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A very large area (7.5 mm²) laser-driven x-ray backlighter, termed the Big Area BackLighter (BABL) has been developed for the National Ignition Facility (NIF) to support high energy density experiments. The BABL provides an alternative to Pinhole-Apertured point-projection Backlighting (PABL) for a large field of view. This bypasses the challenges for PABL in the equatorial plane of the NIF target chamber where space is limited because of the unconverted laser light that threatens the diagnostic aperture, the backlighter foil, and the pinhole substrate. A transmission experiment using 132 kJ of NIF laser energy at a maximum intensity of 8.52 x 1014 W/cm² illuminating the BABL demonstrated good conversion efficiency of >3.5% into K-shell emission producing ~4.6 kJ of high energy x rays, while yielding high contrast images with a highly uniform background that agree well with 2D simulated spectra and spatial profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compton side-scattering has been used to simultaneously downshift the energy of keV to MeV energy range photons while attenuating their flux to enable single-shot, spectrally resolved, measurements of high flux X-ray sources to be undertaken. To demonstrate the technique a 1 mm thick pixelated cadmium telluride detector has been used to measure spectra of Compton side-scattered radiation from a Cobalt-60 laboratory source and a high flux, high peak brilliance X-ray source of betatron radiation from a laser-plasma wakefield accelerator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research describes advancements in the spectral analysis and error propagation techniques associated with x-ray imaging crystal spectroscopy (XICS) that have enabled this diagnostic to be used to accurately constrain particle, momentum, and heat transport studies in a tokamak for the first time. Doppler tomography techniques have been extended to include propagation of statistical uncertainty due to photon noise, the effect of non-uniform instrumental broadening as well as flux surface variations in impurity density. These methods have been deployed as a suite of modeling and analysis tools, written in interactive data language (IDL) and designed for general use on tokamaks. Its application to the Alcator C-Mod XICS is discussed, along with novel spectral and spatial calibration techniques. Example ion temperature and radial electric field profiles from recent I-mode plasmas are shown, and the impact of poloidally asymmetric impurity density and natural line broadening is discussed in the context of the planned ITER x-ray crystal spectrometer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray line spectra ranging from 17 to 77 keV were quantitatively measured with a Laue spectrometer, composed of a cylindrically curved crystal and a detector. Either a visible CCD detector coupled with a CsI phosphor screen or an imaging plate can be chosen, depending on the signal intensities and exposure times. The absolute sensitivity of the spectrometer system was calibrated using pre-characterized laser-produced x-ray sources and radioisotopes. The integrated reflectivity for the crystal is in good agreement with predictions by an open code for x-ray diffraction. The energy transfer efficiency from incident laser beams to hot electrons, as the energy transfer agency for specific x-ray line emissions, is derived as a consequence of this work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the design and performance of a novel high-temperature and high-pressure continuous-flow reactor, which allows for x-ray absorption spectroscopy or diffraction in supercritical water and other fluids under high pressure and temperature. The in situ cell consists of a tube of sintered, polycrystalline aluminum nitride, which is tolerant to corrosive chemical media, and was designed to be stable at temperatures up to 500 °C and pressures up to 30 MPa. The performance of the reactor is demonstrated by the measurement of extended x-ray absorption fine structure spectra of a carbon-supported ruthenium catalyst during the continuous hydrothermal gasification of ethanol in supercritical water at 400 °C and 24 MPa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high-pressure in situ X-ray laminography technique was developed using a newly designed, laterally open diamond anvil cell. A low X-ray beam of 8 keV energy was used, aiming at future application to dual energy X-ray chemical imaging techniques. The effects of the inclination angle and the imaging angle range were evaluated at ambient pressure using the apparatus. Sectional images of ruby ball samples were successfully reconstructed at high pressures, up to approximately 50 GPa. The high-pressure in situ X-ray laminography technique is expected to provide new insights into the deep Earth sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exploration of mass-selected clusters by soft x-ray synchrotron radiation is well suited to receive element specific information on clusters in contact with a support and to systematically follow the evolution of size-dependent electronic and geometrical properties from the smallest clusters toward the bulk. Here we describe an experimental setup, which combines cluster synthesis, mass selection, soft landing, ultrahigh vacuum transfer, and photoionization experiments such as x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, x-ray absorption, and Auger electron spectroscopy. First spectroscopic results and experimental conditions are briefly discussed for Cu19 deposited onto the natural oxide layer of a Si-wafer surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the calculations and preliminary results from experiments on the Omega laser facility using d-3He filled plastic capsule implosions in gold Hohlraums. These experiments aim to develop a technique to measure shell ρr and capsule unablated mass with proton spectroscopy and will be applied to future National Ignition Facility (NIF) experiments with ignition scale capsules. The Omega Hohlraums are 1900 μm length×1200 μm diameter and have a 70% laser entrance hole. This is approximately a 0.2 NIF scale ignition Hohlraum and reaches temperatures of 265–275 eV similar to those during the peak of the NIF drive. These capsules can be used as a diagnostic of shell ρr, since the d-3He gas fill produces 14.7 MeV protons in the implosion, which escape through the shell and produce a proton spectrum that depends on the integrated ρr of the remaining shell mass. The neutron yield, proton yield, and spectra change with capsule shell thickness as the unablated mass or remaining capsule ρr changes. Proton stopping models are used to infer shell unablated mass and shell ρr from the proton spectra measured with different filter thicknesses. The experiment is well modeled with respect to Hohlraum energetics, neutron yields, and x-ray imploded core image size, but there are discrepancies between the observed and simulated proton spectra. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Filtered x-ray diodes, sensitive in different spectral regions, are used to measure the emission spectrum of laser-driven hohlraums at the Omega laser facility in Rochester, NY. Here we present two new methods to reconstruct the emission spectra from the response of the x-ray diodes and compare them to the method currently used to extract a spectrum and a temperature in the hohlraum. We also use simulated spectra to characterize the different methods with respect to uncertainty, emission temperature, and the ability to reconstruct the input spectrum as closely as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray detectors based on straight-channel microchannel plates (MCPs) are a powerful diagnostic tool for two-dimensional, time-resolved imaging and time-resolved x-ray spectroscopy in the fields of laser-driven inertial confinement fusion and fast Z-pinch experiments. Understanding the behavior of microchannel plates as used in such detectors is critical to understanding the data obtained. The subject of this paper is a Monte Carlo computer code we have developed to simulate the electron cascade in a MCP under a static applied voltage. Also included in the simulation is elastic reflection of low-energy electrons from the channel wall, which is important at lower voltages. When model results were compared to measured MCP sensitivities, good agreement was found. Spatial resolution simulations of MCP-based detectors were also presented and found to agree with experimental measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crystal monochromator beamline KMC-1 at a BESSY II bending magnet covers the energy range from soft (1.7 keV) to hard x-rays (12 keV) employing the (n,-n) double crystal arrangement with constant beam offset. The monochromator is equipped with three sets of crystals, InSb, Si (111), and Si (422) which are exchangeable in situ within a few minutes. Beamline and monochromator have been optimized for high flux and high resolution. This could be achieved by (1) a windowless setup under ultrahigh-vacuum conditions up to the experiment, (2) by the use of only three optical elements to minimize reflection losses, (3) by collecting an unusually large horizontal radiation fan (6 mrad) with the toroidal premirror, and (4) the optimization of the crystal optics to the soft x-ray range necessitating quasibackscattering crystal geometry (θBragg,max=82°) delivering crystal limited resolution. The multipurpose beamline is in use for a variety of user facilities such as extended x-ray absorption fine structure, ((Bio-)EXAFS) near-edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS), absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy. Due to the windowless UHV setup the k edges of the technologically and biologically important elements such as Si, P, and S are accessible. In addition to these experiments this beamline is now extensively used for photoelectron spectroscopy at high kinetic energies. Photon flux in the 1011–1012 photons/s range and beamline resolving powers of more than E/ΔE≈100.000 have been measured at selected energies employing Si (nnn) high order radiation in quasibackscattering geometry, thus photoelectron spectroscopy with a total instrumental resolution of about 150 meV is possible. This article describes the design features of the beamline and reports some experimental results in the above mentioned fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photoluminescence (PL) of a Si-doped polycrystalline diamond film fabricated using the chemical vapor deposition technique was employed to measure the profile of a synchrotron radiation pink x-ray beam emitted from an in-vacuum hybrid undulator at the SPring-8 facility. The spectrum of the section of the diamond film penetrated by the emitted visible red light exhibited a peak at 739 nm and a wideband structure extending from 550 to 700 nm. The PL intensity increased with the absorbed dose of the incident beam in the diamond within a dynamic range of 103. A two-dimensional distribution of the PL intensity revealed the undulator beam profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A bent-crystal Laue {or Cauchois [J. Phys. Radium 3, 320 (1932)] geometry} spectrograph is a good compromise between sensitivity and spectral resolution for measuring x-ray spectra (15

A high resolution (λ/Δλ∼2000) soft x-ray spectrometer has been installed on the Alcator C-Mod tokamak. The system was designed to measure emission line spectra from heliumlike neon (1s12p1→1s2) in a narrow spectral band centered on λ=13.5 Å (920 eV). The instrument is mounted with a poloidal view 20 cm below the midplane (r/a∼0.85). In addition to the neon emission lines, strong fluorine, xenon, iron, and manganese lines have been observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COBRA pulsed power generator has a variable current pulse wave form and amplitude (95–180 ns rise time, up to 1 MA peak current). It was designed to study wire array Z pinches and X pinches, including plasma formation, pinch implosion dynamics, and pinch plasma parameters as a function of current rise time. These loads have been studied using an extensive set of diagnostics with spatial and/or temporal resolution. The set of electrical diagnostics on the COBRA generator includes Rogowski coils to monitor the total load current and the current through individual return current posts, and there is also an inductive voltage monitor. A set of extreme ultraviolet and x-ray detectors is used to study the load radiation. Wire array and X pinch plasma formation and dynamics are studied using two-frame, point projection X-pinch x-ray imaging as well as with multiframe laser probing. Flat potassium acid phtalate crystal (KAP), convex, extreme luminosity imaging conical spectrograph, and focusing spectrograph with spatial resolution with mica crystal, pinhole cameras, and a camera with a slit and a step filter set (slip step-wedge camera) can be used in each pulse to monitor the x-ray emission from the X pinch(es) and arrays in several spectral bands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report recent progress in x-ray diagnosis of laser-plasma experiments using imaging plates. Imaging plates are photostimulable phosphor screens [BaF(Br0.85,I0.15):Eu2+] deposited on flexible metal or plastic substrates. We applied imaging plates to x-ray microscopy of inertial confinement fusion experiments. Self-emission x-ray images of imploded cores were obtained successfully with high-magnification, target-mounted pinholes using imaging plates as detectors. Imaging plates were also used in ultraintense laser experiments at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, where small samarium foils were irradiated by high intensity laser pulses from the Vulcan laser system. K-shell x rays from the foil (∼40 keV) were used as a line x-ray source for one-dimensional microscopic radiography, and the performance of imaging plates on high-energy x-ray backlit radiography experiments was demonstrated by imaging sinusoidal grooves of 6 μm amplitude on a Au foil. Detailed K-shell spectra from Cu targets were also obtained by coupling an imaging plate with a highly ordered pyrolytic graphite crystal spectrometer. The performance of the imaging plates as evaluated in actual laser plasma experiments is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous reports have indicated the anomalous excitation rate for the 6.2 keV nuclear level of 181Ta in a plasma produced with a femtosecond laser. A detailed characterization of the electrons and x-ray sources produced in such a plasma is required to interpret these results. In a preliminary work, the continuous energy distribution of hard x rays (10–500 keV) produced in the interaction of a kilohertz femtosecond laser beam with a tantalum solid target is investigated in the 3×1015–6×1016 W/cm2 range of intensity. A sodium iodide detector with appropriate shielding is used. Strong collimation and absorption filters are used to avoid the pileup of photons in the detector. The response function of this setup is calculated with the GEANT3 simulation code. We demonstrate the necessity to quantify the Compton scattered events in the raw spectra in order to restore the absolute x-ray energy distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct exposure film (DEF) is being discontinued. DEF film has been the workhorse in inertial confinement fusion (ICF) research and is used to record x-ray images and spectra. A previous search for a replacement [K. M. Chandler et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76, 113111 (2005)] did not consider AGFA film. We present comparisons using the results of measurements using AGFA-D7 film, XAR, TMG, and Biomax-MS films in the same spectrometer recording a gold spectrum in the 2–4 keV range and the iron spectrum in the 5–8.5 keV range. AGFA film was found to have some unique properties useful in x-ray spectroscopy and imaging, especially when signal strength is not a concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The average pixel distance as well as the relative orientation of an array of six charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors have been measured with accuracies of about 0.5 nm and 50 μrad, respectively. Such a precision satisfies the needs of modern crystal spectroscopy experiments in the field of exotic atoms and highly charged ions. Two different measurements have been performed by illuminating masks in front of the detector array by remote sources of radiation. In one case, an aluminum mask was irradiated with x rays, and in a second attempt, a nanometric quartz wafer was illuminated by a light bulb. Both methods gave consistent results with a smaller error for the optical method. In addition, the thermal expansion of the CCD detectors was characterized between -105 and -40 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have newly developed an x-ray photoemission electron microscope (XPEEM) which uses both soft x-rays and hard x-rays at the undulator beam line BL15XU in the synchrotron radiation (SR) facility SPring-8 to observe various practical materials. In combination with an energy analyzer and high brilliant x-ray source, the detection of high kinetic energy inner-shell photoelectrons is essential for revealing the chemical properties of specimen subsurfaces or buried interfaces, owing to long inelastic mean free path of the high kinetic energy photoelectrons. The most significant result in our design is the new combined electric and magnetic field objective lens in which the magnetic field penetrates up to the sample surface. This allows the measurement with high spatial resolution of both low intensity images of inner-shell photoelectrons with high kinetic energy and high intensity images of secondary electrons. By using the sample bias scan method, we can easily change the focus condition of the objective lens in order to allow the energy filtered imaging with photoelectrons having the kinetic energy in a wide range (1–10 000 eV). By the combination of high brilliant SR x-rays, the new objective lens, and sample bias method, our XPEEM can successfully obtain the microarea x-ray photoelectron spectra and energy filtered XPEEM images of inner-shell photoelectrons, such as Si 1s, without any surface cleaning procedure. The energy filtered XPEEM image using photoelectrons from deep inner shells, Si 1s, was obtained for the first time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some applications of gated x-ray imagers, pulsed x-ray spectroscopy, for example, benefit if image capture is simultaneous and gain is uniform over the frame. Simultaneity and uniformity are both improved when the voltage gate pulse propagation distance is as short as practical across the micro-channel-plate. This article describes a micro-channel-plate intensifier that captures a 40×100 mm2 image in <300 ps. A simple transmission line loss model is proposed to explain voltage loss across the micro-channel-plate. The voltage loss exponent was measured to be 0.05/cm±20%, and used to predict spatial and temporal gain dependence. The spatial and temporal gain profile was measured in detail by capturing images of ∼1 ps x-ray bursts created with a short pulse laser. The measured profile is consistent with that predicted using the loss model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple computational method is proposed for estimating the time-dependent flux F[ΔE](t) of an x-ray spectrum S(E,t) over domain [ΔE] from data Dk(t)(k=1,...,N) obtained by an N-channel array of filtered detectors. It is assumed that the data are related to the spectrum by a discrete, inhomogeneous, first-kind Fredholm integral equation Dk=∫S(E,t)Rk(E)dE, where Rk(E) is the known response function for each detector channel of the diagnostic. The proposed method constructs a spectral sensitivity HLS(E) for the diagnostic array as a linear combination ∑k=1NakRk(E) of the responses, where the coefficients ak are obtained by a least-squares criterion plus a constraint. The ak values, once determined, apply as long as the responses are valid. The flux estimate is then simply FLS(t)=∑k=1NakDk(t), without a spectral unfold of the data. The method is useful for quick analyses of time-dependent data, for comparisons with other flux-measuring diagnostics, and for the experimental design of filtered-detector arrays. The method is applied to a five-channel array of filtered photoemissive x-ray detectors [G. A. Chandler et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 70, 561 (1999)], used for z-pinch measurements at the Z-accelerator facility [R. B. Spielman et al., Phys. Plasmas 5, 2105 (1998)]. Comparisons with unfold results are made, and a first-order analysis of error propagation into FLS(t) is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the High Energy Beamline ID15A at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility we have developed a fast three-dimensional x-ray microtomography system, which acquires a complete dataset in typically less than 10 s. This unprecedented speed is achieved by combining a high efficiency phosphor screen, a reflecting microscope objective and a fast charge coupled device detector with the very intense high-energy white beam radiation provided by a wiggler source. The achieved spatial resolution is 2 μm. The available x-ray energy spectrum spans from 20 to 250 keV and can therefore be used for low and high Z materials. The spectrum can be modified by inserting different filters into the x-ray beam in order to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio and to avoid beam-hardening artifacts. Different phosphors with different energy sensitivity can be used. The very high speed allows in situ studies of systems evolving on the time scale of a few seconds or minutes. Three examples are given on sintering of metallic powders, solidification of binary alloys and liquid front propagation in granular materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high pressure/high temperature cell dedicated to x-ray absorption spectroscopy, small angle x-ray scattering, and inelastic x-ray scattering techniques is presented. The P and T parameters are controlled independently and their range allow the study of aqueous solutions (T<=500 °C and P<=2000 bar) and liquid metals and glasses (T<=1700 °C and P<=2000 bar). The autoclave technology is inspired from previous high pressure/high temperature equipments but great improvements are achieved. Original high pressure windows have been developed to ensure both pressure resistance and low absorbance combined with large angular aperture. Different configurations are available for the internal cell that contains the sample whether it is aqueous or not. As an example of the efficiency of the set-up, we present preliminary x-ray absorption results on 0.01 m FeCl3 aqueous solutions from ambient to supercritical conditions (375 °C and 300 bar). These low concentrations samples and low energy spectra (Fe K-edge is at 7112 eV) represent challenging experimental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a method to acquire x-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectra of low-Z atoms dissolved in high-pressure liquids and supercritical fluids. The method is applicable to energies at and below the Ca K edge (4038.5 eV). The cell design incorporates 25-μm-thick×700 μm diameter diamond x-ray windows in a Poulter-type seal geometry. X-ray focusing mirrors were used to reduce both the horizontal and vertical beam size to about 200 μm so that the incident beam would pass cleanly through the 300 μm aperture of the cell. Pathlengths in the range from 50 to 1000 μm can be selected with appropriate spacers. The maximum operating conditions of the flow-through cell design are 500 °C and 1 kbar. We show that only a relatively small number of XAFS scans are required to generate high signal-to-noise ratio spectra for a supercritical water solution (400 °C) containing 1 m CaCl2 using a bending-magnet beamline (20-BM, PNC-CAT, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new, fast x-ray detector system is presented for high-throughput, high-sensitivity, time-resolved, x-ray scattering and imaging experiments, most especially x-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS). After a review of the architectures of different CCD chips and a critical examination of their suitability for use in a fast x-ray detector, the new detector hardware is described. In brief, its principal component is an inexpensive, commercial camera—the SMD1M60—originally designed for optical applications, and modified for use as a direct-illumination x-ray detector. The remainder of the system consists of two Coreco Imaging PC-DIG frame grabber boards, located inside a Dell Power-edge 6400 server. Each frame grabber sits on its own PCI bus and handles data from 2 of the CCD’s 4 taps. The SMD1M60 is based on a fast, frame-transfer, 4-tap CCD chip, read out at12-bit resolution at frame rates of up to 62 Hz for full frame readout and up to 500 Hz for one-sixteenth frame readout. Experiments to characterize the camera’s suitability for XPCS and small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) are presented. These experiments show that single photon events are readily identified, and localized to within a pixel index or so. This is a sufficiently fine spatial resolution to maintain the speckle contrast at an acceptable value for XPCS measurements. The detective quantum efficiency of the SMD1M60 is 49% for directly-detected 6.3 keV x rays. The effects of data acquisition strategies that permit near-real-time data compression are also determined and discussed. Overall, the SMD1M60 detector system represents a major improvement in the technology for time-resolved x-ray experiments, that require an area detector with time-resolutions in few-milliseconds-to-few-seconds range, and it should have wide applications, extending beyond XPCS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design and the performances of an extreme ultraviolet (EUV)spectrometer/monochromator for generation and diagnostics of high-order harmonics of an ultrashort (<30 fs) pulsed laser focused onto a gas jet are presented. The harmonic generation is optimized using an adaptive mirror before the laser focusing stage. A toroidal mirror is used to focus the XUV radiation in an intermediate stage for pump/probe experiments. A grazing-incidence flat-field spectrometer for the 5–75 nm spectral region has been designed: it adopts a stigmatic toroidal mirror and a varied line-space flat grating mounted in converging light. The almost flat stigmatic spectrum is acquired by a 40-mm-diameter microchannel plate intensifier; the whole detector can be moved to scan various portions of the spectrum. Different detectors allow one to acquire both integrated and single shot spectra at 1 kHz repetition rate. The absolute calibration of the spectrometer is provided. The same optical scheme can be applied to the design of a constant deviation angle EUV monochromator by substituting the detector block with an exit slit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X pinch plasmas produced from fine metal wires can reach near solid densities and temperatures of 1 keV or even more. Plasma conditions change on time scales as short as 5–10 ps as determined using an x-ray streak camera viewing a focusing crystal spectrograph or directly viewing the plasma through multiple filters on a single test. As a result, it is possible to determine plasma conditions from spectra with ∼10 ps time resolution. Experiments and theory are now coming together to give a consistent picture of the dynamics and kinetics of these high energy density plasmas with very high temporal and spatial precision. A set of diagnostic techniques used in experiments for spectrally, temporally, and spatially resolved measurements of X pinch plasmas is described. Results of plasma parameter determination from these measurements are presented. X ray backlighting of one x- pinch by another with ∼30 ps x-ray pulses enables the dynamics and kinetics to be correlated in time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) in the intermediate x-ray region (2–6 keV) for dilute biological samples has been limited because of detector/flux limitations and inadequate cryogenic instrumentation. We have designed and constructed a new tailpiece/sample chamber for a commercially available liquid helium cooled cryostat which overcomes difficulties related to low fluorescence signals by using thin window materials and incorporating an internal photodiode detector. With the apparatus, XAS data at the Cl, S, and Ca K edges have been collected on frozen solutions and biological samples at temperatures down to 60 K. A separate chamber has been incorporated for collecting room-temperature spectra of standard compounds (for energy calibration purposes) which prevents contamination of the cryostat chamber and allows the sample to remain undisturbed, both important concerns for studying dilute and radiation-sensitive samples. © 2004 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report several developments to the JET Tokamak survey spectroscopy beamline, which now supports a suite of x-ray, VUV, and visible instruments, located in a radiation-shielded bunker outside the torus hall. The instruments have vacuum systems that are integrated into the tritium circuit, and are available for D-T experiments. The x-ray and VUV diagnostics have real-time data reduction. The proposed plasma impurity monitor for ITER is based on these developments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A compact focusing crystal spectrometer based on the von Hamos scheme is described. Cylindrically curved mica and graphite crystals with a radius of curvature of R = 20 mm are used in the spectrometer. A front illuminated charge-coupled device (CCD) linear array detector makes this spectrometer useful for real-time spectroscopy of laser-produced plasma x-ray sources within the wavelength range of &lembda; = 1.8-10 Å. Calibration of crystals and the CCD linear array makes it possible to measure absolute photon fluxes. X-ray spectra in an absolute intensity scale were obtained from Mg, Ti, and Fe laser-produced plasmas, with a spectral resolution &lembda;/δ&lembda; = 800-2000 for the mica and &lembda;/δ&lembda; = 200-300 for graphite crystal spectrometers. The spectrometer has high efficiency in a wide spectral range, it is compact (40 mm diam, 150 mm length), easy to align, and flexible. The spectrometer is promising for absolute spectral measurements of x-ray radiation of low-intensity sources (femtosecond laser-produced plasmas, micropinches, electron-beam-ion-trap sources, etc.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pulse-height-analysis (PHA) system installed on the Joint European Torus (JET) measures the plasma soft x-ray emission (2–30 keV) with an energy resolution of 450 eV and a time resolution of 200 ms. This diagnostic includes three Si(Li) detectors, equipped with sets of remotely controlled apertures and filters, which view the plasma in the midhorizontal plane of the torus along a single tangential line of sight. Automatic analysis of the spectra yields the central electron temperature, the central concentrations of chlorine, chromium, and nickel, and Zeff. Simulations of the measured spectra using a radiation code provides the basis to construct a consistent picture of the soft x-ray emission in the central region of JET plasmas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new soft x-ray pulse height analysis (PHA) array including nine independent subsystems, on basis of a nonconventional software multichannel analysis system and a silicon drift detector (SDD) linear array consisting of nine high performance SDD detectors, has been developed in the HL-2A tokamak. The use of SDD has greatly improved the measurement accuracy and the spatiotemporal resolutions of the soft x-ray PHA system. Since the ratio of peak to background counts obtained from the SDD PHA system is very high, p/b≧3000, the soft x-ray spectra measured by the SDD PHA system can approximatively be regarded as electron velocity distribution. The electron velocity distribution can be well derived in the pure ohmic and auxiliary heating discharges. The performance of the new soft x-ray PHA array and the first experimental results with some discussions are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-Z backlighter materials are commonly used as x-ray sources for diagnosing laser-driven experiments. In order to properly plan for experiments and analyze the data, it is important to understand both the number and distribution of photons emitted by the x-ray source when it is irradiated by a laser. The conversion efficiency of L-shell and M-shell emitters is not as well understood as K-shell emitters. The conversion efficiency of the former is typically presented in terms of the entire L- or M-shell spectral region. However, for some applications, one may only want to use a subset of this spectral region. Laser conversion efficiency for L-shell and M-shell emitters suitable for high-energy (>3 keV) absorption spectroscopy is presented at multiple laser intensities. The measured conversion efficiency of the materials ranges from 0.2% to 0.6%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high contrast 12.6 keV Kr Kα source has been demonstrated on the petawatt-class Titan laser facility using strongly clustering Kr gas jet targets. The contrast ratio (Kα to continuum) is 65, with a competitive ultrashort pulse laser to x-ray conversion efficiency of 10-5. Filtered shadowgraphy indicates that the Kr Kα and Kβ x rays are emitted from a roughly 1×2 mm2 emission volume, making this source suitable for area backlighting and scattering. Spectral calculations indicate a typical bulk electron temperature of 50–70 eV (i.e., mean ionization state 13–16), based on the observed ratio of Kα to Kβ. Kr gas jets provide a debris-free high energy Kα source for time-resolved diagnosis of dense matter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through many studies of the nitrogen implantation into aluminum alloy, researchers have concluded that AlN (aluminum nitride) formation is the key to hardening the aluminum surface. We implanted nitrogen ions into the Al6061, using an ion implanter which has a modified Bernas ion source. We changed the incident ion energies (25 keV, 50 keV) and fluences (1×1017–2×1018 ions/cm2). To measure the depth hardness of implanted samples, we used nanoindentation test. The test results showed that the hardness of the implanted sample increased as the incident ion fluence increased until 1×1018 ions/cm2. However, the hardness did not increase at the fluence of 2×1018 ions/cm2. Furthermore, another result showed that the hardness was slightly decreased. To see the depth distribution of elements, we used Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) analysis with depth profiling. Through the AES analysis, we observed that the nitrogen atomic ratio did not increase; since the atomic ratio reached its maximum point (50%), the depth profile formed a flat curve in the AES. It is determined by the AlN structure (1:1 combination), that is, by the stoichiometrical rule. The nitrogen atoms diffused to the inner and outer sides rather than made a narrowly ranged accumulation. We observed that the flat curve was lowered downward a little at the fluence of 2×1018 ions/cm2. Observing the atomic distribution of oxygen in AES, we could conclude that the lowered curve was due to the recoil implantation of oxygen which had been originally combined with the aluminum surface in the aluminum oxide (Al2O3) layer. Comparing the AES result and the nanoindention result, we concluded that the recoiled oxygen atoms are not effective on hardening the Al surface. In this study, we observed the tendency to stop increasing the samples’ hardness over the ion fluence of 1×1018 ions/cm2. We observed the saturation of the atomic ratio by the stoichiometrical rule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laminar gratings can be used to perform x-ray absorption measurements dispersively in energy, thereby making an efficient use of the available x-ray intensity. To examine the performance of a laminar grating in diffracting short wavelength x rays, efficiency measurements of a 600 l/mm grating were performed over the photon energy range from 3 to 8 keV. A peak efficiency of 5.8% was observed without surface normal rotation (SNR); with a SNR of 60° a maximum efficiency of 14.1% was measured. The measured grating efficiencies are in good qualitative agreement with values calculated by a code based on the Neviere theory. By considering both the peak efficiency and the diffracted bandwidth, a gain of 97 is obtained for the 600 l/mm grating with a SNR of 60° in comparison with a germanium (111) crystal. Sufficient energy resolution for extended x-ray absorption fine structure experiments can be achieved by a grating at short wavelengths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A prototype ultrasoft x-ray polychromator has been developed for local particle transport measurements in magnetic fusion devices using the Hα charge exchange emission from low-Z impurity pellets. High throughput together with few cm radial resolution in the plasma are achieved using a toroidally aligned grid collimator, while a few Å spectral bandpass together with strong background rejection are obtained using planar multilayer mirrors and foil filters. As high sensitivity detectors we use a new type of compact, efficient and high-gain multichannel plates. The prototype instrument has been evaluated in the laboratory and tested on the Large Helical Device in Japan. In addition to transport studies, this type of device is of interest for next step experiments, where high beam energy and strong attenuation will make visible charge exchange recombination spectroscopy difficult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is a useful tool for studying nanoparticle synthesis and growth. Described here is a system for automating synthesis and data collection, allowing time-resolved XAS measurements at a synchrotron to be accurately combined with measurements made under identical conditions elsewhere, and promising the ability to use XAS with experiments in combinatorial chemistry. The primary components of this system are a commercial parallel processor and a custom flow cell. The system has been used to collect data on the synthesis of iron oxides from iron(II) acetylacetonate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diamond, photoconductive devices (DPCDs) have proven to be stable detectors of x-ray emission from plasmas. An array of six DPCDs is used on the OMEGA target chamber to measure the temporal and spectral dependence of x rays emitted from targets. 100 ps laser pulses incident on high-Z targets are used to measure the time response of the detectors, bias circuits, cables, and digitizer. This information is used to deconvolve the measured data to extract the temporal shape of the x-ray emission. The x-ray spectrum is measured by placing absorber filters for a specific x-ray energy region in front of the DPCDs. The data are analyzed with a linear algebraic method to determine the spectral shape. This technique removes the need to apply smoothing to the spectral analysis and provides “confidence bands” for the x-ray spectrum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray spectrometers using elliptically bent crystals have desirable properties for applications requiring broad spectral coverage, good spectral resolution, and minimized source broadening. Previous work used custom-positioned film or microchannel plate detectors. We find it is also useful and cost-effective to field elliptical crystals in existing snouts on the face-on gated microchannel plate framing cameras commonly used at many facilities. We numerically explored the full design space (spectral range and resolution) of elliptical crystals compatible with the new multipurpose spectrometer snout. We have tested at the Omega laser an elliptical rubidium acid phthalate crystal with 174 mm focal length, 0.9885 eccentricity, and 4.6° inclination, viewing from 1.0 to at least 1.7 keV with spectral resolution E/dE of 300–500. A slit (2×magnification) images 3 mm sources with 70 μm spatial resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A least-squares fit analysis program is being developed for the study of spatially resolved x-ray spectra from tokamak plasmas. The program, written in interactive data language, can handle analysis of spectra from multiple sightlines through the plasma and compare the experimental data with a least-square fit of synthetic spectra, which are constructed from atomic modeling codes. The input parameters such as shot numbers, time groups, spatial range, spectral lines to fit and fitting parameters can be entered interactively through a graphical user interface or automatically via a script. The output consists of graphical presentations of the obtained spectral fits and fit parameter profiles as a function of time, including ion and electron temperature profiles, which are of particular interest. Output can also be sent to any open database connectivity compliant database. The features of the program are demonstrated with the analysis of the spectra of helium-like ArXVII, which were obtained with a new x-ray imaging crystal spectrometer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A diagnostic currently being used for ultrashort pulse laser matter interactions at the Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory is presented. Two cylindrical curved crystals are used as collection optics and diffractive elements in the von Hámos geometry. The dispersed x rays are focused onto the slit of an ultrafast x-ray streak camera. The small nature of the streak camera allows the diagnostic to be positioned close to the target, maximizing the solid angle. Using the geometric layout, the spectral resolution is estimated at E/ΔE∼1000. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Describes the use of spectroscopy and x-ray imaging to investigate the macroscopic plasma flow in millimeter-sized laser-produced hohlraum plasmas. Position of dopants placed inside the hohlraum; Analysis of spatial movement of dopant plasmas for comparison to hydrodynamic calculations.

Describes the construction of a stopped-flow apparatus suitable for x-ray absorption spectroscopy in dispersive mode. Integration of x-ray absorption signals over a time interval; Gate time depending on the concentration of the sample solution and the x-ray intensity from x-ray generator.

Interest in x-ray absorption derives from soft x-ray transport studies to characterize laser-solid-interaction effects. The object of this work was to determine whether x-ray absorption features were measurable in laser-produced plasmas from solid targets. X-ray emission was made using high-atomic-number microsphere targets irradiated with a focused beam of the Pharos laser while the laser-solid-interaction plasmas were generated by a second beam in Al foil targets. High-resolution, spatially resolved x-ray spectra were collected with instrumentation and geometry similar to previous tracer-dot spectroscopy measurements of plasma profile parameters. Soft x-ray absorption lines, observed at different distances from the aluminum target surface, may be related to density gradients in the laser-generated plasmas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deconvolution of spectral information from sparse x-ray data is a widely encountered problem in data analysis. An often-neglected aspect of this problem is the propagation of random error in the deconvolution process. We have developed a Monte-Carlo approach that enables us to attach error bars to unfolded x-ray spectra. Our Monte-Carlo error analysis has been incorporated into two specific deconvolution techniques: the first is an iterative convergent weight method; the second is a singular-value-decomposition (SVD) method. These two methods were applied to an x-ray spectral deconvolution problem having m channels of observations with n points in energy space. When m is less than n, this problem has no unique solution. We discuss the systematics of nonunique solutions and energy-dependent error bars for both methods. The Monte-Carlo approach has a particular benefit in relation to the SVD method: It allows us to apply the constraint of spectral nonnegativity after the SVD deconvolution rather than before. Consequently, we can identify inconsistencies between different detector channels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An 800 × 800 Texas Instruments virtual phase charge-coupled device (CCD) was used to obtain pinhole images and x-ray spectra of laser-produced, solid target plasmas. With the CCD used in the single-photon counting mode, the spectrum in the energy range 2-10 keV was obtained without a dispersive element. Typical spectra reveal two distinct temperatures: a "cold" component of approximately 200 eV and "hot" component of approximately 5 keV. Also, multiline spectra comprising characteristic line emission (K[sub α], K[sub β]) from a multilayer target bombarded by β rays were recorded using a three-phase CCD. The results demonstrate the potential of CCDs as imaging spectrometers with application in space, laboratory, and fusion plasma research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pulses from a 12 mJ, frequency doubled, 5 ns FWHM, pulsed Nd:YAG laser were split and injected into opposing sides of a symmetric 2.44 m (96 in.) optical ring trap. Using a Pockels cell, the counterpropagating pulses were 'locked' into the trap for ≥50 round trips. This optical trap has potential applications ranging from established cavity processes, e.g., laser-based absorption spectroscopy and x-ray production, to new processes such as non-resonant optical lattice gas heating and time-resolved coherent Rayleigh-Brillouin scattering diagnostic studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An existing x-ray source application (XRSA) test cassette was modified to hold multiple x-ray filter materials followed by two radiochromic film types (FWT-60 and HD-810 Gafchromic® film) to qualitatively characterize the spectral-spatial uniformity over the XRSA sample field of view. Multiple sets of film were examined and nominal set was determined. These initial, qualitative measurements suggest a low-energy regime (E < 3 keV) spatial anisotropy and spatial isotropy at higher energies (E > 3 keV). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]