s Literary Awards jury. It is worth asking if this more formal and literary style was not seen as an additional strength by the French institution and reviewers. A brief analysis of fiction works winning major prizes in Canada in the years prior to and following 'Do Not Say We Have Nothing' has also been conducted and seems to indicate that historical novels tend to win more prizes in English Canada than in French Canada.

Peopling the English colonies in North America was of great importance. The English adopted many strategies to attract immigrants because they needed big numbers of workers to maintain their plantations and their presence in the new continent. This paper deals with the influence of the economic conditions of the British North American colonies in the shaping of their immigration policy. Usually, the focus is on the impact of immigration on the economy of a given society; however, the present work tries to investigate the role that the economy of the colonies played in molding the colonists’ policies towards the attraction of immigrants. The major issue of the paper is centered on the factors that influenced the colonial strategy towards immigration. The work suggests that the colonists’ economics played a key role in drawing the basis of the colonies’ immigration policy).

The present paper tackles a disambiguation of the terms collaboration and cooperation from a social perspective. The clarification begins by an etymological investigation into the origin of the two terms. Another attempt is made to maintain the comparison by introducing different views exposed in the available comparative sources then stating, analyzing definitions that concentrate on the differences, and others that address the analogy of the two notions. The current endeavor concludes by highlighting the major differences between the two components of the current paper while aspiring for completion by other studies that will develop and extend it to the field of foreign language learning.

This paper focuses on the ideologies surrounding language that are produced by a cohort of students in their first year at a South African university, in order to investigate how dominant power- discourses are reproduced. An assignment asking students to relate their language histories reveals strong language ideologies relating to South Africa’s official, and not-so-official, languages. These ideologies are surfaced through a form of critical discourse analysis, undertaken using NVivo software. The paper argues that the students’ ideologies are influenced by discourses such as language hierarchies and what Mignolo (2005) calls ‘coloniality’. Language attitudes on the other hand, reflect students’ strong identification with their home languages, and the effects of English dominance are felt at various levels.

This paper describes and analyses the phenomenon of Code-Switching as practiced by Algerian Kabyle speakers living in Oran. The aim behind the present investigation is to explore the attitudes of Kabyle speakers towards Code-switching (CS), and examines the factors that determine language choice and direct Code-switching. It should be noted that Kabyle speakers represent a minority group in Oran. This minority group uses a variety of Berber that is unintelligible with the varieties that are used by the Algerian Arabic speakers in the city of Oran. The contact between Kabyle, Algerian Arabic and French in the minority speakers listed above triggers contact phenomena such as code switching. The data on which this paper is based consists of a questionnaire made of three sections administered to a group of Berberophones in order to see whether they hold favorable or unfavorable attitudes towards the phenomenon of code-switching.

Diagnosing the Difficulties of Writing a Scientific Paper in the Field of Technical Sciences Writing a scientific paper is a process divided into three phases, each consisting of several steps: understanding, preparation and elaboration. The university teacher who is called upon to translate specialized texts should always strive to take responsibility and improve basic knowledge of the language (or languages) of specialty in which he is called to exercise his jurisdiction in the areas he has invested, and to pass it on to his students to prepare them for specialized technical reading and writing. One need only shows the students how to conduct a literature search effectively and how to use it profitably. No one can properly translate an academic paper from or to a specific language without first learning the target language; in particular, the vocabulary, which reveals both the knowledge and the basic knowledge of the subject and is even a starting point of any knowledge of the development process, and yet it is the central component of any knowledge representation. The writer of a scientific paper must take the necessary step back to analyze his own practice of writing, because one must know how to write and even write precisely and objectively. For this he must read and know how to read. Understanding what one reads depends on one's ability to decipher the linguistic signs and interpret their meaning. In order to be able to transfer knowledge related to reading, writing and translation of academic works, the teachers themselves must first acquire these skills. If the teaching of general translation comes to imparting know-how, then teaching for the acquisition of technical languages is reduced to a way of communicating this knowledge. To be more precise, it learning, recognizing what to learn, and learning how to learn. The teaching of technical languages necessarily requires the design of a pedagogy or an original learning model. The purpose of this paper is to show the importance of mastering the language skills with the appropriate specialized terminology and the need for teaching writing in order to obtain a valid scientific work. This article is supplemented by a diagnosis of the most common problems in writing scientific papers of master's and PhD students and lecturers who face various problems in communicating and presenting the results of their research.

The current research paper aims at shedding light on self-translation within the Arabic contemporary context, hence delving into a valuable research on the subject which is still not often tackled. This paper provides insight into the self-translation practice of Arab authors who have resorted to such atypical activity. The Algerian context will be given particular importance in order to define the circumstances and reasons that motivated some contemporary Algerian authors to translate their own writings and to embark on this highly challenging endeavor. Thus, our study will put the spotlight on the definition of the concept of self-translation, a brief overview of Arabic literature devoted to it, plus a typology of self-translation and the motives that invigorated this practice. We will then try - through the examination of some Arab self-translation experiences - to identify the characteristics of this practice within the Arab context, and thereby understand the points of divergence that distinguish the Algerian experience from that of other Arab authors, as well as the points of convergence on which these different practices come together.

Multi-Word Expressionsand Fixed Phrases According to Harald Burger, fixed phrases are defined as less fixed phraseologisms compared to the topical formulas (Burger, 2007:37). Fixed phrases include most, but also the most well-known, categories in the phraseological field, such as short forms, which are considered the shortest phraseologisms and usually appear as one-word lexemes such as "Metze", twin formulas consisting of two words of the same part of speech such as Ach and Krach , idioms such as blaming someone, proverbial idioms defined as incomplete but meaningful statements, winged words such as the tree of knowledge (Bible) and if God did not exist, one would have to invent him (Voltaire), proverbs (Wellerisms), the anonymous proverbs are formulated in a funny and ironic way, e.g. All beginnings are difficult, said the thief, then he stole an anvil. This paper focuses multi-word expressions and fixed phrases from a theoretical perspective. It touches upon as twin formulas, idioms, proverbial sayings and winged words, et explores a set of properties characterizing such structures, among which arbitrarily prominent co-occurrence, or collocation as a particular feature, discontinuity, and non-compositionality. Due to this variablility, there would be a need for classification. A set of characteristic features have been established in this paper for classificatory purposes.

The Notion of Corpus in Contrastive Language Studies: Choices, tools and exploitation Since past decades, Contrastive Linguistics is in search of ways for its development. Such a situation results from the fact that the scientific context nowadays is overwhelmed with the advent of new disciplines; is highly saturated by needs for interdisciplinarity; and it imposes the search of paths which have to serve as guide for forthcoming studies. As far as Contrastive Linguistics is concerned, the ways leading to its development are methodological, theoretical, and epistemological in nature. Regarding this wide scope, this study mainly focusses on the methodological aspect of the discipline. Clearly, this paper examines the notion of “Corpus” within the field of Linguistics in general and Contrastive Linguistics in particular. As a new field of study, Contrastive Linguistics needs to be grounded on solid methodological foundations as well. First of all, it delves into addressing issues of methodological tools used while contrasting languages; then, it examines the issue of corpus selection for a specific study; and finally, it proposes ways for selecting and treating data which are often overlooked by professionals and students alike. To undertake the study hereof, it resorted to the Taxonomy approach in Natural Sciences elaborated by Carl Von Linné, Candole, Charles Darwin, Willi Hennig. The use of this methodological approach purposes at providing clear definitions of terms surrounding the notion of “Corpus”; at describing the various types of corpora, at underscoring their internal organisation; and at casting light on the useful tools for the constitution of a special kind of corpus relevant for studies in Contrastive Linguistics.The tasks mentioned earlier will provide a good grasp of how the notion of “corpus” is apprehended within the framework of contrastive analysis. This work shall equally equip young scholars looking forward to specialising in this highly technical scientific niche with abilities to better find markers in a methodology of proper and full selection, constitution and exploitation of a corpus in contrastive linguistics.

This paper investigates the translation strategies used while translating Sia’s lyrics intitled Unstoppable into French. It aims at identifying the translation strategies used while translating the selected lyrics into French in order to determine the most suitable strategies for lyrics translation on the one hand and provide a new interpretation for the selected lyrics on the other hand. The theories that underpin this work are Levefere (1975)’s strategies of poetry translation and Baker (1992)’s strategies for non-equivalence at word level. A mixed method has helped the researcher identify and analyze the translation strategies used in the French version of the selected lyrics. The study reveals different proportions of translation strategies: metrical translation 42%, interpretation 38%, rhymed translation 8%, phonemic translation 8% and literal translation 4% following Levefere (1975)’ theory on the one hand. On the other hand, the study reveals following Baker (1992)’s theory, paraphrase using related words 58%, paraphrase using unrelated words 25% and omission 17%. It has been observed that metrical translation strategy is the most suitable for song translation since the translator needs to respect not only the original meter and rhythm but also the melody. This explains the high use of metrical translation strategy. The strategy of interpretation helps the translator create new forms in the target language basing on her own understandings, cultures and styles for the purpose of conveying adapted meanings from the original ones.

Writing as a Metaphor for Translation in the Algerian Literary Field This article seeks to explore the translation paradigm in the production of Algerian novels. It is not about considering translation from the usual and traditional categories that tend to approach it from the perspective of a dichotomous relationship between " source language" and "target language". In the context of Maghrebian and, in particular, Algerian literary creation, the act of translation does not relate to issues of comparison between the original and its translation(s). Instead, this paper will attempt to account for “writing” as a translation that does not have an original work as a reference. We, therefore, intend to present some of Mohammed Dib's most interesting texts in the contemporary Algerian literary field to better understand this phenomenon. We will particularly insist on ‘Neiges de Marbre’ and ‘L'Arbres à Dires’. Based on the premise that the theories of reception mainly focus on the modalities of reading, setting aside the implication of a translation process, and that, on the other hand, the theories of translation give very little interest to the creative aspect of translation, it seems important to us to dig into / go through / contrast and correlate/ throw light on the different approaches and perspectives, to reach a better understanding of the specific role of translation in the creation and reading of the Maghrebian text and, above all, of its importance in the redefinition of the poetics, symbolic and ideological aspects of the text. This being so, one cannot forget - let alone minimize - the anthropo-historical and poetic depth of the Algerian (and more generally Maghrebian) literary adventure. In fact, as previously mentioned, the crossbreeding of languages and imaginaries is a process that goes back very deep into the collective history of North African communities. Given this essential dimension, it can be said that Algerian literatures illustrate, in a particularly original way, a set of phenomena common to all artistic creation, whatever the cultural area or epoch. In a way or another, for the writer, it has always been about creating a new language (one’s “own language”) from and within the one(s) in which he/she has been shaped since childhood.

Listen to those silences: translating, communicating and reflecting Entendez-vous dans les montagnes…by Maïssa Bey, in Italian and English Maïssa Bey is a French-speaking Algerian writer whose first works were published in the 1990s, during the "black decade" of the civil war that ravaged Algeria. Algerian people, especially women, of whom the author is an integral part, are the protagonists of her stories and novels that aim to break the silences and censorship, to explore the small stories hidden behind the big story. This article aims to analyse the Italian and English translations of Entendez-vous dans les montagnes..., a novel published in France in 2002 and in Algeria in 2007. The Italian translation, published by Astarte in 2020, is by Barbara Sommovigo, who had already translated Bey’s Puisque mon coeur est mort in 2013, initiating an almost paradigmatic author-translator relationship that allows for an effective approach to a short but complex text like Entendez- vous dans les montagnes... The English translation is by the American Erin Lamm, and is the result of her doctoral thesis, with a clearly more academic intention than the Italian text, whose publishing house Astarte aims to communicate voices from the shores of the Mediterranean. In fact, Bey's work travels between two languages and therefore between two cultures, the French and the Algerian, which intersect in the pages of the story like the lives of the three protagonists. An Algerian woman, an elderly Frenchman and Marie, a young blond woman, meet in the same compartment of a train to evoke memories and thoughts, which lead them to the past and recent history of Algeria, through painful pages among which is evoked the loss of the author's father, killed in 1957 by French soldiers. It is a difficult task for the translators to render this multiplicity of themes and languages from the title: for a French-speaking reader, there is a strong reference to both a line from the Marseillaise and an Algerian patriotic song (Min Djibalina). The Italian title is therefore changed to Dietro quei silenzi…, while the English title is purely literal, Do You Hear in the Mountains... This is just one of the translation choices that will be analysed in this paper, in which the comparison between the strategies and techniques used in the two translation works will be constant, creating a perpetual dialogue with the original text, in the image of the friendship that now exists between the author Maïssa Bey and the two translators.

his paper is concerned with literary and postcolonial facets of resistance and identity negotiation as concepts through which to approach representations of postcolonial conflicts in contemporary Arab-American women’s writings. These concepts operate at various levels of narratives and open new ways for remembering, narrating, and reading experiences via problematizing the discourses of Arab women’s experiences in diaspora. This paper aims to posit negotiation as a concept of writing and reading which actively engages events, discourses which implies pluralistic conception of social, political, and cultural agency. More specifically, the study explores the ways in which novelists descending from Arab origins, Diana Abu-Jaber and Laila Halaby, deploy negotiation and resistance as tools for aesthetic and socio-political engagement in postcolonial narratives to escape hegemonization. It is a reflection on the notion of hybrid identities and varied cultural provenance of non-native writings. Through its negotiated and interdisciplinary approach to narratives of alienation along with multi-consciousness of identity, this paper does not only engage with multiple discourses derived from postcolonial studies. It also intervenes into the conceptions of nation, memory, and accountability.

General considerations for developing speaking skills In recent years, the development of communication skills has been recognized as a central goal of foreign language teaching (FU). This tendency was accentuated in the course of so-called communicative didactics in newer DaF syllabuses, curricula and textbooks. For the learner, however, the learning objective “oral communication” remains an existing challenge in German lessons, especially since speaking and listening skills are closely linked. Both together determine the degree of verbal ability to act, i.e. the "communicative competence". Furthermore, the development of speaking skills relates to other skills. Listening and speaking in class are the two actions that should be realized through communication; Speaking and writing are two productive skills, they appear in the classroom as mediators and target activities. Tharough this paper, it is clearly stated that the speaking skill has an important place in methods of teaching a foreign language, especially mediation. Speaking alone is not enough, the teacher should contribute other sub-skills to promote speaking skills. The use of the media serves as an opportunity to develop speaking skills among students. Also, social and exercise forms should also be used in speaking. Henceforth, learning speaking is a target in foreign language classroom situations which should take into consideration. The acquisition of such a skill should be emphasized through media use. Some factors contribute to the development of oral competence, namely social and other typology activities which were discussed in this research paper.

The Contribution of Reading to the Written Production In our modern society, writing occupies a prominent place in Arabic first and then in FFL. In fact, writing serves us in our daily lives: shopping list, email writing, exam, writing, copy, of a cooking recipe, photo caption, invitation. As the common base reminds us (Ministry of Education), writing and reading conditions access to all areas of knowledge and the acquisition of all skills. The mastery of writing, reading and writing has become so essential. The importance given to writing and more specifically to writing, is due in particular to the fact that it is given a plurality of functions. Indeed, if today writing has a dominant function of communication, it also allows the memory conservation (to help the memory or the memorization, to prevent forgetfulness, to overcome the distraction). It meets the needs of the organization of administrative and commercial exchanges (displays, price lists), it is an important vector of cognitive, epistemological and technological development: it makes it possible to develop reflexive capacities by distancing reality and action, and directs by genres or types of writing, the way of perceiving, thinking and structuring the surrounding world as well as the human beings. Thus, making a diagram on the operation of an electric light bulb or developing a table ordering the words according to their nature (determiner, noun, adjective, etc.,) has a strong impact on the apprehension and understanding of these phenomena. Writing plays a major role in the access to knowledge, culture and the profession, insofar as a significant part of knowledge and culture is transmitted via writing and that many professional gestures involve writing (document to fill out, fax or e-mail to send, notices to go through) we can add that writing allows self- expression in different ways. As a result, reading has a positive influence on writing and especially in a FFL teaching-learning situation because most literary genres encountered in reading can be the starting point for a writing project (tale, story of origins, legends, fiction science, detective story, travelogue, fable, play …). The role of the teacher consists in leading his learners to production by gradually relying on the texts read by inviting learners to extend or complete a text or to transform it into a narrative or theatrical text. As he can lead them to write a dialogue or a description intended to fit into a story or to extend it. In this sense, imitation, diversion are the bases of the work of writing, with reference to literary texts. The use of prototypes must be permanent, either to identify characteristics likely to guide the implementation of the project or to answer questions. Any writing project can be extended by an editing project of the completed text; this is an opportunity for students to learn about the production of a text. On the basis of tehse facts, we can say that writing requires reading and comprehension of the written words. In fact, reading and writing are systematically linked, as more than one researcher has stated, whether in didactics or in the science of education. Today the scientific study of writing, whether working on writers' manuscripts or psychological analyzes has shown the importance of reviewing the text and making changes. Having permission to strike out on papers does not exempt the writer from thinking before writing: these are not the same modifications that take place depending on whether the text is forged in thought or rewritten under the influence of literary research, or erasures are considered as a trace of the creative journey, the official instructions in the syllabus highlight rewriting to propose the remodeling of the text to reproduce it, possibly its reorganization, which leads us to think that a reflection on writing seems obligatory and in particular at university in the module of the writing. However, the syllabus and official texts quite clearly distinguish writing as an activity and training aqdequate to linguistic production and security in space and time. In this regard, the reflection and practice of the written production activity could be divided into four periods which correspond to four ways of considering learning to write and to four denominations of students’ writing: writing, written expression, writing production and rewriting. These modalities are not mutually exclusive in most classes, several of them. This paper focuses on these issues with a particular emphasis on the correclation reading- wrinting.

The field of teaching has witnessed the elaboration of bounteous approaches and methods, eached influenced by a learnig theory and a teaching theory. The task-based approach is an example of these innovations in teaching in general and English language teaching in particular. With its three-phase procedure, pre-task, task and post-task phases, the task-based approach fits project- based learning and is consistent with the competency-based approach. This paper aims to popularise the use of the task-based learning as an approach in ELT classrooms. The focus will be also on the way teachers switch from theory to practice keeping the same pedagogical objectives. The paper sheds light on the main phases of the task-based learning approach, its advantages if used with students having different abilities and how to evaluate their tasks.

The effect of sequentiality in Algerian bilingual speech: Some productive conversational processes in mixed codes This paper deals with some conversational strategies operating in bilingual speech as illustrated in some occurrences drawn from Algerian Arabic/French Code-Switching in the two directions. The idea that shapes this paper is mainly based on Alfonzetti assumption viewing Code- Switching (CS) as a contextualization strategy, independently from grammatical and macro- sociolinguistic contexts. In this sense, the contrast created by CS will be exploited by bilingual speakers to mark constant changes of footing. Henceforth, these theoretical conceptions will be supported by empirical evidence drawn from the analysis of some instances of CS characterizing the bilingual speech of some Algerian students in different settings. Furthermore, our attention will be directed mainly towards the conversational and pragmatic significance of code-alternations. Our reflection on CS led us to implement two theoretical models, the markedness theory and the conversational model. According to the first model, CS can respond to several motivations: it can be part of a normative framework characterized by the marking of linguistic choices in relation to a previously predefined context, it targets in certain cases the communicative function, and the negotiation of social distance in other cases. We concluded that the social motivations set up in the theory of negotiation in relevance to the interlocutors’ roles explain only partially the choices of the languages in interaction because they reduce the linguistic behaviors of bilingual speakers to a contextual determinism which completely denies their role in the code selection. The conversational analysis of CS, on the other hand, allowed us to identify the functions of CS isntances and their communicative relevance, even if they are socially non-significant. In this perspective, CS is considered as a linguistic resource in the interactive construction of the bilingual speakers’ discourses, it largely depends on the sequential structure of their verbal exchanges as well as their participation. We insist on the fact that the structural conversational dimension is sufficiently independent of the morphosyntactic rules and social norms associated with the alternating codes, turns out to be relevant in a given conversational episode. Indeed, what is important in this conversational perception of CS is the notion of contrast generated by the juxtaposition of the two codes within the same discourse. However, it seems impossible to us to assign a semantic, or even a symbolic, value to each Switch. In this regard, we have proposed a diagram with the aim of explaining the fluidity of the transition from French to Arabic, and vice versa, in the bilingual speech of our informants by putting them at the center of all the underlying processes relevant to bilinagual speech production.

The international commercial terms are officially known as Incoterms. These trade rules, established by ICC (the International Chamber of Commerce) are written and pronounced in English. Mastering their use is necessary to circumvent any confusion in the meaning, and to avoid any misunderstanding between the contracting parties. These incoterms are universally agreed upon, except for the United States where a difference in their meaning is noticed, mainly the incoterm FOB (Free on Board). Although they are mandated as multinational business terms, they do not regulate the transfer of ownership of the merchandise nor the sale price. Despite the difference in their meanings, it should be noted that they constitute broad lines for commercial exchanges between countries. Some of their advantages are: The distribution of costs related to export and import, the distribution of documents between the seller and the buyer, and the conditions for the delivery of goods. They are stated to enable trading partners to reach markets throughout the world. To apply incoterms for overseas shipment, maritime transport companies need to make sure that their staff understand them clearly to avoid any costly mistakes in the process of transactions. Collaboration with educational institutions and training courses are required. Both current and future Algerian professionals in the field need to be assisted on how to use incoterms. This research paper deals with the use of shipping incoterms when training the students, who are specialized in maritime trade, for a future profession as a maritime leader or dealer. As the incoterms are basically written and pronounced in English, the use of a translating method, that allows them to identify and understand the meaning of linguistic terms, is required. Bearing in mind the fact that artificial intelligence covers a wide range of outputs nowadays, it has been necessary to ask the following question: Could the T M (translation machine) provide the students a faithful translation of incoterms? In an attempt to answer this question, the following hypotheses were formulated: Teaching EOP (English for occupational purposes) in the Algerian maritime sector focuses on translating the international commercial terms. Machine translation provides a faithful meaning of words and sentences. As the software performs translation for a specific language or domain, it produces a high-quality output. To check these hypotheses, it is essential to go through the MT translation method for it is mostly used by the learners as it is free from any charges. The MT (Machine Translation) method is what a computer program produces. To fulfil a translation, the text is simply entered or pasted in and the languages are selected. Google Translation is a well-known example of this type of translation. The use of this software enables the students to substitute mechanically and quickly words from one language to another. It exempts them from any human linguistic intervention. Though it provides free and instant translations, it produces incoherent wording. The present study reveals that different electronic sites do not give the same translation for the incoterm FOB. One way of evaluating the quality of machine translation is when the human translator reviews the output to ensure that it is linguistically correct. This review is referred to as the post-editing machine translation. When adopting this method, a good quality of translation is achieved; grammatical errors are fixed, unclear and confusing wording and mistranslations are cleared up.

In the modern world, Globalization, Colonialism, Technology, Politics and Economy have changed many cultural identities and contributed to the appearance of multilingual literature. Code-Switching could occur in different institutional languages, slangs, dialects, and sociolects; so, translators should find strategies to tackle this literary phenomenon and preserve the source text identity. But how could the translator (who is a reader and a transmitter at the same time) deal with these types of literary texts? And how could he/she produce a target multilingual text that preserves the identity and the magic expressed in the source text? The multilingual text is a specific genre of literature which combines two or more languages in the desire to express a multilingual and multicultural reality inherent to a particular group of individuals. Multilingual Literature appeared for the first time during the Middle Ages, but it was called originally Macaronic literature. The term 'Macaronic' is commonly used to indicate any hybrid language that mixes the vernacular with Latin. This mixture was frequent during the Middle Ages in all romance literature. Macaronic literature is therefore a phenomenon that represents the cultivated, highly educated and sophisticated categories of society like academics, novelists and poets. However, translators who used to identify the translation as an inter-linguistic transfer between two formal systems (source and target institutional languages) have faced obstacles in working with multilingual texts in which the author uses code-switching as an alternative to reflect the unfair categorization of people and registers in modern societies). This paper aims to examine the different strategies proposed by Venuti, Cincotta, Bojanin, Qoates and other scholars to transfer the code-switching device in the literary texts; and eventually proposes an integrated strategy that will preserve the code-switching aspect in the translation process, namely in Farah CHAMMA’s poem ‘I am No Palestinian’. Our strategy aims at creating such equilibrium between the translator’s creativity and identity losses, which will allow the target reader to be an active participant in the understanding process and revealing the otherness of the source text. The poem of Farah CHAMMA is chosen as a case study in this research, because it reflects the human being struggle for independence and freedom. However, the independence in this context does not mean the liberation from the colonizer who enters with his armed forces and military weapons to your country, the colonizer nowadays enters your brain trough globalization, migration, media, internet, and all these factors contributed to the fusion of the traditional notion of identities. The Islamic Arabic identity is contaminated by the French, English, Spanish, German, Italian, Christian and Jewish identities due to this kind of colonialism which destroys all the identity and patriotism fundamentals such as: ethics, religion, thought, and of course language. This is why Farrah writes in her poem that she had lost her language and all the Arabic Palestinian identity that comes with, she masters many foreign languages but her mother tongue. She thinks, acts and does like the British, the French, The Portuguese poets and artists do, but she just knows little tales about the Palestinian poet Ziad RAFFIF who defends the Palestinian issue in his literary works. So, the poet Farah Chamma used the multilingualism in her poetry to draw a picture of the struggle that exists within herself, and to show us how a language can embody an identity with all its features. The multiplicity of identities may create a new identity for the writer of the source text. Thus, the translator will not deal anymore with all the different cultures that belong to the languages of the text, but he must instead, discover the new identity of this community that uses this kind of speech system i.e., the Code-Switching system.

This current paper deals with some principles on the practice of the receptive and the productive skills in teaching translation. The integration of the four skills is based on two basic elements. The first is based on the language whereas the second covers the major points in the application of the skills. Thus, our interest in this paper takes, s into account the focus on the language. We try to outline the basic linguistic aspects such as grammar, function, vocabulary and pronunciation. Moreover, we focus on the integration of the receptive and the productive skills during translation process. So, to what extent can a successful methodology be fruitful and helpful in facilitating the task in the application of the four skills adequately?