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The article presents an annotated bibliography of historical documents in science education. The list includes "Nature Study," edited by Wilbur S. Jackman, "Reorganization of Science in Secondary Schools," by Otis W. Caldwell, and "A Program for Teaching Science," edited by Guy M. Whipple.

The article presents a bibliography of articles on research and development in science education. The list include "Avenues for the Improvement of Research," by Kenneth E. Anderson, "School Experimentation," by Otis W. Caldwell, and "Problems for Research," by J. Wallace Page Jr.

This article presents a critical analysis of pictorial research related to science education. General media references and books specifically directed toward pictorial instruction usually propose intuitive guidelines for instructional developers, an example is Learning From Pictures, a book by Catharine Williams. Analysis of pictures and their instructional utility has produced a few interesting results and potentially-fruitful areas for further experimentation. Its usefulness in science instructional materials is an important, complex issue and although still in its infancy, potential benefits are abundant.

This article analyzes the differences between the scientific-humanistic and systems engineering approaches to science education, utilizing as foci the concepts of objectivity, efficiency and predictability. Science teachers must suggest to students that a scientist engages in the activity of science not only to contribute to the advancement of the discipline, but because he feels good being a scientist. Efficiency is a normative term which tends to impede rather that facilitate the creative endeavor. The quest for efficiency means doing what is necessary to get the highest output with the lowest input. Predictability is crucial for the contiued survival of the human species and every humanistic science teacher has the responsibility to help students understand and accept reality.

This study evaluates the Cooperative College-School Science Improvement Program to prepare teachers to teach the DISCUS Program. DISCUS Program is a junior science curriculum which was designed for and taught to underachieving students in the Duval County Public Schools in Florida. The Teacher Practices Observation Record, an instrument designed to enable an in classroom observer to collect data observing a teacher's actual teaching behavior, showed that the trained teachers generally provided more active student involvement, less external disciplinary control and more student-centered instruction.

The article discusses the use of behavioral objectives approach for science methods courses. Behaviorally specified objectives allow the adequacy of teaching methods and strategies to be easily analyzed. New dimensions are provided by behavioral objectives approach for the evaluation of student progress. The professional science education community supported the application of behavioral objectives to programs for science teacher preparation. The Guidelines and Standards reports by the AASS Commission on Science Education focus on the Magna Carta of the behavioral objectives approach to science teacher training.

The article focuses on the validity of the Reed Science Activity Inventory (RSAI), an instrument for gauging science interest and has been used in a study on the dynamic personality structure of grammar school boys in northern England. The Manchester study, which involves 170 second year grammar school boys from northern England, attempts to establish the relationships between science bias and such variables as ability, achievement, personality, and motivation. The additional evidence suggesting the validity of the Modified RSAI comes from the correlations between the subscales and measures of achievements in sciences, aspiration to science and nonscience carriers, as well as behavioral and personality characteristics found among accomplished adult and potential scientists.

The article presents a study on school children's rating of preservice science teachers in the U.S. The different source of information used to assessing the classroom performance of student teachers includes supervisor ratings, interaction analyses, peer, and self-ratings. The focus of the study is the way the preservice science teachers are rated by the seventh and eighth grade pupils, the characteristic of a good science teacher, the criteria used by the students in rating the teacher performance. The pupils checked a different rating sheet each day for each of the several microteachers.

The article presents "Research Reviews in Science Education." The author stressed that one of the major difficulties confronting science educators of elementary, secondary, or university level is the gaining of acquaintance with the research effort pertaining to problems the educator faces. The lack of familiarity with the research literature in the field leads to professional deficiency in that particular area of the study. The collection of entries in the bibliography will aid the science education students on the student's awareness of the research developments. The bibliographic listing of sources examined is presented in Appendix A.

The article presents "Instructional Priorities in Developing Science Curricula." Having delineated in the earlier publications concerning unwarranted assumption implicit in first generation science curricula and the omission in the present model of teacher training or retreading, the author aims to have this article focus on a third area relevant to future innovative science curricular model as well as the impact of certain aspects of instructional theory such as the practice of triad teams in science curricula development, some assumptions that center around unstated delimination of scientific methodology, the influence of the space-engineered system analysis syndrome, and the conclusion that is a list of recommendation for future effort in the development of innovative science curricula.

The article presents the Australian Science Education Project, a national curriculum development project in New South Wales. The author aims to outline the development of the project, as well as the description of the project's function and approach. The outline includes the organization of education in Australia, federal government role, origins of ASEP, ASEP guidelines, aims of ASEP, themes and approach, psychological foundations, selection of topics and tentative units, evaluation activities, involvement of teachers, significance of ASEP, material available, and references for additional readings.

The article outlines the guidelines submitted by the American Association for the Advancement of Science Commission on Science Education for establishing more effective preservice science education courses. First, the Elementary Science Methods Course (ESMC) should be taught in the same style of open inquiry that is encouraged in current elementary science programs. Second, the ESMC should develop confidence and competence on the part of the student in designing his own individual teaching-learning activities. Third, the ESMC student should be familiarized with the characteristic cognitive functioning and cognitive development of elementary school children. Fourth, the ESMC student needs to become aware of the variety of materials available from the many significant science curriculum development groups.

The article discusses the methodological problems encountered in the review of research in science teaching. In 1931, Francis D. Curtis published the Second Digest of Investigations in the Teaching of Science, in which he faced a serious problem in the selection of content for this volume. Curtis solved the problem of selecting studies to be digested by sending a formal request to 42 members of the National Association of Research in Science Teaching. In 1965, J. Nathan Swift wrote a report which covered the period 1948 through 1952. The methodological problems associated with this task are apparent in the published volume. To avoid difficulties encountered in the past, the authors believe it is of utmost importance to state the types of studies considered in a review of literature.

The article provides a historical analysis of the development of concepts and bodies of knowledge. The historical development of the concept of motion illustrates that there is a hierarchal progression in the development of complex concepts. This progression contains the following two dimensions. The first dimension is concerned with the progressive step-by-step dependency of one concept on another concept. The second dimension of the progression pertains to the increasing degree of complexity in the arrangement or ordering of the concept.

This article evaluates a diffusion project based on a model which employs a limited number of personnel to promote diffusion on a large scale basis. The project mentioned in the article is the Colorado Elementary Science Project, a state-wide program to provide in-service education and assist school districts in the implementation of new elementary school science curricular programs. Based on the model upon which the project is based, the following recommendations are presented. First, the active participation with each school district should be extended by an additional 5 to 12 months. Second, the extensive efforts should be devoted to involving building principals in all aspects of the program. Third, more extensive efforts should be devoted to solving the equipment problem.

The article describes an extensive program which is designed to bring the education of the sciences and of the humanist closer together at the undergraduate level. The complete program at Stonehill College is called Heuristic Studies and at the current stage consists of seven separate phases. Each phase consists of a series of seminars attended by a maximum of from 15 to 20 students representing a diversity of disciplines. In the phase to be described there were representatives from sociology, literature, psychology, physics, biology, philosophy, and mathematics. Here, the author attempts to establish the goal of a heuristic effort to integrate various disciplines at a level of investigation termed structure and tries to give an idea of the procedures by which the goal can be attained.

The article provides information on concept formation, process-oriented and pre-college science instruction. It is essential that science teachers develop a perspective that transcends periodic change, one that relates pedagogy to the nature of concept formation and learning theory. At the pre-college level, a number of programs have been developed in the past decade which aimed at focusing on the central concepts of the discipline. Among the many other science curricula with a concept-centered emphasis are the Earth Science Curriculum Project and the Science Curriculum Improvement Study at the elementary school level.

The article looks into the relationship between mental maturity, ability level, and level of understanding of three categories of science concepts. Significantly, concepts in the learning-teaching process in sciences comes from consideration of the philosophic structure of scientific knowledge. Furthermore, such concepts are divided into three categories such as classificational, correlational, and theoretical. Moreover, the nature and processes of concept development have had the attention of some researchers in science education who tries to address: (1) the factors that affect concept learning; or (2) the learnability of science concepts of various levels of sophistication at certain grade levels.

The article discusses two pioneer programs in studies relating to advancements in science and technology in the U.S. Scientific and technological changes make their impact on society that necessitate the creation of new institutions to deal with and control these very conditions. The complex systems created by the numerous social components and processes, which science and technology brings often require an understanding of systems theory and the systems approach, computer programming and cybernetics. The Schools of Engineering of San Jose State College has instituted an interdisciplinary major in the form of a Master's degree in Cybernetic Systems. A project known as The Man-Made World was created to provide high school students with an understanding of the impact of technology upon the modern world.

The article presents a study on the use and evaluation of selected industry-sponsored publications for teaching contemporary biology. A series of investigations was conducted to examine the potential of selected industry-sponsored learning aids for increasing levels of knowledge about specific aspects of contemporary biology in various academic groups. The investigations were undertaken for the following objectives: (1) to determine levels of knowledge relating to certain contemporary notions about molecular and cellular biology among various academic groups, and (2) to determine the relative effectiveness of various methods of utilizing industry-sponsored publications to extend knowledge and concepts about biology at the molecular and cellular levels in general education science courses for non-science majors, or in science education courses for prospective and in-service teachers.

The article discusses the development of Individualized Science (IS), a new science program in the U.S. designed for maximum relevance to each student and to the fast-changing circumstances of today. IS is being designed to enable each child to meet the challenges of the extraordinary era. The aim is no less than the development of a complete individualized science learning system to serve the student from the time he begins elementary school up to his entry into high school. The five identified goals of IS include: the Student Self-Direction Goal, the Student Co-Evaluation Goal, the Affective Goal, the Inquiry Goal, and the Scientific Literacy Goal.

The article outlines a broader model of scientific enterprise which can serve as the basis for a curriculum structure in Science. This model will include the conceptual and process dimensions of Science along with their relation to technology and society. It is postulated that these four dimensions and the interactions are essential requisites to an understanding of science. At the outset, it is necessary to define limitations which have been arbitrarily in terms of a curriculum structure. Also, it is necessary to include the concepts of Science to be a part of the instructional program.

The article presents a study of cognitive subsumption in the life sciences. The purpose of the study is to test the hypothesis that acquisition and retention of unfamiliar, but meaningful, verbal material can be facilitate by the advance introduction of relevant subsuming concepts or organizers. This is based on the assumption that the cognitive structure is hierchically organized in terms of highly inclusive concepts under which are gathered less inclusive subconcepts and information. The study utilized two major concepts of modern biology as expository organizers: level of biological condition and homeostasis.

The article explores the psychological implications of discovery learning in science education. The author claims that discovery learning or inquiry training has been the central theme of the numerous curriculum projects on both the secondary and primary level. Significantly, the proponents and opponents of discovery learning find support for their respective positions from the findings of psychologists involved in the research of learning theory. Furthermore, the study focuses on the most pertinent elements of learning theory such as: (1) learning readiness; (2) meaningfulness of material; (3) activity and passivity; (4) motivation; and (5) transfer of training.

The article focuses on the study which aims to determine the effect of using the demonstration method in teaching biology. Furthermore, the study examines the historical role of the demonstration method in biological pedagogy. The factors that have influenced the trends in the use of demonstrations in teaching biology includes: (1) the nature of biology; (2) the social and economic climate of the time; and (3) the prevailing philosophy of education. The author assesses the major historical periods in the development of the demonstration method. The changing role of the method is not due to positive educational research but the inconclusiveness of the research.

The article addresses issues concerning the research methods used in science education. Research in science education is criticized for being noncumulative, nonreplicable and for making no important contributions to theory or practice. In spite of the analytical methods now available, researchers are continuing the practice of fitting research problems into standard designs. Thus, the relative effectiveness of two instructional methods in the presence of a noncomitant variable should be considered. The use of mathematical models is used to represent the relevant properties of reality.

The article attempts to clarify the possibility of establishing more harmony between science and the humanities in a liberal arts program. The proposition would make the student of science more aware of the potential of literature as an object to be studied scientifically. The proposition would also make the student of literature more aware of the potential of science as a mode of investigation of literature. The science and literature student may realize that science is not necessarily a subject but it may be a means of controlling the waywardness and whimsy to which the student mind and the teaching mind is susceptible.

The article discusses the process approach to teaching science. A process approach to science teaching is dictated by the nature of science while a behavioral approach is dictated by the educative process. The primary purpose of the behavioral approach is to guide the programming, teaching, and evaluation of the science curriculum. Process-approach teaching is dictated by the need to develop in students a better understanding of the research behavior of the scientists, as well as to enable them to acquire inquiry skills in the science classroom.

The article discusses the feasibility of science education for the mentally retarded. It seems necessary to relate and compare acceptable curricular objectives in science for elementary children in relation to acceptable objectives for teaching the educable mentally retarded. Concept development has been explored by researchers working with both mentally retarded and normal children which are specifically related to concept development in science. Learning characteristics of the retardates and the characteristics of a good science program were explored and considered. Consideration of these characteristics is necessary in the selection and planning of a science education program for the educable mentally retarded.

The article discusses the retraining of elementary teachers to keep pace with advances in pedagogy and changes in scientific knowledge. One pattern for the re-education of teachers was developed by the Departments of Mathematics and Natural Science, San Jose State College in California. One purpose of the program was to aid teachers to understand the nature of inquiry learning through activities that combined scientific and quantitative data essential for comprehensive understanding of science. Another purpose was to assist teachers in designing and conducting inquiry centered lessons applicable to children's varying intellectual levels.

The article presents an examination of the ability of first graders from the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) Program to describe an object by its properties. According to the author, the child is taught to recognize material objects in the environment and distinguish the objects from its properties and the properties of an object from the uses to which the object is put and from the material of which it is made. Results of the study indicates that SCIS children appear to be able to apply to a new situation specific property words learned in the classroom. Finally, superior performance of SCIS children in the use of property words and a performance little or no better than the control group for other property words, suggests the possibility of improving proficiency in the area.

The article looks into the contributions of British scientist Thomas Huxley to science education in Great Britain. The article features the circumstances that influenced Huxley's career. Huxley became known for his lecture with the working-class and his foremost defense of Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory. The author also emphasized the significant contributions of Huxley on educational methods as well as in the natural sciences. The achievements of Huxley includes: (1) changes in the scientific nomenclature with the development of the term biology; and (2) renovation of the circular offerings within the natural sciences.

The article looks into the training of oceanographers as discussed by the education committee of the Marine Technology Society held in June 1969 in Miami, Florida. It has been suggested at the conference that: (1) there is a lack of general oceanography courses; (2) no university has sponsored either courses in or a program for oceanographic education; (3) the needs for manpower in oceanography are still debated and that demands for oceanographic information are not met; and (4) continuing education for an informed citizenry and for guidance counselors is in strong demand. Furthermore, the article focuses on the feasibility of having an inland facility for oceanographic studies. Moreover, support for oceanographic studies is necessary considering its various benefits and advantages.

The article discusses a study in teaching science to slow learners in high school in the U.S. The traditional approach to teaching is that learning is passed on from someone who knows to someone who does not know. It is generally agreed that proper instructional procedures can do much to foster improvement of self concepts. Conventional learning theory, commonly in use in traditional subject-centered classrooms, emphasizes the importance of practice, reinforcement and conditioning , through the provision of successive, systematic changes in the learner's environment to increase the probability of desired changes in behavior. Slow learners do not perceive themselves, in relation to other students, as accepted, creative and potentially constructive members of society.

The article discusses the comparison of attributed values with empirically determined values of secondary school science field trips in the U.S. A field trip is any journey taken under the auspices of the school for educational purposes. Values are any important positive psychological, social, moral, or aesthetic characteristics that are worthy outcomes of an educational experience. In the last 40 years, only 12 studies were conducted to determine empirical values of secondary science field trips. Researcher J. A. Fraser evaluated the outcomes of the study excursion taken by 46 students on an 11 day trip to study science and social problems in the Tennessee Valley Authority region. Fraser concluded that there was no significant difference in the students' attitudes before and after the trip.

The article focuses on the view of science and some teaching strategies as an important consideration for a modern science program. Study of the dynamic processes by which a science grows and develops has resulted in a change of commonly held stereotypes of both science and scientists. The origin of science was traced in this article. The transition period of the scientific tradition from one stage to another was discussed. Scientific discovery is seen as a complex, highly creative and extended process and its nature is being discussed in this article. On one hand, a pre-science teaching strategy was described in this article.

The article comments on the philosophical basis for selecting science curriculum content. The formation of a curriculum must take into account the statement of educational objectives, theories about the structure of knowledge, the nature of the learning process and the methods appropriate to them. The central ideas of a science and the relationships among these ideas make up the structure of the discipline. The requirement of logical fertility demands that the concept must be capable of being manipulated according to the laws of logic. The web of concepts and connections must fit into some kind of coherent pattern. The final structure depends on the ability of the students to make the observations needed to connect the concepts with reality and their ability to comprehend and construct the connections among concepts.

The article focuses on the effective application of hierarchies in the planning and analysis of chemistry education. The author points out that description of a curriculum unit has arisen from investigation of formative education procedures. The use of hierarchies of related objectives are aimed to describe the extent to which objectives related to and built upon one another to produce an integrated unit. The stages of hierarch description includes: (1) identification of the new content; (2) decision-making on the behavior level at which each content has to be learned; and (3) evaluation of the relationship between content at different behavior levels. Finally, hierarchies can provide a map for planning instruction and supplementing curriculum materials to produce instruction compatible with the objectives.

The article focuses on the relationship between the affective attributes of scientists in the study and teaching of science. The curriculum evaluation of science education should include the following aspects: (1) the student's cognition of the role of scientific attitudes and attributes in the activities of scientists; and (2) the exhibition of such attributes during the student's science activities. Significantly, it is necessary to examine the affective attributes exhibited by scientists and its relationship to the knowledge and process dimensions of science. The affective behavior of scientists are classified as: (1) appreciations; (2) interests; (3) attitudes; (4) values and beliefs; and (5) adjustments. Finally, the author suggested that teachers should play a major role in such activities if school science to become a media for character development.

The article focuses on the examination of the relationship of student values to success in content centered and process centered biology laboratories. Significantly, the laboratory settings includes: (1) the content-centered laboratory is where student activities revolve around explicit directions as presented by the laboratory manual or instructor; and (2) the process-centered laboratory is where students are engaged in the solution of problems which have been defined by the teachers or by themselves. Furthermore, findings have indicated that neither the two laboratory environments categorically more effective than the other. The author noted the following observations: (1) there is a negative correlation between social value scores and process-centered gains in science attitude; and (2) negative correlation between gains in interest in biology and religious value scores.

The article discusses some of the possible ways of adapting measurement procedures to the modern conception of knowledge. The new science curriculum suggests that test questions should be at least as concerned with the production of ideas and questions intended to evaluate the effectiveness of the new curricula should generally be concerned with the historical evolution of the structure of the discipline. According to the author, for teachers interested in evaluating the degree to which their students can function as producers of ideas, the use of open-ended questions appears to be the only possible solution.

The article discusses the use of the portable television tape recorder in science education. Video recorders can be used to evaluate the success of teaching methods without having to rely on questionnaires or test analysis. The television recorder has also proven a valuable tool in analyzing how well individualized instruction works. In general, the recorder can be used to reduce the load of the college supervisor of practice teachers while still giving more personal attention to the teacher trainee. It can also be used in teacher placement.

The article focuses on science education in Lebanon. Several problems are faced by educators in Arab countries that hinder real progress in science study and teaching. Like all oriental countries, the educational emphasis is on memorization by repetition or rote learning. In most schools throughout the country, classes are held five and one-half or six days a week. Chemistry topics are divided from the seventh to twelfth grade. A classical study of physics begins in the ninth grade with the study of laws related to the topic.

The article focuses on the introduction of the Summer Institutes for the Preparation of Science Teachers in the U.S. In 1963, funds became available through the United States Information Service and were used in the procurement of the texts, laboratory guides, teacher's manuals, resource books, films and laboratory supplies essential to train people to teach new science and mathematics programs that had been develop in the country. The cooperative effort of the U.S. and Indian personnel in organizing and conducting institutes for science teachers has improve the course in India.

The article presents a study on the condition of science student teaching at all levels of education. There is a problem with the recent critical shortage of science teachers. To compound this problem, doubts are frequently expressed as to quality of present teacher training programs for science teachers. More teaching hours might stimulate greater numbers of capable people to enter the profession. The results of the study indicated a tendency for student teachers to teach more when they do not share an assignment.

The article presents a study that seeks to measure observation and comparison skills in science among secondary schools in the U.S. Research has been conducted in junior high school relative to science skills development but there has been a great deal about the importance of developing a specific science skills in the classroom. There arise certain problems and challenges in dealing with the process skills in the classroom. These are particularly centered to the skills that have not been adequately defined and analyzed. The test to measure observation and comparison skills is known as the Scientific Observation and Comparison Skill Test (SOCS). The test is related to other factors including general intelligence, science achievement, Flanagan aptitude classification and others.

The article focuses on the Canadian curriculum concept of science education in British and U.S. secondary schools. British and U.S. education does not have an equal effect on Canada's educational system. Canada's geographic proximity to the U.S. aided American influence. It is suggested that nations including either England and Wales or Canada should review not only their own history but also other nations' contributions to a discipline prior to innovation. Great Britain's history of science education has periods of distinct emphases which include education traditions such as laboratory-oriented science teaching and a high degree of subject specialization. With regards to U.S. science education, curriculum developments are readily available.

This article focuses on the problems of communication in science education. The general nature of the communication problem is that of achieving clarity and creating understanding without sacrificing truth or accuracy. The achievement of clarity and understanding will be serviced either by verbal exposition or by the use of visual methods of presentation and usually by a mixture of both. Furthermore, the achievement of clarity and understanding will be serviced either by verbal exposition or by the use of visual methods of presentation and usually by a mixture of both. It is also noted in this article that readability is primarily a matter of avoiding ambiguity, but it is also a matter of avoiding words unfamiliar to the reader, maintaining interest in the subject under discussion and reducing intellectual strain. Readability has been defined by a number of people who are expert in the field of reading skills and the assessment of readership quality. The author comes out with the conclusion that the attribute of readability is so complex that a relatively new profession, known as "Readability Counseling," has been in existence for some time.

The article discusses a project developed in 1964 at the Science Education Center of the University of Texas. According to the article, the project focused on the development of new materials useful in teaching science at all levels of instruction. It adds that the project was designed to develop autoinstructional materials using the content, methods and philosophy of the Physical Science Study Committee's (PSSC) physics program. Furthermore, the autoinstructional materials were analyzed to determine its effectiveness in teaching physics to students enrolled in a selected group of high schools in Texas.

The article discusses the effect of a year's study of chemistry on the standardized Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS) Blue Version biology taken in the sophomore year at the Oak Park and River Forest High School in Illinois. The study also examined the effect of a selected freshman class having BSCS Blue Version biology on the standardized chemistry study course. It also evaluated the feasibility of teaching a mathematically oriented chemistry course to freshmen with an algebra background. According to the article, the BSCS course was based on the book "Biological Science: Molecules to Man" while the chemistry course was based on "Chemistry: An Experimental Science".