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Illustrates one of the earliest American public relations debacles (ending in the dissolution of the Standard Oil Trust in 1911). Presents background on Standard Oil and offers an overview Ida Tarbell's influential "History of the Standard Oil company." Argues that Standard failed to respond to these accounts adequately, reinforcing Tarbell's charges by relying on a rhetoric of arrogance. (SR)

Explores cultural variability, especially uncertainty avoidance and power distance, and examines how it affects public response to crisis. Presents an analysis of the national cultures of six European countries that showed that publics who live in nations that are high in uncertainty avoidance and power distance tend to react more strongly, and more quickly, to perceived threats. (SC)

Illustrates the operationalization of the conjoint analysis multivariate technique for the study of the public relations function within strategic decision making in a crisis situation. Finds that what the theory describes as the strategic way of handling a crisis is also the way each of the managers who were evaluated would prefer to conduct their own business. (SC)

Suggests use of elements of risk communication by crisis communication practitioners facing increasing industrial reliance on new technologies which might be associated with potential health/environment harm. Studies a small company crisis which reveals that elements of anticipation, public involvement/trust, technological comparison, and media tolerance might be useful to public relations practitioners dealing with technological crises. (PA)

Argues that newly developed theory in crisis public relations suggests a shift is necessary in the way practitioners view crises. Notes that the new paradigm defines excellent crisis public relations very differently from the literature of the past 20 years. (RS)

Examines the crisis-communication strategies employed by Odwalla, Inc. during its juice contamination crisis, a crisis whose impact on public health and safety gave it the potential for developing into an issue that required public policy relief. Finds that public-relations response strategies dominated legal response strategies, followed by mixed public-relations and legal strategies. (RS)

Describes the theory of image restoration discourse as an approach for understanding corporate crisis situations. States this theory can be used by practitioners to help design messages during crises and by critics or educators to critically evaluate such messages. Describes and illustrates the theory's basic concepts. Offers suggestions for crisis communication based on this theoretical approach. (PA)

Examines how InterAid, a private-sector relief agency, responded to the false charge that it had misappropriated $20 million purportedly raised for Ethiopian famine relief. Suggests that it was not primarily negative reporting that retarded the strength of InterAid, but InterAid's inability to demonstrate shared common interests with its primary publics. (MS)

Explores communication behaviors and reactions of employees during crisis periods, using a qualitative case study of Eastern Airlines pilots. Finds that useful theories for crisis communication can be developed only after sufficient inquiry into the communication needs and behaviors of message receivers. (MS)

Describes the contingent media relations policy employed by Rockwell International, the prime contractor for the United States space shuttle program, following the January 28, 1986, destruction of the Challenger. Analyzes Rockwell's response through a theoretical model of crisis perception and Rockwell's policy in relation to the mass media. (MS)

Highlights • Overall, PIOs evaluated their relationships with external partners with whom they manage crises very positively. • Quality of relationships with external partners predicted PIOs' satisfaction with crisis preparedness. • PIOs' crisis messages had to clear significantly more levels for routine than crisis communications. Abstract As funding for public health promotion is increasingly limited in the U.S., public relations research informing management of crises that threaten public health is especially critical. Crisis planning models such as Reynolds and Seeger's (2005, 2014) crisis and emergency risk communication model offer comprehensive directives for crisis managers and present opportunities to extend the utility of best practice recommendations. A survey of public information officers (PIOs) (n= 208) at local public health departments across the U.S. examines the quality of their relationships with partners in public health crisis management, including first responders, media, law enforcement, and hospitals, and reveals that relationships with key publics in crisis management are lacking. Further, PIOs at state governed health departments may face critical delays in releasing crisis messages, as their messages are required to clear more levels of approval than locally (city/county) governed departments. Implications and future research for these key variables extending public relations crisis communication research with a focus on inter-organizational relationships are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we investigated to what extent the willingness of people to take advice from the local government, people’s feelings of collective efficacy and empowerment, and their relationship with the local government, is dependent on whether the local government was accountable for the crisis or not. In addition, we were interested in the influence of empathic versus neutral crisis information on people’s behavior, feelings and their relationship with the local government. The results indicate that people’s intention to follow the advice of the local government is generally high, even when the local government is held accountable for the crisis. However, accountability negatively influenced people’s relationship with the local government, as well as collective efficacy. Our research shows that this negative outcome for people’s relationship with the local government cannot be countered by empathic crisis information. However, conveying empathic concern in the crisis information did enhance level of collective efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public relations practitioners face workplace challenges as they cultivate public relationships, resolve conflicts, and manage crises. Odds of adversities may be high in this role, requiring practitioners to be resilient. This qualitative study explores workplace adversities in public relations from a practitioners’ perspective, and examines how they enact resilience. By asking current practitioners about their lived experiences, we found workplace adversities occurred on multiple levels and ranged from mundane to life-altering events. Patterns of resilience were, metaphorically, bouncing forward, bouncing up, bouncing back, and bouncing around. This study contributes to public relations and resilience scholarship by (1) uncovering workplace adversities and resilience enactment in public relations, therefore connecting practice with scholarship, (2) extending the “bounce back” metaphor in the resilience literature, therefore making resilience more inclusive, and (3) exploring the connections of multi-level resilience, and suggesting the complex and negotiated nature of resilience among individuals embedded in collectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research analyzes the effectiveness of a CEO spokesperson’s affiliation to a social group during a crisis. Specifically, it addresses the question of whether a group affiliation with a large heterogeneous group, such as parents, can engender similarly positive effects in members of the same social category, compared with a smaller distinctive group, here an amateur sports community. An experimental study using a product harm crisis by a bicycle manufacturer as stimulus was conducted to answer the research question. The results reveal positive effects when the CEO signaled his/her affiliation with a social group that is distinctive and rather homogenous. In this case, corporate trustworthiness, purchase intentions, and abstaining from negative word-of-mouth are directly impacted by stakeholders’ identification with the CEO spokesperson, and indirectly through identification with the CEO and message credibility. However, when the CEO spokesperson communicated his/her affiliation with a large and heterogeneous group, in this case parents, the company did not benefit. The results yield implications for both crisis communication research and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sports crisis communication is a growing field of study, with research focusing on the image repair of athletes and teams, fan solidarity during crises, and the role of mass and new media in crisis development. However, reflecting a broader tendency in crisis communication to emphasize the study of response strategies at the expense of other factors, sports crisis communication research has not examined the unique factors in sports that prevent crises from causing severe image and reputation damage. In this paper, we apply Coombs’ notion of buffers to argue for new attention to two particularly important buffers in sports: communities and political economy. These buffers often preclude the need for any response at all, and crisis communication practitioners would do well to implement them around their own sports teams to prevent damage from crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crisis communication research has generally focused on how to respond to public’s reaction after a crisis is known to various stakeholders. Stealing thunder is a proactive crisis communication strategy by which an organization releases crisis information before media gets a hold of the crisis. This study investigated the effects of stealing thunder and moderating effect of organization’s persuasive intent and consumers’ attachment on stealing thunder. Stealing thunder was effective when participants were not explicitly aware of the persuasive intent in the crisis message. When participants were aware of persuasive intent, stealing thunder effects disappeared. Brand attachment also moderated the effects of stealing thunder. Participants with high brand attachment evaluated stealing thunder information more positively compared to those with low brand attachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines effective crisis response strategies using Coombs’ SCCT as a theoretical framework. Results of an experiment show that base responses (instructing and adjusting information) could mitigate reputational decline for a company during a severe, preventable crisis. The sole use of bolstering (reminding) strategy or no response is ineffective because it negatively influences consumers’ trust in the company, attitudes toward the company, perceived corporate reputation, and supportive behavioral intentions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We offer a new conceptual grouping for crisis communication theories. [•] We urge researchers to go beyond examining social media predominately as an organizational management tool. [•] We encourage more crisis communication research from a multi-vocal perspective. [•] We call for more cross-boarders crisis communication research. [•] We conclude with asking scholars to consider what is the goal of our scholarship? [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] We examined five case studies of crisis with an inherent enduring image. [•] An enduring image is the shared image of first mention among its public. [•] Enduring image emerges from defining moments in crisis and is loaded with symbolic potential. [•] Enduring image exhibits a sense of permanence that endures beyond the crisis timeline. [•] An enduring image becomes a prime representation of the accused during a crisis and beyond. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Indian PR is a mix of the old and new, local and global trends. [•] Digitization, information flow, metrics, crisis management are common concerns. [•] #1 Local issue for Indian PR leaders is talent recruitment and retention. [•] Managing image of PR practice is more important in India than globally. [•] PR leaders’ action strategies to resolve issues are similar to global counterparts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] We combined best practices from public relations with value modeling to construct a model for identifying “good” social media crisis messages. [•] As a proof of concept, the resulting model was tested against social media crisis messages collected during the Hurricane Irene crisis. [•] Top-ranked social media updates shared a number of attributes, including links to further information, use of strong voice, and multimedia. [•] A set of best practices was proposed based on the value model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Social media outlets are becoming main stream venues for risk and crisis communication, and how information is shared is critical. Analysis of social bookmarks regarding H1N1 demonstrate the CDC was the most popular reference for information, individuals were strongly present, blogs were the most popular type of documents, and Twitter is the most popular source being referenced. The crisis communication literature has just started to address those stakeholders that are creating their own influence and messages online. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This research looks at the teaching of crisis management at the colleges and departments of communication and public relations in the Arab world. Major findings of the study suggest that out of 24 colleges and departments of communication and public relations surveyed by this research, only two universities teach the course crisis management in their curriculum. The latest developments in the Arab world dictate new mechanisms in managing information and news and dealing with publics and the mass media locally and internationally. The new trends of teaching crisis management focus on the multidisciplinary approach which consists of a good knowledge of news management, dealing with the media, dealing with people, business administration, information technology, social and anthropological context. All these fields of knowledge are indispensable for understanding the general background of the issues and for choosing and selecting the best communication and persuasion techniques and tactics to manage crises effectively and successfully. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: By most accounts, crisis preparedness in organizations globally has been appalling (Burnett, 1998; Pinsdorf, 1991). The situation is no different in Singapore (Wu & Dai, 2001). With crisis expertise often lacking from within organizations, many resort to engaging public relations (PR) agencies to help. This study, which is inspired by Frandsen and Johansen''s (2008) study in Denmark, aims to evaluate the contributions of consultants from PR agencies. Adapting indicators to assess professionalism proposed by Lages and Simkin (2003) and Sallot, Cameron and Lariscy (1997) and integrating them with variables from the contingency theory (Pang, Jin, & Cameron, 2010), this study seeks to examine: (1) the level of expertise of consultants in offering crisis management consultancy; (2) the level of experience of consultants offering crisis management consultancy; and (3) the value and expedience of the consultancy services offered. Findings showed that agencies in Singapore hired consultants based on skills such as writing, speaking and ability to manage the media. For some, lack of direct experience was compensated by in-house training. International agencies appeared to have an advantage over the local agencies by virtue of their access to expertise and knowledge from their international network. However, as the majority of agencies had only managed few crises, it was difficult to assess the value these consultants added. Studies examining consultants in PR agencies are rare. It is hoped this study would trigger research around the world. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Social media is emerging as critical element of scanning for many crisis risks. When these crisis risks emerge online, people often confuse them with crises and that is why we have developed the term paracrisis. Para can mean “like” something. A paracrisis is like a crisis. It can “look like” a crisis and does require action from the organization. However, a paracrisis does not warrant convening the crisis team and operating in a crisis mode. This paper details the value of paracrises, how to evaluate their threat potential, and ways to respond to them and how to evaluate those responses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Crisis holds the potential for profound change in organizations and industries. The past 50 years of crisis management highlight key shifts in crisis practice, creating opportunities for multiple theories and research tracks. Defining crises such as Tylenol, Exxon Valdez, and September 11 terrorist attacks have influenced or challenged the principles of best practice of crisis communication in public relations. This study traces the development of crisis process and practice by identifying shifts in crisis research and models and mapping these against key management theories and practices. The findings define three crisis domains: crisis planning, building and testing predictive models, and mapping and measuring external environmental influences. These crisis domains mirror but lag the evolution of management theory, suggesting challenges for researchers to reshape the research agenda to close the gap and lead the next stage of development in the field of crisis communication for effective organizational outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study aims to analyze what kinds of frames have been used in British Petroleum''s (BP''s) press releases, which dealt with the Gulf oil spill crisis that occurred in April 2010. A content analysis was conducted to explore the different frames used by BP in its press releases to deal with the crisis. The main and sub themes are also analyzed through a content analysis of press releases. This study attempts to examine BP''s crisis communication strategy through press release usage by closely analyzing the frames and themes that were used. This study found that BP attempted to update the public on what the company was doing to resolve the oil spill crisis, and that they made every effort to manage the crisis by using the company''s official update frame. In addition, by using the social responsibility frame, BP aimed to show the public that they had intentions of taking responsibility for the oil spill. Finally, BP used a minimal number of defensive frames as a way of showing the public that they did not want to flee from the responsibility of the oil spill crisis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The rapid growth of social media challenges crisis communicators to disseminate safety messages to affected audiences quickly and in a manner that promotes maximum compliance. A nationally representative consumer panel responded to food recall messages that varied in source (organizational or user-generated) and reliability (confirmed versus unconfirmed). Results indicated that intent to comply with a food recall message was stronger in response to organizational messages than to user-generated messages, but did not vary according to message reliability. Strong age cohort effects were seen in the responses to message source, with younger participants making less distinction than older cohorts between organizational and user-generated sources. Implications of the results for public relations and crisis communications theory and practice, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research were discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study expands on previously published research into the role citizen generated content plays in the coverage of crisis situations and discusses implications for public relations practitioners who must respond to this type of coverage. Using a content analysis of newspapers and the websites of cable and broadcast news networks, the authors explored the use of both official versus non-official sources and the use of citizen generated content during coverage of the January 2011 shootings in Tucson that injured Rep. Gabrielle Giffords (D-Ariz.) and 12 others, and killed six people. Results revealed reporters were more likely to use non-official sources. Reporters also were more likely to use non-official technology sources, or citizen generated content, than official technology sources such as web-based news releases and statements. This study finds additional support for the concept that crisis managers must learn to deal with reporters’ use of citizen generated content while also leveraging social media to control their organization''s message during a crisis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]