Search

This paper explores the gender gap in time allocation in European countries, offering a comparison of the 2000s and the 2010s, along with an explanation of the documented gender gaps, based on social norms and institutional factors. The results show that the gender gap in both paid and unpaid work has decreased in most countries, but with a significant level of cross-country heterogeneity in the size of the gender gaps. More traditional social norms are related to greater gender inequalities in paid and unpaid work, while countries with better family-friendly policies and a greater representation of women in politics and in the labour market exhibit smaller gender inequalities. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of gender gaps in Europe, and attempts to monitor the progress towards the elimination of gender inequalities. Despite that some degree of gender convergence in paid and unpaid work has taken place, there remain inequalities in the distribution of labour in European countries, and possible solutions may be related to social norms and family-friendly policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to construct a financial well-being index and analyze its determinants among adults in Mexico. It employs multiple correspondence analysis, multiple linear regression, and ordinal logistic models created over data from the National Survey on Financial Inclusion 2018. The results confirm that the amount of income and its regularity, education, being a man, married, retired, student or worker contribute to elevating financial well-being. This work adds to the body of knowledge of subjective well-being, a topic slightly studied in Mexico, thus, its originality. The lack of data regarding financial satisfaction or stress is among its main limitations. Nevertheless, our findings can help implement policies and design financial products that propitiate financial well-being and improve the quality of life in Mexico and emerging nations with comparable socioeconomic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we measure the number of years that men and women have been expected to spend in the labour market at age 16 and at age 50 during the period 1986–2016. The objective is twofold. First, we show the change in active years during these three decades, and calculate the gender gap in the time spent in different work statutes (active/inactive, employed/unemployed). Second, we examine the increased prevalence of precarious employment conditions over time. Precarious work is measured through a multidimensional indicator using the Spanish Labour Force Survey. We combined this dataset with registered population data to calculate life expectancy in the labour market, and found that the gender gap in employment has largely reduced due to women's increased activity. Women have gained 13.6 years of employment during the period considered here, while men lost almost 5 years. In addition, precarious forms of working lives have been growing extensively, and have especially affected younger cohorts, drawing a clear trend towards a dual labour market. In addition, women have spent more time in precarious employment than men at all ages, indicating that most of the growth in females' employment has been under precarious job conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines gender differences according to two new indicators in higher education studies. One indicator represents the length of studies beyond the minimum requirement and the other represents a harmonised graduation mark. We explore these indicators in a statistical framework that consists of Survival analysis Kaplan–Meier methods, Accelerated Failure Time models, Survival Trees, Multivariate Regression Trees and a modified Gender Parity Index. This unique combination of statistical methods allows both to analyse data involving censoring and to incorporate other explanatory variables in the analysis. The approaches were applied to data taken from a Greek and an Italian University and provide evidence that the survival analysis is a useful tool for exploring gender gaps in higher education while the Accelerated Failure Time model permits the investigation of how other variables can influence the gaps. The data mining techniques of survival trees and multivariate regression trees allows for the importance of such influencing variables to be measured and illustrates these in a simple to view tree structure. The Multivariate Regression Tree approach allows us to consider more than one continuous outcome variable so we were able to consider the two proposed indicators simultaneously. Interesting insights from this analysis are that gender has an important role and women outperform regarding these new indicators by taking less length of studies, less graduation time with higher performance, controlling also for other student characteristics. The modified gender parity index enriched the results in all stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To measure the adequacy of pension systems in the world, one of the most commonly used indicators is the Replacement Rate. Our work is based on the statement that this indicator is imperfect itself to measure adequacy because it does not collect the multiple dimensions that it involves while being a static measurement. Consequently and based on the data provided by “The 2015 Pension Adequacy Report: current and future income adequacy in old age in the European Union” of the European Commission, in this paper we select a set of variables that are considered representative to measure the adequacy of pension systems from a dynamic and multidimensional perspective, and based on them, a synthetic adequacy indicator is developed. This indicator aims to compare European pension systems from the adequacy objective and to carry out continuous monitoring of the effects that the reform processes may have on the adequacy of pensions. The analysis is completed with the calculation of a gender indicator on pension adequacy for the European Union (EU-28) which identifies the still existing gap between men and women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research suggests an under-representation of women among teleworkers before the Covid-19 pandemic. However, we know little about whether such a gender gap was substantial, and whether it could be explained by occupational gender segregation. We explore whether a gender gap in regularly teleworking existed in the EU-28 and analyse its possible constituents, drawing on data from the European Working Conditions Survey 2015. To form a group of potential teleworkers, the analytical sample was restricted to employees who made use of information and communication technology (N ≈ 16,000). Country fixed effects regression and multilevel models were applied. The results show that women were under-represented among teleworkers compared to men, also when occupational gender segregation is taken into account; the remaining gender gap in telework is estimated at 10%. For women, working part-time and working in the private sector was associated with lower incidences of telework, but not for men. Country characteristics explain a small but significant share of telework incidence. In countries that rank high on the Gender Equality Index and have a large public sector, telework was widespread, whereas it was less present in countries with higher shares of women in the fields of science and engineering. The findings support the view that the gender gap in teleworking from home is a matter of historically grown gender inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of the gender pay gap has received a great deal of attention from academia and public opinion alike, yet our understanding of the differences in non-monetary working conditions is much scarcer. Through the use of the European Working Conditions Survey and six composite indicators of job quality, this research aims to expand our knowledge on the gender gaps in job attributes across the European Union over the period 2005–2015 in three ways: firstly, we explore gender differences in working conditions, revealing the distinct patterns identified by the dimensions of job quality and country; secondly, we find that, on average, women's relative position deteriorates in terms of the physical environment and working time quality; a result that again reflects considerable heterogeneity across the countries in the sample. Lastly, we find clear evidence of a catch-up process in job quality in all the non-monetary dimensions of working conditions across the European Union. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studying twelve countries over 30 years, we examine whether women's educational expansion has translated into a narrowing of the gender gap in earnings when including persons with zero earnings. As educational attainment is cohort-dependent, an Age-Period-Cohort analysis is most appropriate in our view. Using the micro data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database, we show that while, in terms of attainment of tertiary education, women have caught up and often even outperform men, substantial gender differences in our earnings measure persist in all countries. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method in an innovative age-period-cohort approach, we demonstrate that the role of education in explaining gender earnings differences has been limited and even decreased over cohorts. We also conclude that, when including persons not receiving earnings, earnings differences at levels far from gender equality will likely persist in the future, even if the "rise of women" in terms of education continues—as the share of women in higher education increases and the returns to education in particular for women declines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Educational equity significantly supports the creation of a harmonious society, which has become one of the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations for 2030. China's education level has greatly improved as nine-year compulsory education popularized and enrollment expanded in higher education. However, educational inequality remains a serious issue. This study explores China's educational inequality from the perspective of regions, urban–rural areas, genders, and age cohorts by constructing and decomposing educational Gini coefficient based on the concept of relative deprivation. The results indicate that China's average years of schooling continued to improve, and educational inequality showed a downward trend during 2000–2018. Both men and women average years of schooling in cities was higher than that in towns and village even for the youngest age cohort. The Gini coefficient difference across genders, urban–rural areas mainly relates to the oldest age cohort. The Gini coefficient in western region and villages are relatively high, whereas that in the northeast region and cities are relatively low. The gap of the Gini coefficient between cities and towns and between cities and villages is expanding. Inter-group inequality was the main source of overall educational inequality in regions, urban–rural areas, and genders. Therefore, measures should be taken to improve the education level for the underdeveloped areas and reduce inter-group inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]