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Two types of diagnostic reading tests are described--tests of phonics skills and tests of work-study or critical reading ability. The following criteria for evaluating these tests are suggested: (1) an analysis of the methods used in measuring the component skills and the validity of subscores in designating areas for remedial instruction (the user must know what skills the pupil is expected to demonstrate), (2) an analysis of the reliability coefficients of the subscores (these must be above .90 for individual use), and (3) an analysis of the intercorrelations among subtests (these must be below .65 to warrant differential diagnosis). Because diagnostic tests are used primarily as a means of intra-individual diagnosis, accompanying test norms are not mandatory. The necessity of utilizing knowledge of a child's intelligence scores, scholastic ability, listening comprehension, and arithmetic computation, as well as his diagnostic test scores in planning a remedial program, is emphasized. (BS)

Close reading requires students to unpack the implicit relationships within and across sentences. The authors discuss three potential barriers to comprehension embedded within text that they have seen with their own students and with the teachers they have worked with: anaphoric relationships, connectives, and appositives. The authors begin each section with a vignette that provides an example of the problem area and a definition of each, with supporting research. The authors then conclude each section with strategies for teaching anaphora, connectives, and appositives.

Close reading of poetry scaffolds readers and writers as they come to understand the form and function of poetry and transfer those skills to writing. In this teaching tip, the authors explain a way in which primary teachers can introduce close reading and move young students toward composing and presenting poetry.

The term close reading often conjures up an image of a teacher asking students several scripted questions that encourage them to reread and critically examine a text. The teacher then evaluates the students' responses. In this article, the authors offer another approach to close reading—one that places students' text-dependent questions front and center as they collaboratively discuss the text and construct meaning. The authors analyze transcript excerpts from small-group discussions of narrative and informational texts to demonstrate elementary students' abilities to ask and answer their own text-dependent questions as they engage in close reading.

The authors offer a new perspective on close reading that uses a range of multimodal texts to capitalize on the visual nature of contemporary society and to support literacy within the academic disciplines. Specifically, a qualitative study explored teachers' perspectives on the use of Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS), a practice borrowed from museum educators that replicates close reading processes, to support literacy learning within subject areas. The analysis revealed teachers' beliefs that VTS supported students' academic vocabulary development and accountable talk. In addition, the teachers felt that VTS created a safe environment for all students to participate, thus providing access to the curriculum. The authors argue that teachers can adapt VTS to help students meet the needs of 21st century communication modes as they analyze and create print and nonprint texts in different forms of media.

In this article we discuss the differences between close reading in the primary grades and upper elementary grades. We focus on text selection, initial reading. repeated reading, annotation, text-based discussions, and responding to texts.

As teachers and leaders move forward in implementing the Common Core State Standards within classrooms across 46 states, it is essential to consider the question of what knowledge is included in the English Language Arts Standards, and what knowledge is not present. The authors of the Common Core delineate an increasingly complex body of knowledge across K-5 to support their vision of developing engaged and critical readers. However, missing in this document are the cognitive and comprehension strategies that expert readers use to construct meaning of text. In this article, we review the extensive body of research supporting explicit comprehension strategy instruction, and then illustrate the limited alignment between this knowledge base and the concepts articulated within the Common Core. Implications for instruction and planning are discussed in conclusion.

This article introduces a framework designed to improve students' awareness of the need to critically evaluate websites as sources of information and to improve their skill at doing so. The framework, called the WWWDOTframework, encourages students to think about at least six dimensions when evaluating a website: (1) Who wrote this and what credentials do they have? (2) Why was it written? (3) When was it written and updated? (4) Does this help meet my needs? (5) Organization of website; (6) To do list for the future. In an experimental study, fourth- and fifth-grade students who were taught this framework became more aware than control group students of the need to evaluate information on the Internet for credibility and were better able to evaluate the trustworthiness of websites on multiple dimensions. This article describes the framework and how it can be taught through a series of four 30-minute lessons. Suggestions and materials for teaching are provided.

As the texts readers encounter in and out of school grow in complexity, the strategies that teachers demonstrate and encourage students to employ need to expand to accommodate the changing nature of these texts. In this article, the authors present a three-part framework for utilizing historical fiction picturebooks as instructional resources. First they share various strategies for previewing a text, and calling students’ attention to the visual, textual and design elements of historical fiction picturebooks. Second, various strategies are presented for moving beyond noticing to strategies for interpreting what has been presented in the visual and verbal text. Third, they suggest several strategies for moving beyond interpretation to develop readers’ ability to critically analyze the historical perspectives and contexts of these texts. In this article, the authors guide readers through the reading of two historical fiction picturebooks while modeling how to employ strategies for reading multimodal texts.

If reading fluency contributes to reading comprehension, then highly fluent readers should be expected to perform well in comprehension when reading materials are at their current grade level. The authors identified 171 elementary, middle, and secondary students who had been labeled by parents and teachers as strong readers and assessed as highly fluent readers. All students were given two narrative passages from the Critical Reading Inventory to assess their ability to react and respond to the text, as well as their ability to remember it. More than one third of the sample was classified as struggling comprehenders and another one third demonstrated instructional needs. The authors concluded that instructing children in fluency as distinct from comprehension is a serious oversimplification of a delicate and complex interaction. إذا ساهمت المرونة القرائية في استيعاب القراءة فينبغي أن نتوقع من القراء المتفوقين أداء قرائيا جيدا في استيعاب مواد قرائية على مستواهم الدراسي. وقد حدد المؤلفون 171 طالب من المدارس الابتدائية والإعدادية والثانوية كانوا قد تعينوا من والديهم ومعلميهم كقراء قويين وقد تقيموا كقراء يتمتعون بمستوى عال من المرونة القرائية. وقد تم إعطاء جميع الطلاب نصين حواريين من بيان القراءة النقدية المفصل لتقييم مقدرتهم على الرد والإجابة على النص وكذلك مقدرتهم على تذكر النص. وأكثر من ثلث العينة قد اندرج تحت صنف مواجهين صعوبات في الاستيعاب وثلث آخر أظهر حاجات تعليمية. وقد توصل المؤلفون إلى نتيجة أن تمييز تعليم المرونة القرائية للأطفال عن الاستيعاب هو تبسيط للغاية لتفاعل معقد وهش. 如果流畅阅读能有助于阅读理解的话，那么具有高度阅读流畅能力的阅读者，在阅读他们所就读年级的读物时，便会有预期的良好阅读理解表现。本文作者确认了 171名小学、初中和高中学生，他们都被家长与教师认为是能力高的阅读者，亦是被考评为具有高度阅读流畅能力的阅读者。这些学生全部接受一项阅读理解能力测试，阅读两篇选自《批判性阅读能力测验》的叙述式文章，并回答评估他们对文章内容的反应能力、回应能力，以及记忆能力的问题。在这个研究样本中，超过三分之一的学生被测定为有阅读理解困难，而另外三分之一则有阅读理解教学的需要。本文作者在结论中指出，把儿童阅读流畅度与阅读理解作为两种截然不同的能力训练，是严重地和过分地简单化了两者之间的微妙和复杂互动关系。 Si la vitesse de lecture contribue a la comprehension de la lecture, alors on devrait s'attendre a ce que les lecteurs tres rapides aient de bons resultats en comprehension quand ce qu'ils ont a lire correspond a leur niveau d'etudes. Les auteurs ont retenu 171 eleves d'ecole elementaire, de college et de lycee que leurs parents et leurs professeurs consideraient comme de bons lecteurs et qui avaient ete evalues comme des lecteurs tres rapides. Tous les eleves ont recu deux passages d'un texte narratif provenant de l'Inventaire de lecture critique afin d'evaluer leur capacite a reagir et a repondre au texte, ainsi que leur capacite a le memoriser. Plus d'un tiers de l'echantillon a ete classe comme ayant des difficultes de comprehension et un autre tiers avait besoin d'une aide pedagogique. Les auteurs ont conclu qu'entrainer les eleves a lire plus vite independamment de la comprehension consiste a simplifier a l'extreme une interaction delicate et complexe. Если беглость чтения способствует пониманию прочитанного, тогда от очень бегло читающих учеников можно ожидать хорошего понимания материалов, рассчитанных на их возрастную группу. Авторы статьи выбрали 171 ученика начальных, средних и старших классов, которых родители и учителя считают сильными читателями с высокой скоростью чтения. Всем им дали по два отрывка повествовательного текста из «Списка критического чтения», чтобы оценить их способность реагировать на текст и запоминать содержание прочитанного. Оказалось, что более одной трети учащихся из всей выборки испытывают трудности с пониманием прочитанного, а еще одна треть нуждается в дополнительном обучении. Авторы делают вывод, что обучение детей беглому чтению в отрыве от понимания прочитанного – серьезное упрощение тонкого и сложного процесса взаимодействия с печатным словом. Si la fluidez en la lectura contribuye a la comprension de la lectura, entonces se espera que lectores de gran fluidez comprendan bien al leer materias a su nivel. Los autores identificaron 171 estudiantes de primaria, intermedia y secundaria que habian sido calificados por sus padres o maestros como buenos lectores y evaluados como lectores fluyentes. Cada estudiante recibio dos selecciones narrativas de Critical Reading Inventory (Inventario de Lecturas Criticas) para asesorar su habilidad de reaccionar y responder al texto, al igual que su capacidad para recordar. Mas de la tercera parte de la muestra fueron clasificados como lectores que luchan por entender y otra tercera parte demostro necesidad de instruccion. Los autores concluyeron que instruir a los jovenes en fluidez—a diferencia de comprension—es una sobresimplifacion seria de una interaccion delicada y compleja.

This article presents the results of two studies; the first of which offers insight into how three African American boys did and did not utilize a critical literacy stance to interpret texts while the second gives specific suggestions for how teachers might select and use texts in ways that foster students' critical literacy abilities. Results from the first study suggest that the boys enjoyed reading texts that fit their definitions of the world around them. They did not view their ideas as open to question or change, and they seemed to view ideas in texts as either accurate or inaccurate interpretations of the world. Results from the second study suggest that teachers believe there are a number of ways they can use texts to help students question their own ideas, the ideas that dominant society, and the actions that they engage in. تقدم هذه المقالة نتائج دراستين الأولى تقدم النظرة إلى كيف ثلاثة شباب أمريكيين-أفارقة استخدموا أو لم يستخدموا موقف معرفة القراءة والكتابة النقدي كي يفسروا النصوص. أما الدراسة الثانية فتقدم اقتراحات محددة تجاه كيف قد يختار الأساتذة الصوص ويستخدمونها في طرق تنشئ قدرات معرفة القراءة والكتابة لدى الطلاب. وتشير النتائج من الدراسة الأولى إلى أن الشباب استمتعوا بقراءة النصوص التي تناسب تعريفاتهم بالعالم الذي حولهم ولم يروا أفكارهم معرضة للسؤال أو للتحول وعلى ما يبدو أنهم رأوا الأفكار في النصوص كأنها تفسيرات صادقة أو غير صادقة للعالم. وتشير النتائج من الدراسة الثانية إلى أن الأساتذة يعتقدون أن هناك طرق عديدة يستطيعون بها أن يستخدموا النصوص من أجل مساعدة الطلاب في تشكيك أفكارهم الخاصة والأفكار المهيمنة في المجتمع والأنشطة التي يقومون بها. 本文展示两个研究的结果：第一个研究深入了解三名美籍非洲男童在解读篇章时，如何采取或不采取批判式的读写立场。第二个研究为教师提供明确建议，指导他们如何选取和运用教材篇章，以加强学生的批判式读写能力。第一个研究的结果显示：该三名男童喜欢阅读符合他们对自己周遭世界所下的定义的篇章。他们并不认为自己的意见可以接受公开质疑或改变。他们似乎认为文章中所表达的意见，只有正确与不正确的现实世界解读之分。第二个研究的结果显示：教师都相信他们可以运用许多种方法，利用文本教材，指導学生在学生自己的想法、主流社会所采取的想法，和学生自己所采取的行为等方面作质疑问难。 Cet article presente les resultats de deux etudes. La premiere indique comment trois garcons afro-americains utilisent ou n'utilisent pas une position de litteratie critique pour interpreter des textes, tandis que la seconde apporte des suggestions specifiques sur la facon dont les enseignants pourraient selectionner et utiliser les textes de facon a renforcer les competences de litteratie critique des eleves. Les resultats de la premiere etude suggerent que les garcons aiment lire des textes qui correspondent a la definition qu'ils ont du monde. Ils ne considerent pas que leurs idees pourraient etre mises en question ou changees, et pour eux les idees que l'on trouve dans les textes sont des interpretations du monde qui sont exactes ou inexactes. Les resultats de la seconde etude suggerent que les enseignants considerent qu'ils peuvent utiliser les textes de differentes facons pour aider les etudiants a mettre en question leurs propres idees, les idees dominantes dans la societe, et les actions dans lesquelles ils s'engagent. В данной статье представлены результаты двух исследований, в первом из которых авторы изучали поведение трех юных афроамериканцев, которые либо применяли, либо не применяли навыки критической грамотности для интерпретации текстов. Выводы второго исследования дают учителям некоторые предложения по выбору и использованию текстов, развивающих критическую грамотность учащихся. Первое исследование наглядно демонстрирует, что мальчикам нравилось читать тексты, которые соответствуют их собственным представлениям об окружающем мире. Они не были готовы усомниться или изменить свои представления, а тексты делили соответственно на точные или неточные интерпретации действительности. Результаты второго исследования показывают, что учителя располагают целым рядом способов работы с текстом, которые помогают школьникам подвергнуть сомнению как собственные идеи и поступки, так и представления, доминирующие в обществе. Este articulo presenta el resultado de dos estudios. El primero ofrece un discernimiento sobre como tres chicos afroamericanos utilizaron y no utilizaron una postura literaria critica para interpretar textos. El segundo ofrece sugerencias especificas sobre como los maestros podrian seleccionar y usar textos de tal forma que fomenten las competencias literarias criticas de los estudiantes. Los resultados del primer estudio sugieren que a los chicos les gusto leer textos que se acomodan a sus definiciones del mundo que les rodea. No consideraban sus propias ideas cuestionables o cambiables, y parece que veian las ideas en los textos como interpretaciones acertadas o no acertadas del mundo. Los resultados del segundo estudio sugieren que los maestros creen que pueden utilizar textos de varias maneras para ayudarles a los estudiantes a cuestionar sus propias ideas, las ideas que dominan la sociedad, y sus propias acciones.

In the author's experience, a significant source of reading difficulty for many beginning and struggling readers are misconceptions about print concepts so basic teachers assume their students are aware of them. Many children fail to grasp implicit principles of print such as the following: the reader cannot make up the words, the order of letters within a word makes a difference, and each letter in a word must be considered. Using brief vignettes from her work with beginning and struggling readers, the author draws attention to these often-overlooked misconceptions. The author explains how she helped students overcome their faulty understandings by providing “rules” about reading, which enabled them to regulate their own reading.

This article illustrates the development and use of a situated assessment tool in the context of a collaborative (university–school district) literacy reform effort in British Columbia, Canada. The three-year project was focused on improving literacy, including reading comprehension strategy use, among students in grades 4 through 8. It began in the 2002–2003 school year, with approximately 100 teachers and 2,500 students participating. The authors describe development of the Informal Reading Inventory of Strategies (IRIS) to assess students' use of comprehension strategies, including making connections, engaging with the text, active meaning construction, monitoring understanding, analysis and synthesis, and critical reading. They then explain the implementation of the IRIS to support and enhance project goals, including informing teachers' instructional decision making. Based on what they call “on-the-ground, collaborative theorizing,” the authors argue that measures of projects such as the IRIS need to be valid not only in terms of content but also in terms of their consequences and uses in particular settings. Such approaches have the potential to respond to the growing demand for assessment approaches that are sensitive to contexts in which they are used and that support teachers and school administrators as they set their own goals for accountability and improvement in literacy.

This article presents an instructional strategy that helps young students perform critical literacy practices that incorporate democratic ideals. The model outlines a plan to stimulate young people's critical engagement with social justice issues. The model features an actual historical event involving young activists in civil rights. The author attempts to show how young learners can identify with the hopes and aspirations of historical figures their own age. Critical literacy is defined here as a set of literacy practices and civic competencies that help the learner develop awareness that texts represent particular points of view while simultaneously silencing other views. The critical literacy practices developed in this model examine multiple perspectives: finding one's authentic voice, recognizing social barriers and crossing borders of separation, regaining one's identity, and listening and responding to the call of service. Underlying each of these critical practices is the democratic vision of justice and fair play for all people. The purpose of teaching these literacy practices is to help students become critically competent and caring citizens. The practices of critical literacy can be performed by students who are taught in a learning environment that encourages critical analysis of social justice issues, age-appropriate civic responsibilities, and adherence to democratic principles.