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This article analyzes the relations of power, of knowledge and of being that, since colonialism, have constituted hierarchies around gender classifications. Our culture labels as non-civilized and non-human those who do not fit the hegemonic model; this label is used to understand the role of women in rural contexts. In rural areas, modern women seek to break with established relations of power, seeking greater independence and access to public leadership. Given these questions, it is worth asking: what are the factors that empower rural women? It is observed that education and non-agricultural income alternatives make it possible to break their invisibility in rural establishments. For the construction of the analysis, the statistical data are presented from a sample of 95 cases of the rural population of Itapejara d'Oeste / PR. The initial survey was carried out in 2005 and later updated in 2010 and 2015. Econometric tools, based on the limited dependent variable model (LDVM) were used. The results indicated the occurrence of a greater emigration of women related to higher education, as well as a decrease of this emigration when women started to have greater access to non-agricultural income in rural areas. Both forms of access to public space have given rural women greater independence and probably helped to break out of their invisibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is aimed at assessing how institutions, whether at the individual level or at the more aggregated level (institutional environment of the countries), relate to a categorical measure of individual income. To meet this need, as variables at different levels are included, the hierarchical logistic regression model is used, and the individual income category is the dependent variable. The results show that institutional dimensions such as family, trust, gender equality, interest in politics and democracy, competition and government size are positively related to higher income. Otherwise, institutional dimensions such as religion, obedience, authority and income equality are inversely related to the highest income category. Furthermore, regarding formal institutions at the aggregate level (countries), a positive association between individual income and being in an institutional environment with better guarantees of property rights and smaller government size is suggested. These results strengthen arguments that institutional environments that value trust, democracy and property rights can positively influence the determination of the individuals' income levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article aims to analyze the residential segregation of the urban area of the 1st district of Campos dos Goytacazes, a city located in the North region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, considering the subdistrict areas as units of analysis. For the study, a methodology of segregation analysis was adopted associating non-spatial indexes (dissimilarity and isolation indexes) with the spatial statistics from the construction of the heat map, available in the Quantum GIS Geoprocessing software. As a variable, the permanent private household was used, according to the classes of monthly nominal household income per capita. From the results, it was evidenced that the 3rd subdistrict presents the most segregated area, where the lower income groups are concentrated, while the highest income group is concentrated in the 1st and 2nd subdistricts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to present the impacts of the National Program for Strengthening Family Farming (Pronaf) on income and productivity in Brazilian family farming. To achieve the proposed objective, data from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) of 2014 were used and was used as the analysis method the Propensity Score Matching (PSM). It was observed that the program has a positive average effect of 10.9% on the income of its beneficiaries compared to non-beneficiaries. Regarding the effect of Pronaf on agricultural productivity, Pronaf beneficiaries have an average productivity 15.2% higher than nonbeneficiaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]