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Introduction. The study analyzes a variety of newly discovered archival documents and materials for a comprehensive insight into the 1921–1922 mass famine in Uralsk Governorate. To facilitate this, the paper shall examine the causes, mitigation measures, and consequences of the famine in the designated region of present-day Kazakhstan. Materials. So, the study focuses on related documents from the State Archive of West Kazakhstan Region that have never been introduced into scientific discourse and received only fragmented attention. Results. The work provides a historiographic review on the topic under consideration, while some key research results are based on analytical insights into the archival papers. Our narrative centers around the causes and socio-demographic consequences, conditions of livestock breeding and agrarian industries, famine mitigation measures. Statistical data contained in the reports of governorate-level commissions prove most instrumental in evaluating the 1921–1922 famine’s scale and tracing negative socioeconomic dynamics. Conclusions. Uralsk Governorate happened to be a most famine-affected region of Kazakhstan, which was dramatically preceded (and paralleled) by harsh natural and climatic conditions, such as drought, crop failure, zud (jut), and livestock reduction. These were aggravated by poor agrarian development of the region and reduction of cultivated areas — only to be face the early twentieth century political cataclysms (e.g., Russian Civil War, increase of taxation, etc.). The famine’s consequences included increased mortality rates, population decline, dramatic fall of living standards, and large numbers of orphans and homeless children.

Introduction. The paper develops the idea of a hypothesized ethnogenetic succession of the Chonos and related groups from the legendary Bӧrtä-Čïno within the ‘Mongol’ Y-chromosomal subclade of R2a-M124 among Kalmyks (Oirats and Mongols at large), attempts ethnonymic reconstructions for potential ancestral communities from the designated period. Goals. The study attempts an analysis of ethnographic, linguistic and historical data proper in light of R2a-M124 Y-STR haplotypes of Kalmyks, and deepens the hypothesis suggesting ethnohistorical (ethnogenetic) succession of Oirats and Mongols’ ancestors from nomads (and other groups) of the Early and High Middle Ages. Materials and methods. The work investigates classical historical chronicles and treatises on Turkic and Mongolian studies, employs an interdisciplinary approach with the aid of tools inherent to system analysis, historical reconstruction, etc. Results. The article draws parallels between the ethnic names ‘Dörbän’, ‘Durban’ and ‘Dorbet’. It hypothesizes as to potential roots of the male ancestral line at earliest stages of the Mongolian and Oirat ethnogenesis, not excepting the possibility of its Sogdian origin via Ashina Turks within their vassal Toquz Oghuz elites (since the mid-sixth century CE). Finally, the paper tends to identify some ethnic communities from the designated era represented in totemic genealogical myths of Turko-Mongols, and sets forth a narrative of potential ethnohistorical succession of Bukhus Kalmyks from the medieval Bugu (Pugu).

Introduction. Tibetan-language scriptures created by Mongolian monastic scholars and related studies are extremely few. To date, we are aware of a total of ten such scriptures. Goals. So, the article aims to introduce one such text into scientific circulation, the rest be examined in a series of subsequent works. Materials and methods. The study employs the historical comparative method and those of scientific identification, analysis and synthesis. Results. The paper reveals some errors and inaccuracies that contradict available historical and textual data. Comparative insights into classical works of the designated period identify certain lettering proper (some letters classified neither as vowels nor as consonants in the attempted grammar of written Mongolian) and letter-naming differences, as well as somewhat invariants for same grammatical terms. The analysis has also yielded data unavailable in other works on written Mongolian. Conclusions. The paper reveals evidence of existence of a Mongolian writing school in the fifteenth century, and shows the stylistic levels were distinguished by certain writing patterns.

Introduction. The paper examines the cluster of toponyms derived from drymonyms. The relevance of the research topic is determined by the poor knowledge of this type of toponyms in the toponymic system of Bashkortostan (Russia). Goals. The study seeks to classify Bashkir toponyms derived from names of forests, groves, wild trees and shrubs, to describe their word-formation structure, semantics, origin and features of functioning in the toponymic system of the Southern Urals. Materials and methods. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that the paper is the first to identify toponyms associated with drymonyms using the method of continuous sampling — in the Dictionary of Toponyms of the Republic of Bashkortostan. The work also attempts to describe those systematically, traces new drymonyms of foreign origin, and reveals the latter’s role in the toponymy-related processes. Furthermore, the paper is the first to outline a lexical/semantic classification of such toponyms, defines their structure, semantics, and origin. Results. In addition to toponyms of common Turkic origin, the article identifies drymonymic toponyms formed from Indo-Iranian, Finno-Ugric, and Mongolian word stems. The insight into some drymonymic toponyms associated with beliefs of Bashkirs reveals their function in creating the unique toponymic picture of Bashkortostan. The analysis of related material shows the designated type of Bashkir toponyms characterize primarily natural landscapes of Bashkortostan, habitats of certain species of wild trees and shrubs. The toponymic substratum of Indo-Iranian, Finno-Ugric and Mongolian origin reflects historical backgrounds of the language and ethnos, while toponyms associated with deification of ancestral trees are indicative of specific ancient beliefs of Bashkirs.

Introduction. In West Kazakhstan and the Volga-Ural interfluve, it is Golden Horde cities, caravan routes, and caravanserais that remain as under- or uninvestigated. Particular attention be paid to the necessity of exploring caravan routes and caravanserais from Urgench to Saraychik (Saray-Jük), and from Saraychik to the Volga Golden Horde cities. Goals. The study seeks to systemize and analyze materials on caravan routes and caravanserais in the south and southwest of West Kazakhstan and in the south of the Volga-Ural interfluve. It also aims at reconstructing some functioning patterns of caravan trade routes from Saraychik to the Volga Golden Horde cities in the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries. So, the paper shall systemize and examine archaeological, ethnographic, archival data and sources on the Golden Horde cities, caravan routes, and caravanserais across the mentioned territories; describe some identified caravan routes and caravanserais. Materials and methods. The work focuses on materials from archaeological excavations in Kazakhstan, Russia, and Uzbekistan; considers outcomes of field (expeditionary) historical, geographical, and ethnographic surveys conducted across Mangystau and Atyrau Regions of Kazakhstan in 2019–2022; performs analyses of geographical maps. The research methodology includes general scientific, historical, and geographical tools and techniques. Results. The paper basically systemizes the efforts undertaken by scholars affiliated to Saraishyq State Reserve Museum of History and Culture (Kazakhstan). The field (expeditionary) surveys have identified more Golden Horde sites and settlements to yield an improved map of caravan routes. At large, the article provides a general territorial scheme of caravan routes and caravanserais from the Golden Horde period across the south and southwest of West Kazakhstan and the south of the Volga-Ural interfluve. Conclusions. Our insights attest to that the Golden Horde caravanserais and caravan routes were characterized by quite efficient territorial patterns in the examined regions that grew to shape a comprehensive transit-trade system for the transfer of people, goods, and knowledge along a northern branch of the Silk Road.

Introduction. The study examines some aspects of everyday life once led by inhabitants of Kalmyk uluses (Astrakhan Governorate). The relevance of the topic arises from the necessity to compile a more complete panorama of Kalmyk life witnessed by the period when Russian and local authorities were seeking for ways of introducing the region into Russia’s administrative and political agenda. Goals. So, given that the topic has remained somewhat understudied, the paper aims to characterize some aspects of everyday life viewed by governorate-level officials as ‘bottlenecks’ in the path toward Russia’s integration of Kalmyk society. Materials and methods. The work focuses on records-keeping material primarily housed at the State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast, and introduces the former into scientific circulation. The study basically employs both general scientific and special historical approaches, with particular roles be played by the method of systems analysis and principles of historicism and objectivity. These have proved most instrumental in outlining a true panorama of Kalmyk nomadic life in the second decade of the nineteenth century. Results. The paper characterizes some questions and proposals set forth by the civil Governor on various aspects of Kalmyk life — and related opinions of local landlords and ulus rulers. Conclusions. Our insights into the material attest to that most important issues of everyday life across Kalmyk uluses in the early nineteenth century included those of land, interior affairs, and trade. The then Kalmyk elites and governorate-level officials did come to consensus on some points, while others proved controversial enough.

Introduction. The year 2023 commemorates the 80th anniversary of the Kalmyk deportation (28 December 1943) to the eastern parts of the Soviet Union. In December 1943, ethnic Kalmyks were groundlessly repressed and forcibly relocated from native lands to be scattered across Siberia toward the Far East and Extreme North for the long thirteen years (1943–1957). Key aspects of Kalmykia’s contribution to the Great Victory have been duly investigated. However, the deportation and exile proper had remained untackled for quite a long time, and this period of Kalmyk history still lacks comprehensive investigation. It is urgent to assemble a complete picture of how people were relocated and survived in special settlement areas, which makes further endeavors aimed at obtaining additional related material timely enough. In February 2023, Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) arranged a scientific expedition to the Republic of Kazakhstan for documentary material on Kalmyks deported to the Kazakh SSR. The employees were granted a unique opportunity to consider documents housed at the Archive of the President of Kazakhstan, repositories of Almaty Region, Qyzylorda Region, and Aral District Archive proper. Goals. The article attempts a review of some documents discovered at Aral District Archive (Qyzylorda Region, Kazakhstan) and dealing with Kalmyks deported from Lagansky Ulus of the Kalmyk ASSR in the late 1943. Materials. So, the paper focuses on official papers contained in the mentioned repository and related scholarly publications. Conclusions. Insights into the documents prove instrumental enough in outlining how residents of Lagansky Ulus were relocated to the target territory and adapted to new living conditions. The former primarily deal with the years 1944, 1946, 1948, and 1950. However, even the reduced data are of utmost significance. The still unanswered questions are how many residents of the Ulus were deported to the Kazakh SSR and Siberian territories, and what the actual proportions were. The archival papers say that in January 1944, the Bureau of Aral District Party Committee and District Soviet of Workers’ Deputies decided to accept and accommodate a total of 745 households to be engaged in local fisheries. Another dispatch of April 1944 addressed to the Secretary of Kazakhstan Party Committee and the Head of Qyzylorda NKVD Department mentioned 1,200 individuals or 400 households of ‘special settlers’, while additional 2,200 fishermen and their family members were accepted thereafter. So, the actual number of accommodated Kalmyks was larger than the one in published scholarly works. Further detailed insights into the papers from Aral District Archive shall shed light on living conditions and challenges faced by relocated residents of Lagansky Ulus across special settlement areas.

Introduction. The publication finalizes the series of paleodemographic studies into materials from Catacomb burials discovered by archaeologists in grave mounds across the three territorial zones of Kalmykia — Sarpa Lowland, Yergeni Upland, and Caspian Depression. The current paper focuses on anthropological material from burials investigated in the Caspian Depression. Goals. The study shall introduce new anthropological material from the Middle Bronze Age once discovered in the territory of Kalmykia. Materials and methods. The work examines human bone remains from grave fields of the Caspian Depression stored at the Osteological Materials Repository of Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS). Age and sex determination procedures have been conducted following a comprehensive anthropological program. Results. The diverse research efforts have yielded paleodemographic characteristics of the population that once inhabited the Caspian Depression, a comparative intra-group principal component analysis involving synchronous anthropological series in the territory of Kalmykia (multivariate statistics), and a discussion of summarized results of our insights into the demographic situation across Middle Bronze Age Kalmykia. The paper notes some similarities (and differences) between the identified paleodemographic indicators and those of neighboring regions (Republic of Dagestan and Rostov Oblast) on average age of death, high mortality of children, and predominance of male individuals, the two latter being typical for societies of that era. The Kalmykia-based materials are characterized by almost equal mean ages of death in the male and female groups, and a larger number of individuals aged fifty and more, with a small but evident predominance of female ones among the latter.

Introduction. The cultural heritages of the Sakha (Yakut) and the Tuvan are distinguished by a similarity of basic worldview ideas pertaining to the structure of the Universe, multi-storeyedness of each of the Three Worlds, the pantheon of deities, etc. Goals. The article aims to interpret semantics of ethnic jewelry as a visual narrative articulating the ideas of individual soul in traditional Sakha and Tuvan cultures. To facilitate this, the paper shall summarize the available descriptions of these ideas from ethnographic material, identify some facts confirming jewelry used to serve as markers of soul, consider semantics of traditional jewelry signs. The study hypothesizes as follows: when it comes to soul visualizations, folklore sources manifest repeated indications localizing one of the three souls (aorta, blood, belt, etc.) ― hence, the other two must also have some certain locations and related beliefs, too. Methods. With due regard of the dynamics in religious and aesthetic preferences, the employed interdisciplinary and comparative historical approaches comprise the structural/functional, interpretative, and axiological methods. The method of mosaic reconstruction proves as instrumental in revealing jewelry symbolism. Results. The paper confirms adornments (jewelry pieces) act as means to visualize some valuable worldviews, ideas of human soul and its whereabouts, prestige and behavioral norms. The former are defined as utmost identity signs for an inhabitant of the Middle World that serve as markers and protective amulets for each of the three human souls, also viewed as mediators between the sacred and profane worlds, triggers in ritual communication, and social status indicators. Conclusions. Being a universal form, circle (silver disk, bead, infinity knot, and button) denotes the place and function of each soul. For instance, the air one of the Sakha and the middle one of the Tuvan are placed in the head and identified with head adornments (jewelry pieces). According to Sakha beliefs, the maternal soul is localized in the mediastinum (pulse and blood ― heart and liver), while Tuvans place soul one into the navel. Yakut women of fertile age tend to mark this soul with solar breast jewelry, with no identified symbolic parallels in the Tuvan costume. Yakuts believe the third earthly soul be indicated with a belt buckle and dwell in the navel, while the Tuvan tradition says the good soul dwells in the belt. So, the Yakut have retained somewhat more archaic version of the symbolic corpus. And the differences are largely determined by the late influence of Manchu-Chinese culture and Buddhism on worldviews of southern Tuvans.

The paper deals with the Transcaucasian prehistoric period in the history of the ancestors of the Chuvash people. Goals. The study aims to identify and analyse the sources and literature on the topic relating to events of the 7th to 1st centuries BC. Materials and methods. The work employs a complex approach to the examination of the material, which made it possible to analyse the sources and the thoughts of predecessors consistently and systematically. The study focuses on works of historians, ethnographers and linguists about the ethnic groups that previously inhabited and now inhabit the areas to the south of the Greater Caucasus. The sources that proved important include the works by such historians as Herodotus (5th century BC), Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd c. BC), Pseudo-Orpheus (4th c. AD), Priscus Panionensis (5th c.), Menander Protector and Stephanus of Byzantium (both 6th c.). The paper also makes use of some pronouncements by such remarkable researchers as Andrey Golovnev, Sergey Arutyunov, Alikber Alikberov, Nicholas Berdzenishvili, Vera Budanova, Murtazali Gadzhiev, and David Muskhelishvili. Results. Impartial investigation shows that the ethnonym of the Chuvash has undergone a lengthy course of transformation through history in the form of Savir (Saspir/Sapir, Savar, Sabir) → Suvar (Suvas, Suvan) → Suvash → T’šăvaš (Chuvash). As far back as the 7th century BC, to the southeast of Colchis a large confederation of tribes headed by the Saspirs came into being. The study reveals and confirms traces in the pre-history of the distant ancestors of the Chuvash that are shared with the peoples of Georgia. In the period under examination, the historical forerunners of the Chuvash lived in a territory between Media and Colchis, between the Medes and the Colchians. In the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD, they were recorded to inhabit the Chorokh River valley. Alongside historical events, the publication traces ethnographic parallels with the ancient Georgian peoples and some shared elements of vocabulary.

Introduction. The Sakha Republic (Yakutia) — the largest northeastern federal subject of Russia — is distinguished by that it rests on permafrost. The present-day permafrost degradation has significant impacts on rural everyday life characterized by persistent traditional economic practices largely dependent on environmental conditions. Goals. The article seeks to analyze some local experiences of human adaptations to current and potential threats resulting from permafrost thawing and cold deficit. Materials and methods. To facilitate this, the paper shall introduce materials collected during 2019, 2020 and 2022 field surveys, the former to include expert interviews, results of questionnaires filled in by residents of Amga village, and our visual landscape observations. Historical and anthropological approaches prove most instrumental, as is the personal history method that focuses on the respondents’ individual perceptions of the ongoing changes. Results. The study identifies some patterns of individual behavior adopted by rural residents in the face of emerging climate threats. Special attention is paid to separate aspects of how various rural groups tend to perceive permafrost degradation. The paper resumes that the most pressing challenges include agricultural land reduction, deterioration of rural housing stock and social infrastructure. It has been revealed that residents of Amga village strive to adapt to the current changes via the use of new technologies and introduction of modern construction elements that used to be rare or completely absent in rural practices. The work emphasizes there are both direct and indirect threats — including the ‘delayed’ ones — resulting from the changes in permafrost soils. So, certain direct risks for the traditional livestock-breeding and agricultural agendas do increase pressure on social stability and employment.

Introduction. The article examines a dictionary of Mansi compiled from lexemes recorded along the Chusovaya River in the early-to-mid eighteenth century. The dictionary was discovered in G. F. Müller’s archives. Other available archives (e.g., those of A. J. Sjögren and P. S. Pallas) contain no mention of the dictionary. So, the only source referring to the latter is a 1958 article by Hungarian linguist J. Gulya that analyzes several Mansi words recorded in the eighteenth century across the Lower Tagil, Lower Tura, and Chusovaya river basins to determine a total of three distinct features inherent to the local Mansi dialects. A comparison of lexemes contained in G. F. Müller’s dictionary of Chusovaya Mansi against the ones published in J. Gulya’s work has yielded a number of discrepancies with the scholar’s conclusions. Goals. So, the paper compares Chusovaya Mansi against other Mansi dialects — Berezovo, Solikamsk, Cherdyn, Kungur, Upper Tura, and Karpinsky ones — recorded during the same period and in the same area. The most extensive description and analysis of the latter sources based on L. Honti’s classification are to be found in J. Normanskaya’s article titled ‘How the Classification of Mansi Dialects Was Changed (On the Material of the First Cyrillic Books and Dictionaries of the 18th and 19th Centuries)’ (2022). Materials and methods. The work employs the comparative and comparative historical methods to examine a variety of Mansi-language archival sources. Results. The paper reconsiders the data contained in J. Normanskaya’s publication for a comparative analysis, and shows that the Chusovaya Mansi dictionary does confirm the Russian researcher’s conclusions: Northern and Western Mansi dialect differences developed by L. Honti were non-existent or had only just appeared in the eighteenth century. However, the proto-Mansi *k>χ transition before back vowels identified by J. Normanskaya as the one and only feature exclusively characteristic of Northern Mansi dialects has not been confirmed in the Chusovaya dialect traditionally clustered within Western Mansi: it happens to contain the traditional Northern transition (chot ‘шесть’, chórom ‘три’).

Introduction. The article examines the institution of bukaul in Chinggisid states and their successors. Special attention is given to functions implemented by the official in the uluses of Hulagu, Jochi and Chagatai — and the former’s evolution throughout centuries. It is also explained why the functions tended to vary in different Turko-Mongol states. Goals. The study seeks to characterize the status of bukaul in Chinggisid and post-Chinggisid states. To facilitate this, the paper introduces a Russian translation and an interdisciplinary analysis of one legislative act — yarliq (decree) — appointing an army bukaul, and compares it to other sources for specific features of this official in Turko-Mongol states. Materials and methods. The paper examines Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-fourteenth century by Persian official Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani, and other historical sources on Turko-Mongol states — from the empire of Genghis Khan and to Central Asian khanates of the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatic analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. Bukauls are often mentioned by medieval Asian historians but the messages tend to vary, which gives rise to different opinions as to their status and functions. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing a bukaul from Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. Our comparative insights into other sources attest to that functions of bukaul in different Chinggisid states were as different and diverse, which resulted from the latter’s specific sociopolitical and economic development conditions. Conclusions. Depending on correlations between Mongol imperial and regional traditions of power, administrative and socioeconomic patterns, bukaul could serve as distributor of material benefits in the army (Mongol Iran), as executive of administrative and law-enforcement structures (Ulus of Jochi), and even as courtier in charge of khans’ cuisine (Chagatai Ulus). At the same time in Chinggisid and post-Chinggisid states, bukauls were usually ethnic Turko-Mongols of noble origin with military-oriented minds and corresponding training, which resulted in that they could be actively involved into military endeavors regardless of their official positions and functions.

Introduction. The article examines the development of Soviet Kalmykia’s healthcare that was included into the public health system of the USSR. Chronologically, the study covers the Ninth and Tenth five-year plans, fragmentary insights into the Eighth one to yield comparative statistical data. Goals. The work seeks to analyze and reveal some distinct features characterizing the development of Soviet Kalmykia’s healthcare throughout the 1970s as part the then state health agenda. The paper focuses on state policies pursued during the Ninth and Tenth five-year plans, describes the region’s general conditions, some changes in the budget process which directly influenced healthcare in the Republic, composition of capital investments, dynamics of health-related material support, and staffing issues. Materials and methods. The study widely employs the statistical (quantitative) method to trace qualitative and quantitative changes in the health system of the Kalmyk ASSR during the period under consideration. The chronological and retrospective methods make it possible to examine the Republic’s healthcare in actual historical contexts and to implement a retrospective analysis free from any ideological factors. The paper considers documents and statistical material from the State Archive of the Russian Federation, National Archive of Kalmykia, and a number of related publications. Results. The study reveals some key trends in the organization of medical and sanitary services, delineates public health policies in the region and nationwide, delves into the legislative framework that shaped the basis for public health in the whole country. The medical network development of the 1970s delivered qualified medical services to rural inhabitants and dwellers of remote areas. The undertaken measures improved and diversified health maintenance patterns both in region- and district-level treatment/prevention facilities.

Introduction. Despite the centuries-long research, ethnic history of Kalmyks (Oirats) and Mongols at large still contains a number of unanswered questions. Recent academic insights into gene pools of Eurasian and, specifically, Mongolian peoples may be instrumental in revising some aspects of history, refuting others, and confirming the remainder. The Kalmyk gene pool investigation has so far been reduced to the level of sub-ethnic groups, while it is that of clans claiming common patrilineal descent which seems most promising when it comes to the study of Turko-Mongolian nomads. Goals. The paper attempts an analysis of Kalmyk R2a-M124 Y-STR haplotypes by clans and articulates a hypothesis as to possible ethnohistorical roots of the lineage. Materials. The study examines a total of forty three STR haplotypes of the mentioned Y-chromosomal subclade identified by Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) with the aid of AmpFLSTR YfilerTM Plus PCR Reagents. Results. The study shows bearers of the subclade largely represent Kalmyk clans with names containing the lexical unit ‘chonos’, and ones attesting to the clans had been founded by some noblemen, namely: Taichiud (Kalm. тәәҗүд ‘tayijis, princes’), Khashikhanar (Kalm. хашхнр ‘chiefs of appanages, governors’), Saiduud (Kalm. сәәдүд ‘superior ones, noblemen’), Kha(а)nud (Kalm. хаануд ‘Khans, rulers’). The paper articulates a hypothesis suggesting the lineage may descend from rulers of the Khoid Oirats and via the latter — from Quduqa-bäki of the medieval Oyïrad, and even further up to Duwa-soqor and the legendary ancestor of all Mongols — Bӧrtä-Čïno.

Introduction. Curses constitute an earliest stratum of ethnic oral narratives and still remain somewhat understudied. The former’s shaping resulted from belief in magic and the latter’s supposed ability to bring harm onto one’s opponent. The article attempts a textual analysis of oral curses once recorded from ethnic Kalmyks. Goals. The study seeks to outline semantic features inherent to formulas of curses in B. Bergmann’s dictionary of Kalmyk phraseological units, and investigate his letters for cursing phrases containing the lexeme ‘father’. Materials and methods. The phrases subject to descriptive analysis have been selected via continuous sampling. The paper focuses on B. Bergmann’s Kalmyk phraseological lists and letters (‘Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmȕken in den Jahren 1802 und 1803’), other Mongolian language materials. Results. The linguoculturological and contextual insights into the formulas of curses make it possible to delineate the latter’s communicative essentials and semantic components. Thematically, the variety of curses can be reduced to a number of ill wishes, such as loss of health and life, misfortunes in family and decreased living standards, etc. Our semantic analysis suggests the formulas are largely culture-specific and may be viewed as manifested spiritual experiences and mental attitudes of the then Kalmyks. So, the paper comprehensively examines the not that widespread Kalmyk curses containing the lexeme ‘father’ from B. Bergmann’s letters.

Introduction. The 19th century witnessed the emergence of a powerful Muslim merchant class in the steppe zone of Imperial Russia. Those were ethnic Tatars, Kazakhs, Sarts, Bukharans, Uighurs, and Shala Kazakhs based in Petropavlovsk and Semipalatinsk. Goals. The work aims to identify outcomes of charitable activities undertaken by Muslim merchants. Another objective is to distinguish the specifics of charity efforts and the latter’s main directions. Material and methods. The paper investigates documents housed at the Central State Archive of Kazakhstan, Historical Archive of Omsk Oblast, National Archive (former Central State Historical Archive) of Bashkortostan, Russian State Historical Archive, Archive of North Kazakhstan Region, and pre-revolutionary periodicals, reports of Muslim charitable societies, reference and encyclopedic materials. The study employs both general scientific (analysis, synthesis, generalization) and special historical research methods (comparative-historical and retrospective ones). Results. The paper outlines key directions of Muslim charities in the steppe, namely: social support, enlightening and educational endeavors. Muslim merchant benefactors tended to meet not only intra-confessional needs but also nationwide ones too. And while the imperial administration did welcome the assistance from entrepreneurs in solving country-wide problems, Muslim philanthropy would still face a number of obstacles. Officials were reluctant enough to grant permits for mosque constructions, inclined to limit the functioning of madrassas and charitable organizations, banned waqfs. However, despite all the bureaucratic and administrative barriers Muslims did manage to create a coherent system of funding their needs.

Introduction. It is urgent enough to reveal original features of epic traditions in certain ethnic environments to draw a general epic picture of Central Asian peoples. As is evident, shamanism has given rise to diverse epic and poetic genres. Shamanic and epic texts of Mongols are characterized by identical mythological patterns of world order, unified heavenly pantheons, coherent and synonymous ideas and concepts. Goals. The article aims to identify the functions of a shaman/shamaness in plots of Buryat epic narratives, determine the former’s position and status in the system of images. So, the paper shall analyze epic texts clustering with different local traditions of Cis-Baikal Buryats, delineate images of shamans and shamanesses to consider them in a comparative perspective with the involvement of ethnographic material. Materials and methods. The study employs comparative-historical and contrastive methods as key tools of analysis. It examines Buryat epic texts — both published ones and those contained in archives of the Center of Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs (IMBTS SB RAS). Results. The paper suggests that in the Buryat epic tradition shamans and shamanesses can be viewed as traditional characters traced back to most archaic beliefs, though their functions in uligers are essentially limited and monotypic. There is a gender division at different levels of the universe: celestial deities of upper realms are represented by male shamans, while only shamanesses exhibit activity in the Middle World (i.e., on the Earth). The functions of male shaman deities are nominal and not that significant for the plot. The status of a shamaness in variants and versions of the Unga Geseriad is quite high: she serves as mediator between Heaven and Earth, defender, assistant and adviser to the main characters, clairvoyant and soothsayer — and performs the classical role of shamans in society. Narratives recorded from shaman taletellers or individuals with extensive expertise in shamanic traditions tend to entrust shamanesses with larger plot development impacts rather than those delivered by mere narrators. However, in other uligers (not included in Geseriad) the shamaness — though endowed with the same functions of a clairvoyant, soothsayer and adviser — is opposed to the main character and supports his enemies. So, such uligers often contain the motif of her physical elimination. As can be seen from the above, in Buryat uligers male shamans are rather passive and nominal characters, while shamanesses do play most active roles. In general, the status of shamanesses in the epic tradition does not quite correlate with the traditionally high status of shamans and shamanesses among Cis-Baikal Buryats.

Introduction. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Imperial Russia tended to prioritize the creation of trade and transport communications with countries of the East, which was vividly manifested in a number of projects, such as the Trans-Siberian Railway, Chinese Eastern Railway, and South Manchuria Railway. In this regard, not that widely known remains the Kyakhta Railway project, which implied a construction of a railway line from the Trans-Siberian Railway to Kyakhta with subsequent access to the territory of Mongolia. Goals. The paper attempts an analysis of how the concept of the Kyakhta Railway was evolutionizing throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and seeks to reveal some key features arising from the latter’s geoeconomic and geopolitical objectives. Materials and methods. The work involves understudied materials stored at the Russian State Historical Archive, and methodologically rests on a systemic historical approach that secures insights into the development of the project from the perspectives of Imperial Russia’s political and economic interests and opportunities across Asia at the turn of the 20th century. Results. The conducted analysis of documents shows how the Kyakhta Railway project was actually developing. So, the earliest initiatives to build a railway line from Kyakhta to China’s northern borders were announced at the beginning of the 20th century, after Chinese authorities decided to lay a Beijing–Kalgan railway line. The Government was showing interest in the project under study in the direct aftermath the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. And the project’s complete concept was introduced in a special note prepared by Kyakhta-based merchants in 1910 — to be finally approved in 1913. However, the outbreak of WWI postponed its implementation indefinitely. The article examines each stage in the shaping of the Kyakhta Railway project with emphases be laid on its geoeconomic and geopolitical objectives. The paper shows the project was viewed as a means to solve the then problems of Russian-Chinese and Russian-Mongolian trade, stimulate Eastern Siberia’s economy, fulfill transit potentials of Russia, and strengthen our geopolitical influence in the territory of Mongolia. Conclusions. The work attests to the Kyakhta Railway project was systemic and multifactorial by nature, illustrates its essential place in the overall geoeconomic strategies of the Russian Empire.

Introduction. The article examines gift donations practiced during the 1923–1926 expedition to Mongolia and Tibet led by the outstanding Russian explorer of Central Asia Pyotr K. Kozlov. Goals. The paper seeks to analyze items approved by the Soviet Government for P. Kozlov to have selected from the State Depositary, reasons why the traveler did receive the precious artifacts of gold and silver, circumstances of donations, addressees, and the latter’s perceptions. Materials and methods. The work focuses on materials from the State Archive of the Russian Federation and P. Kozlov’s expedition diaries, the objectives set be articulated via individual gift donation stories (occasions) with Mongolian elites and the 13th Dalai Lama, corresponding motives and offering forms. Results. The paper shows the gift-giving practices were viewed by the traveler not only as some homage be paid to local cultures but rather as a means of communication with Mongolian officials and authorities for the latter’s assistance in solving problems faced by the Expedition. No other Russian explorer ever delivered such high-value items to have been used as gifts. Conclusions. This suggests the Bolshevik Government was hoping — with the help of Kozlov’s expedition — to facilitate positive images of Soviet Russia in Mongolia and Tibet (during a scheduled meeting with the Dalai Lama). The Appendix to the article includes several documents from the State Archive of Russia describing the selected gifts and their distribution by individuals.

Introduction. The study analyzes Russian places of memory in contemporary Harbin. Goals. The paper seeks to answer the question if a memorial consensus regarding the Russian heritage in China is possible, the term ‘memorial consensus’ as such denote a certain formal or informal agreement — between governments or within the community — whether to accept or reject certain symbols of the past, and how to interpret the historical events. That would guarantee conflict-free attitudes to places of memory and their due use for ritual purposes. Moreover, such an agreement regulates how certain memorials or memorable dates associated with a common history may be used in a way most acceptable to all the parties. And the present-day war on monuments around the world makes the study timely enough. In this regard, the Chinese experiences of forming a model for accepting a common past are of essential interest. Materials and methods. Methodologically, the work clusters with memory studies. The paper relies on the concepts ‘places of memory’ and ‘cultural memory’ to apply them to empirical materials of Heilongjiang and focus on toponyms, monuments, cemetery, museum exhibitions, architectural monuments, including Orthodox Christian churches. The discussion shall comprise not only monuments associated with White Russian émigrés but also later Soviet memorials. The paper investigates topographic data, visual materials, reference books dealing with historical and cultural landscapes, and historical works. Discussion. In terms of academic disciplines, the study involves historical, political science, sociological, and cultural approaches. This makes it possible to combine the analysis of the position of memorial objects with political changes in the region. Results. The work shows that a memorial consensus about the ‘Russian past’ has been formed in Harbin to meet tourist needs within the city’s image. This has been facilitated by the rapid development of domestic tourism in China. An important role in finding a memorial consensus was played by the constant dialogue between leaders of the two countries. The study identifies a total of three periods when relationships between national leaders had positive impacts on the policy towards the past. The first period is the time of the union between I. V. Stalin and Mao Zedong, the second period is the dialogue between B. N. Yeltsin and Jiang Zemin, and the third one is the tandem of V. V. Putin and Xi Jinping.

Goals. The study attempts etymological analyses of several rare military terms attested in 17th-century Mongol chronicles. The following terms are specifically touched upon in the article: aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ ‘base camp’, bayirildu- ‘to battle each other, fight a battle’, bulγaldu- ‘to fight each other or together’, čaγuraγul- ‘to send on a military campaign’, ide- ‘to capture and plunder (a city)’, nengde- ‘to attack unexpectedly’, niγtarqa- ‘to be in close order’, toyin ‘(military) camp’. All these terms are either totally unattested in the dictionaries of written Mongolian, or used with unique or rare meanings in sources, and reflect important features of military structure in the era of the Mongol Empire. Materials and methods. The paper analyzes three Mongol chronicles of the 17th century, namely: Quriyangγui Altan tobči ‘Brief Golden Summary’ (ca. 1604 to 1634, or mid-to-late 17th century), Erdeni tunumal neretü sudur ‘The Jewel Translucent Sūtra’ (ca. 1607), and Altan tobči ‘Golden Summary’ by Blo-bzaṅ bstan-’jin (ca. 1651 to 1655, or late 17th – early 18th century). The work employs a number of research methods inherent to comparative-historical linguistics and textology. Results. The article presumes the Mongol Empire’s military structure still remained more or less efficient — with some modifications — when the examined Mongol chronicles were being compiled, but completely lost its relevance in subsequent times. In view of this, only a small number of medieval military terms have survived in modern Mongolic languages, sometimes greatly changed in meaning (aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ), used only as obsolete forms (bulγa/bulγaldu-) or bound morphemes (ča’ur). Conclusions. The paper suggests some of the terms are of foreign origin and bear obvious traces of the intensive areal contacts between Mongolic and neighboring languages, notably Turkic (aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ, bulγa(-), toyi/n), Tungusic (nen(g)de-), and Khitan (ča’ur) ones. Some are attested as hapax legomena in individual chronicles (bayirildu-, čaγuraγul-, niγtarqa-), while others articulate highly specific meanings that have no parallels in our sources, and thus either correspond to the semantics of the donor forms (toyi/n) or possibly reflect the influence of local dialects of that time (ide-).

Introduction. The article demonstrates the logical vulnerability of the opinion that ‘language categorizes the world in different ways’, and considers the existing idea of language motivation as interrelation and interdependence of various phenomena — and as proof of inseparability of the cognizer, what can/is to be cognized, and what has been cognized. Goals. Based on the fact that the common beginning of cognition for various linguistic collectives is neither some objective external world nor the inner world of a person, but rather the presence of the cognitive ability inherent in all humankind, the work articulates and tests a hypothesis that cognitive bias be a predetermining factor of linguistic categorization and incomplete interlanguage equivalence. Materials and methods. The paper provides comparative insights into groups of situations involving the use of signs denoting a result of an object’s position shift in Russian and Chinese. The main research method is deduction. Results. The non-equivalence of the considered signs from the two languages is predetermined by that Russian is characterized by the strategy of a person who ACTS and concentrates directly on the dynamics of his/her movement. The signs associated with the preliminary assessment of the initial arrangement of objects and the selection of an appropriate direction of movement become significant. Chinese is dominated by the strategy of a person who OBSERVES, which includes the latter’s own position in the coordinate system and shows much more interest in the relocated object’s position to the subject proper. The two strategies can be sometimes compatible and sometimes contradictory. Accordingly, there is both a zone of conditional equivalence and a zone of lacunarity for the examined signs. Conclusions. The paper shows that language categorizes no world independent of a person but rather — the person’s experience from interacting with the environment. And since at the moment of interaction with the environment a person necessarily performs a certain role, cognitive bias proves inevitable. Awareness of the features underlying linguistic categorization depends on the role of the individual in this interaction.

Introduction. The paper examines some archaeological evidence for a line of continuity between the Savirs (an ethnic group that had inhabited the Caucasus up to the mid-1st millennium CE), the Suvars (who were part of the northward migration of the Bulgar tribal federation to the middle reaches of the Volga later in the 1st millennium CE), and the present-day Chuvash people (first attested under that name in the early 16th century). Goals. The article aims to shed light on the history of ancestors of the Chuvash. Materials. Pottery and other artefacts support the link postulated to exist between the mentioned ethnic groups from different periods in history, while other archaeological discoveries indicate what connected them to and what distinguished them from their neighbors, suggest how they lived, and show the persistence of certain traditions and practices up to date. Results. Excavations of archaeologists from Makhachkala reject the version of the mid-fifth-century migration of Savirs from the region of Derbent towards southeastern Ciscaucasia allegedly because of the Pseudo-Avars that had arrived from Siberia. In fact, such movement resulted from the offensive of Sassanid Iran. The paper also reviews burial grounds located in Kizilyurtovsky District of Dagestan. The analysis of archaeological evidence confirms there is a continuity of black-and-gray pottery from the North Caucasus and Volga Bulgaria.

Introduction. The paper deals with the linguistic data documented in Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s Chuvash wordlist, which is known to be the earliest lexicographic source on the Chuvash language. The wordlist was published in Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s 1730 book but had been, most likely, collected much earlier, in 1711. Goals. The study aims to provide a philological interpretation of Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s wordlist and evaluate its significance for the history of Chuvash. This source has been widely considered to be of little linguistic value and, generally, hardly interpretable because of numerous errors and inconsistencies as well as the brevity of the wordlist. The starting point of this article is the idea that Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s wordlist can still be analyzed if it is taken not as an isolated piece of documentation of Chuvash, but within the broader context of, firstly, Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s materials on other languages of Northern Eurasia and, secondly, other sources on the 18th-century Chuvash language. Materials and methods. It is shown that Ph. J. Strahlenberg has documented 30 Chuvash words in total, including 28 words in the Chuvash wordlist proper, 1 word in the main text of his book, and 1 word mistakenly placed in the wordlist of the neighboring Mari language. These materials have been investigated through standard methods of philological analysis, with a main focus on the orthographic peculiarities of the wordlist (considered against the background of other old written Chuvash sources) and on proposing plausible conjectures. Results. The paper provides a comprehensive philological account of each item on Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s Chuvash wordlist. It is established that almost all difficulties of interpretation that are traditionally associated with this source are rooted in the use of limitedly known orthographic patterns and, additionally, in the distortion of the recorded forms during the period after the original documentation and before the publication of Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s book. After introducing conjectures into the wordlist, it becomes possible to reconstruct phonetic prototypes of the documented forms. This, in turn, sets the stage for placing Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s materials on the dialectological map of Chuvash. While not particularly specific in terms of historical dialectology, the features characteristic of this variety can be broadly described as Viryal Chuvash. Given the extra-linguistic evidence available, it can be assumed that Ph. J. Strahlenberg’s Chuvash wordlist was recorded in the vicinity of Šupaškar (Cheboksary). Therefore, the attested dialect should probably be classified among the northern varieties of Viryal Chuvash.

Introduction. The article discusses an essential upcycling practice to have existed in various local cultures of the past — and still observable in different forms. Goals. The study aims at describing and analyzing a contemporary form of the children’s clothing sharing tradition of Tuvans, indigenous population of the Tyva Republic. The former is viewed as a local traditional variant of upcycling. The tradition proper has no special name in Tuvan culture but there are several Tuvan terms to denote old things. The most common one is ergindi — ‘old stuff’. The paper draws examples to introduce present-day patterns of the tradition and outlines it, since the latter has been totally uninvestigated. Materials and methods. The study comprises autoethnographic observations, employs anthropological methods and data from related academic disciplines, including philology, linguoculturology, and history. Results and conclusions. Tuvan folklore and ethnic literary narratives, 19th and 20th century ethnographic publications do mention the practice, the latter to be confirmed by stories of Tuvan elders about their childhood, family customs. The tradition was not only to save money or instruct people to handle things carefully but also illustrated special attitudes of Tuvans towards children, and furthermore acted as a kinship maintenance mechanism. Similar characteristics are inherent to contemporary patterns. Nevertheless, the paper also lists some innovations, e.g., expanded categories of things involved (children’s clothes proper be added to with clothes for pregnant women, children’s implements, toys, books), sharing not only with relatives, use of national costumes once owned by relatives, etc.

Introduction. The paper provides a first historiographic insight into official ranks and social status of Russian diplomats to have been dispatched on diplomatic missions to leaders of nomadic military/political associations across Northern Central Asia in the 17th century. Goals. The study aims to determine essentials of how the Tsardom of Russia tended to perceive its counterparties’ status through the analysis of official positions and social backgrounds of Russian diplomats. Materials and methods. The article analyzes a wide range of published and unpublished documents, systemizes and generalizes qualitative and quantitative data pertaining to official ranks of Russian diplomats discovered in records management papers, such as Tsar’s ukazes, nakazes and reminder nakazes, as well as those referred to as stateyny spisok (list of officers) and otpiska voevody (governor’s report). Results. The work reveals diplomatic missions to Kirghiz and Teleut lands, Dzungaria and Mongolia were usually headed by offsprings of the nobility (deti boyarskie) and regular servicemen (nachalnye lyudi) — Cossack leaders, atamans, squadron (pyatidesyatnik) and section (desyatnik) commanders. However, it was not that rare when such diplomatic endeavors were entrusted to servicemen of lower ranks and, occasionally, representatives of indigenous (non-Russian) populations. Conclusions. In terms of 16th–17th century Russian ambassadorial semiotics, the choice of diplomats from commoners and those characterized by lower social status was definitely purposeful and aimed at demonstrating that Turkic and Mongolian nomadic rulers were to enjoy fewer honors due to a higher standing of the Russian Tsar. Since the Tsardom of Muscovy was seeking to gain control over the nomadic military/political alliances of Northern Central Asia and bring nomadic elites under ‘the higher hand of the monarch’, the appointments of lower-ranked servicemen as heads of diplomatic missions were to meet the goals (and logic) of Russian expansionist policy. Low ranks of dispatched diplomats indicated not only the Russian Tsar’s political superiority over nomadic rulers but also attested to that Russians already tended to perceive nomads as potential subjects of the Tsar.

Introduction. In the 1920s and 1930s, one of the most important directions of Soviet nationalities policy was the building of Soviet nations on the basis of various ethnic groups. Utmost difficulties were to be faced when it came to identify small dispersed ethnic communities located in ethnocultural ‘borderlands’. In Stavropol Region, one such community were Sherets to have emerged as a result of historical synthesis of Kalmyk and Turkmen cultures and ethnic environments. Goals. The article seeks to analyze government policies towards Sherets and attempts a scientific understanding of their phenomenon in the Soviet era. Materials. The study examines archival documents housed by the State Archive of the Russian Federation, as well as other archival papers and published sources. Results. The work delineates main approaches to the study of Sherets in the prerevolutionary and Soviet periods. It shows that religion was chosen as a key identification factor for the group by Russian ethnographers and officials, which made it logical enough to cluster Stavropol Sherets with Turkmens. However, the Soviet approach rested on the primacy of primordialism and actual ethnic origins, and proclaimed Sherets an integral part of the Kalmyk people. The paper reveals main directions and mechanisms of work among Sherets at municipal, regional, and republican levels aimed at their rehabilitation and relocation to the native village of Kucherli in Turkmensky District. It is proved that Sherets — despite small numbers — sought to retain their identity based on clan system. The 1930s curtailment of the korenization policy resulted in accelerated assimilation of Sherets into the Turkmen population.

Introduction. The contemporary transformation of the place and role attributed to shamanism in social structures cannot be explained in isolation from social and political trends. Goals. The study aims at revealing causes of shamanism’s revival in post-Soviet Russia, analyzing the latter’s mechanisms, and attempts an efficient policy roadmap that could be followed by the Government. Materials and methods. The comparative historical method identifies structural inconsistencies between official clerics and institutions supposed to sustain intrasystemic balance in human society — and individual shamans performing similar functions in the so called ‘big universe’ that additionally comprises the world of natural phenomena and that of spirits. Results. The paper shows that when social institutions headed by authorities are capable of securing acceptable solutions for most problems of an individual citizen, shamanism tends to turn vividly oppositional and retains its potentials in ‘peripheries’ only — within ‘gaps’ of social systems. Meanwhile, the experiences of post-Soviet Buryatia attest to that in acute crisis shamanism may be recruited again to tackle actual mundane objectives. In this case, it becomes an important structural element to a wider social relations system with boundaries of society proper further extended. Conclusions. The paper asserts the latter phenomenon may imply an efficient strategy be incorporation of shamans into the public law field with limited allocations of specific resources owned by the Government only. This may result in that the former’s spiritual potentials and impacts be used to common advantage — to avoid takeovers by spiritual leaders from peripheries of social systems.

Introduction. The article analyzes materials from one reference site of the Caspian culture in the Northern Caspian. Two main achievements of prehistoric society — emergence of metalworking and that of productive economy — are associated with this culture. Goals. The paper aims to identify cultural and chronological complexes inherent to the site of Kurpezhe-Molla. So, the study seeks to characterize stone and ceramic inventories, their cultural attributions, attempts a comparative analysis of pottery production techniques in different cultures, and determines their absolute ages. Materials and methods. The work focuses on materials from Kurpezhe-Molla — a key site of the Caspian culture. The latter was being excavated from 1980 to 1989 to have yielded publications covering the first five years only. This paper is first to publish and consider complexes of all years of research. The employed research methods include the typological, planigraphic, technical/technological, and radiocarbon ones. Results. Typological analysis makes it possible to identify ceramics of the Khvalynsk and later cultural types (in addition to ceramics of the Caspian culture proper). This was confirmed by that the stone artifacts included some typical for the Early Eneolithic. Technical and technological characteristics of the Caspian and Khvalynsk pottery samples prove similar enough but there are some differences. The work estimates an earlier age of the Caspian culture and a later one for that of Khvalynsk. Conclusions. Comprehensive insights into respective materials attest to a complex character of the site of Kurpezhe-Molla. Artifacts of the Caspian culture proper are paralleled by materials of the Khvalynsk type. The radiocarbon dates obtained imply the Caspian materials be referred to an earlier period. The paper traces both similar and distinctive features inherent to typology and manufacturing techniques characteristic of the archaeological cultures examined. This may indicate the Khvalynsk ceramic tradition had evolved from the Caspian one, or serve evidence of their coexistence at a certain stage.

The Yakutia Comprehensive Research Expedition of 1925–1930 proved a most essential stage in the intellectual discovery of Russia’s Arctic and North. Even nowadays the insights into climate and natural resources, socioeconomic and demographic analyses, living conditions assessments remain as topical. It is noteworthy that the efforts undertaken were largely humanitarian, thus making the collected data on socioeconomic history and everyday life rich enough. Ivan Soikkonen was heading the Yakut Ethnographic Subgroup in 1926–1927, the latter to have been working in the central part of the Republic. Long-term stationary observations resulted in materials covering ethnic culture of the Yakuts, including detailed descriptions of household life, economic activities, and family relations. Soikkonen’s papers are distinguished by ‘photographic’ reflections of rural Yakutia’s local realities typical for earliest decades of the 20th century. Goals. The article aims to introduce into scientific circulation one manuscript by the Russian ethnographer Ivan P. Soikkonen containing ethnographic materials from late 1920s Central Yakutia. Materials. The manuscript titled ‘Winter Day of the Yakut Woman’ is stored together with other unpublished Yakutia-related materials of Soikkonen at the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg Branch). Results. The expedition materials are invaluable sources for humanities research. The manuscript examined contains interesting facts that shed light on social relations, standards and qualities inherent to rural life refracted in the mirror of everyday gender. The phenomena dominating throughout the to be presented document is that of natural winter cold which limits, restrains, and regulates activities of a Yakut woman in winter everyday life in earliest decades of the past century. Soikkonen’s notes make it possible to examine aspects of the economic determinism among Yakuts to have arisen from natural and climatic conditions of the region in the period prior to the Soviet modernization in interdisciplinary perspectives. Conclusions. The paper is first to publish the manuscript, only some small fragments have been cited before. The article pioneers the interpretation of Soikkonen’s materials from the standpoint of the anthropology of cold. The author comments and transcribes Yakut terms contained in the manuscript.

Introduction. The history of British Raj’s foreign economic activity development at the turn of the 20th century remains somewhat understudied both in Russian and foreign historiography. Since the 1880s, India significantly increased foreign trade to become Asia’s leader in this regard. Goals. The paper aims at examining dynamics of India’s export-import operations and foreign trade by countries. Materials and methods. The article analyzes reports and accounts of Russian diplomats to have worked in British Raj, the Near East, and Great Britain. The employed research methods include the historical/genetic, comparative historical, and historical/typological ones. Results. Britain had been India’s dominating trading partner. However, gradually other states also increased trade operations with the latter, especially import ones. The paper emphasizes Russia failed to become a key foreign trade partner of British Raj (except for export of kerosene and import of tea). The identified reasons are contentious British-Russian relations in Central Asia in the 1860s–1890s, poor knowledge of the Indian market, and geographical remoteness. British Raj turned an outpost of Great Britain’s economic strength in the Persian Gulf. At the same time, Indian goods displaced products from other countries — including Britain manufactured ones — in many ports of the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula. The article stresses that the bulk of India’s foreign economic relations were maintained via maritime transport. This was due to complicated natural and climatic factors along land borders, instability in frontiers (Afghanistan and Persia). Nonetheless, British Raj was increasing its economic presence in Afghanistan, Persia, Nepal, Ceylon, Siam, and western provinces of China. An important place in India’s foreign trade was occupied by transit trade and re-export of goods from other states, which makes it difficult to accurately determine the actual volume of its foreign trade. Conclusions. The specifics of India’s national economic development can thus be traced in the structure of its foreign trade. The exports were dominated by raw materials and foodstuffs; manufactured products were only making their way to foreign markets. The difficulties were largely associated with the Great Britain’s colonial policy in India since the former sought to keep using the latter as a market for industrial products produced in the British Isles. On the eve of WW I, British Raj was building up its economic potential through strengthening its positions in world trade.

Introduction. The article introduces into scientific circulation newly discovered archival materials and analyzes actual conditions in Kalmyk Steppe of Astrakhan Governorate in the late 19th century. The issue remains topical enough, which results from its poor historiographic tradition: only a few works have been published in the modern period just to outline some fragmentary aspects. In addition, interdisciplinary, civilizational and cultural approaches are urgently needed to address this theme. Goals. The work attempts a complex characterization of Kalmyk uluses and Kalmyk society in the late 19th century. The former shall be instrumental in defining traditional features and identifying the degree of introduction of new phenomena in socioeconomic development of the region. So, the paper provides data on quite a range of aspects inherent to Kalmyk life. The chronological framework of the study (late 19th century) is well justified: the Kalmyks had spent almost 300 years within Russia’s borders, which makes it possible to determine the degree of preservation of traditional essentials and identify the influence of innovations. Materials and methods. The work employs a set of general scientific and special historical research methods. Special attention is paid to the principles of historicism and systemacity helpful in analyzing events from over 100 years ago and considering the latter in connection with other aspects of Kalmyk social life. Interdisciplinary and civilizational approaches make it possible to present objective accounts of complex processes. The mentioned documents are stored at the Russian State Historical Archive and the National Archive of Kalmykia. The former are mainly represented by consolidated annual reports of Astrakhan Governor describing actual conditions in Kalmyk Steppe — a special administrative and territorial unit of Astrakhan Governorate. Results. The paper analyzes the reports for data on territory and population of Kalmyk Steppe, economy and social structure of Kalmyk society, school and medical aid systems. It also stresses accounts of Astrakhan Kalmyks’ moral appearances by Astrakhan officials. Conclusions. The study shows that Astrakhan Kalmyks were still a traditional nomadic society at the turn of the 20th century. Their livelihood was based on extensive nomadic livestock breeding with the same species and breeds as 300 years ago, though some innovations had been perceived (occasional winter forage conservation, construction of permanent buildings in some localities). All needs of Kalmyks were fully satisfied with their own farmsteads. The innovations included attempts to engage in agricultural activities in suitable areas of Maloderbetovsky Ulus next to resettled Russian peasants, and the involvement of Kalmyk communities in market relations.

Introduction. The majority of Russian historiographic works deal with political history, namely: class struggle, wars, sociopolitical and socioeconomic development, prominent figures, etc. Meanwhile, it is evident enough that an ultimate basis for historical development and existence of any ethnos is everyday labor of the masses. The article reviews the emergence and development — in historical science as such and Russian historiography proper — of the research trend exploring everyday life. The paper notes virtually no such works have been published in Kalmykia, nor can one find any essential scholarly narratives on everyday life of Kalmyks. Goals. The study aims at delineating long-term benefits of academic insights into Kalmyk routine life, all estates and social groups throughout the 17th to 19th centuries. Results. The paper revisits activities by founders of the Annales school (France) — Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. Special attention is paid to similar works on everyday life in Russian historiography. Conclusions. The available ethnographic narratives examine the past household life of Kalmyks, their rites, economic affairs and other aspects integral to the subject area ‘mundane life’. However, the article concludes no special works to have covered Kalmyk routine life of the past have been published yet.

Introduction. The article examines the history of emergence and development of unauthorized settlements of individual peasants in the territory of Kalmykia between 1930 and 1991. The insight into the topic provides an opportunity to learn more about the past of certain social groups, strata, classes — and related state policies during the Soviet era. Goals. The paper primarily aims to show a history of settlements arbitrarily established by individual peasants in Soviet times. The work examines causes and factors to have resulted in new settlements across Kalmykia, analyzes official Soviet policies, relations between government agencies and such settlers. Materials and methods. The study employs the historical comparative and historical genetic methods, analyzes works by previous authors and materials from the State Archive of the Russian Federation and National Archive of Kalmykia, including new unpublished materials thus to be introduced into scientific circulation. Results. The analysis shows the emergence and development of settlements were determined by such factors as island locations, desolate and undeveloped character of lands, harsh natural conditions, persistence of settlers, and the unspoken support from authorities of Priyutnensky District in earliest years of existence. The paper presumes it be also very important to take into account the fact unauthorized settlements had been initiated by individuals who — unlike kulaks — were considered unconscious, ‘lost’ people, and not socially alien elements. Most of the ‘unauthorized settlers’ were ones to have avoided dekulakization, the wealthiest ones had been able to liquidate their farms before lists of the to be dekulakized were compiled. Authorities identified such settlements as kulak ones, although in formal parameters those were socially different. Conclusions. Unauthorized settlements of individual peasants in Kalmykia appeared as a result of forced collectivization and served a manifested protest against official restriction policies. The collectivization movement and sociocultural ideology kept them under constant pressure, but two settlements did survive to resist for decades to come. In general, the Soviet period witnessed a success in eliminating unauthorized settlements of individual proprietors.

Introduction. The article aims to study key types of Tuvan women’s wedding headdresses as signs associated with certain stages of the wedding ritual. Materials and methods. The research is mostly based on pre-revolutionary historical and ethnographic materials from the Aldan-Maadyr National Museum of Tuva and the authors’ field data. The method of historicism employed for the analysis proves helpful in capturing the elements of culture in dynamics. The work also uses the comparative typological and field research methods that are traditional enough for ethnography studies. Results. The paper analyzes historical, ethnographic, and folklore materials to reveal the semantics of the Tuvan traditional wedding ritual and identify symbolism of wedding headdresses and their semiotics, materials used for their manufacture and decoration, local variants in terms of pragmatism and specific characteristics. Conclusions. The research indicates that despite some differences in several parameters (presence or absence of a particular rite or its functional significance), the traditional wedding ritual across different territories of Tuva is characterized by commonality of their basic structural and typological components, including matchmaking (Tuv. kudalaashkin and kudalai koor), bride show (dugdeeshkin), and wedding proper (kuda-doi). Accordingly, wedding clothes from different districts of Tuva have common ritual elements along with some specific local peculiarities. So, the paper focuses on key types of headdresses once used in wedding rites.

Introduction. The article deals with the Crimean period (August 1941 – June 1942) in the life of Basan Badminovich Gorodovikov, Hero of the Soviet Union and a major military and political figure of Kalmykia. The present article aims at describing and analyzing this less-known period of his biography, which was significant and full of dramatic events. Data and research methods. For the purposes of this research, the author has used a wide range of archival materials, as well as memoirs of participants of the partisan movement in the Crimea (including unpublished papers). Results. The author describes the first battles in the north of the Crimea in which Gorodovikov’s regiment was engaged; then, its retreat into the mountains and transition to partisans, the creation of a partisan detachment and the actions behind enemy lines. The activities of Gorodovikov’s detachment are shown against the general background of the partisan movement in the Crimea; special attention given to the discussion of warfare under the specific conditions on the peninsula. The article focuses on the role of the military personnel, especially at the first stage of the partisan movement, revealing, among other things, the problems in the relationship between the command staff of the 48th cavalry division and the partisan leaders in the Crimea. For the first time, the article sheds light on the history of awarding Gorodovikov with the Order of the Red Banner, which was the first award of the Crimean partisans. The dramatic story of his evacuation from the partisan forest to the “Bol´shaia zemlia” is also documented in detail; with previously unknown documents and materials introduced in this paper. The undertaken research allows to conclude that the Crimean period in the life of Gorodovikov was one of the most dramatic in his biography. During a difficult period for the Crimea, he became the commander of one of the most successful partisan detachments, which after he left was officially named after him, its first commander. Notably, Gorodovikov was among the first Crimean partisans to be awarded a military order and to get a promotion in rank and in office.

Introduction. This is a report on the results of archaeological excavations at Maksimovka I, the subterranean burial ground located in the forest-steppe Volga region. The site is unique because it contains burial complexes of different epochs. The purpose of the paper is to introduce the materials found during the 2018 excavations for the attention of the academic community. In particular, the paper focuses on the description and characterization of the archaeological complexes under investigation, and, also, on their cultural-chronological attribution. Data. The cultural layer was not particularly rich but contained fragments of Neolithic, Eneolithic, and Bronze Age ceramics, stone tools, and waste left after stone processing. Three burials were examined in the excavation area. The first burial comprised the skeleton of a deceased person in a supine position; the head oriented to the north-northeast; the grave goods included iron items (a fragment of a boiler and of a bit, rod-shaped items, and a firesteel), grindstones, and flints. The second buried person was found in the seated position, leg bones bent at the knee joint, head oriented to northeast; the finds included a nonferrous metal ring, a bone pendant, a silicon wafer, and tubular beads. The third buried person was also in a seated position, head oriented to the northeast; no grave goods were found in the third burial. Also, two other burial constructions recovered on the site were partially examined. Results. The first burial was attributed to the Golden Horde period in the Middle Ages (the second half of the 13th or the 14th c.). The second burial has a number of parallels to burial complexes of mid-late Eneolithic era of the forest-steppe Volga region. The third burial was left unidentified in terms of its cultural-chronological attribution, granted the non-standard position of the skeletal remains in the grave and the absence of goods. Conclusions. The examination of the subterranean burial ground Maksimovka I has allowed to introduce the archaeological material of different periods, such as Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze, and Middle Ages.

Goals. The article provides a codicological insight into Tibetan written heritage which gains certain relevance due to that extensive Tibetan collections are currently being introduced into scholarly circulation in Russia. The paper determines specific features of traditional Tibetan-Mongolian book production — the former being subject to codicological research — such as book types and formats, characteristics of paper, various design elements and marginalia, etc. Methods. Modern approaches to the study and attribution of Tibetan written monuments are examined through the analysis of most successful international initiatives advanced by the British Library, Harvard University, etc. Results. The work establishes main parameters of book description related to physical features, cultural and social contexts of its creation and existence. The obtained outcomes made it possible to enhance the digital codicological model for Tibetan book monuments at the Center of Oriental Manuscripts and Monuments. The accumulation of data collected during the codicological study of large Tibetan collections and their processing with digital methods (statistical, geoinformation ones, etc.) also yield some important quantitative indicators to determine key directions, intensity and features of cultural interaction between Russia’s East — and countries of East and Inner Asia largely influenced by Tibetan culture.

Introduction. The article deals with an important and eventful period of Russia-Mongolia relations, special attention be paid to the shaping of a new regional order in East Asia. The collapse of China’s monarchy resulted in a political vacuum in Russia’s border territories which required utmost consideration and involvement, and the Soviets did seize the opportunity. However, the Agreement on Friendly Relations concluded in November of 1921 can hardly be viewed as a starting point, the former having been rather supposed to actualize previous mutual commitments discussed in the paper. Goals. So, the work attempts an interdisciplinary insight into the mentioned documents (addresses, diplomatic notes, letters, etc.) to have preceded the Agreement and formalized Soviet Russia’s foreign policy in the region and its presence in the territory of Outer Mongolia ― to determine the role and impact of those preliminary papers. Materials and Methods. The study focuses on widely known materials contained in diverse published collections of documents from the Soviet era that were never viewed by most researchers as important tools to have guaranteed the national interests in the Far East. So, the innovative aspect of research is that the addresses, notes and letters are examined through the prism of other humanitarian disciplines, such as jurisprudence and political science — to result in the employment of an interdisciplinary approach with a range of historical, juridical and politological research methods, definitions and categories inherent to international law and international relations. Part One of the article focuses on research tools and ideological essentials, while Part Two examines the actual techniques to have secured the ‘export of revolution’. Conclusions. The insight into the precontractual documents has delineated a number of key lines for cooperation, the latter dominated by bilateral collaboration (and described in Part One). This paper shall characterize the rest that can be together identified as a set of efficient means to have consolidated ideological foundations of the ‘export of revolution’ that include as follows: ‘soft power’ of educational projects; security arrangements for Soviet territories and borders, including assistance to Mongolian comrades in their fight against the White Guard, allocation of the Red Army units within Mongolian territories until the complete eradication of the White threat, with the participation of military units from the Far Eastern Republic; economic cooperation through mutual financial and economic support of industrial construction projects, resource development and social infrastructure initiatives, etc.; joint actions on the international stage pinnacled with the recognition of the Mongolian People’s Republic by China (1946) and the rest of the world community (1961). The study concludes these lines of cooperation were successfully implemented within the two following decades and proved crucial not only in the shaping of a new political order in the region but also facilitated the development of the eastern border security system in the pre-war period and WWII proper (1936–1945), which restrained Japan from initiating military actions against the USSR up until 1945 and guaranteed the security of Mongolia.

Introduction. In the national republics of the Sayan-Altai Region — Altai, Tuva and Khakassia — urbanization has been essentially delayed and is, hence, accelerated. The first urban settlements appeared here only in the 20th century, and many of them were referred to as urban de jure only. Despite the growth of publications studying various aspects of the urbanization in Siberia, there are almost no research works dealing with the development of this historical, cultural, complicated social process and compiled from materials of this region proper. The paper provides a first attempt to assess the features and patterns of urbanization in the Sayan-Altai Region through the prism of modernization theory. Goals. The article aims to analyze urbanization as the most important aspect of modernization through materials collected across Altai, Tuva and Khakassia in the 20th – early 21st centuries. Materials and Methods. The article primarily investigates official statistical data that make it possible to trace the actual urbanization dynamics (for both populations and territories), as well as the process of transformation experienced by material components of city life. Empirically, the study rests on materials of surveys conducted in the Republic of Khakassia (2018) and in the Republics of Tuva and Altai (2019). The total number of interviewees is 2000. The study employs deterministic sampling methods. Results. The work concludes the urbanization development pattern examined in the region is non-linear, which was determined by the difficult and indirect modernization processes nationwide and those in its certain parts in particular. In the history of the ethnic federal subjects of the Sayan-Altai Region, local features of urbanization are more evident than those in other regions of the country, which is largely due to the influence of the ethnic factor, specifics of indigenous cultures and worldviews. Urbanization as a process is studied on the regional materials in two main perspectives: on the one hand, the paper provides analysis of quantitative indicators of urbanization, such as the dynamics of urban population and growth of urban settlements; on the other hand, an important role in the study of urbanization is assigned to its qualitative indicators, the latter including the transformed structure of urban population and evolution of its living standards

Introduction. The article discusses the linguistic manifestation of prohibition semantics in Tuvan, analyzes the grammatical and lexical means of its expression, determines the semantic differences of the prohibition indicators and their functional/stylistic features. Goals. The paper aims to describe the grammatical and lexical means of expressing the semantics of prohibition in modern Tuvan, to analyze their meanings, pragmatic and stylistic functions. Materials and Methods. The study employs the descriptive method, functional/semantic and communicative/pragmatic approaches. The research material was provided by examples from digital sources of Tuvan-language texts available at: http://www.tuvancorpus.ru/. Results. The research of Tuvan language materials confirms the data from typologically different languages that indicators of the negative imperative are stylistically universal transmitters of the prohibitive meaning. Other means of expressing prohibition — besides the negative form of the future tense –бас — are stylistically marked. When it comes to express a prohibition, intonation holds an important place since it interacts with the former’s formal indicators proper, context and communicative situation. The paper identifies several types of prohibition (the prohibitive) that have received grammatical and lexical expressions in the Tuvan language — the regulative, preventive, constative, and corrective. Semantically, a comparatively wider range of prohibition values is possessed by the analytical form Tv-п болбас ― a special grammatical indicator of prohibition expressing the regulative, preventive, and constative. For other grammatical means within this system of indicative indicators, transfer of prohibition values is not a key function of theirs. This is the case of the future negative -бас (regulative, preventive) and the past -ды. The latter conveys a value of the admonitive. The system of lexical and grammatical means of expressing prohibition is distinguished by the lexemes хоржок (preventive), болзун, адыр (corrective) that have no certain part of speech status within the modern language. The prohibition lexeme болзун is a grammaticalization of the verb бол- in the meaning ‘to finish’ for the third imperative. There are two verbs бол- and сокса- that implicitly express prohibition/correction. The considered lexicogrammatical and lexical means of prohibition belong to the colloquial style. The formal style employs a number of special lexemes with the meaning of the regulative formed from the stem хору-. This word-formation nest includes verbs, adjectives, adverbs. The results of the study in the functional/ semantic field of prohibition in the Tuvan language shall be demanded in further research on modality in the Turkic and other languages

Introduction. Recent historiographic studies show an increasing interest in the figure of Khan Ayuka and the whole of written heritage pertaining to seventeenth-eighteenth century Russian-Kalmyk relations. The article is the first to publish a complete text of one 1718 letter missive submitted by Tsar Peter Alekseyevich to Khan Ayuka. Goals. So, the paper shall introduce some further evidence of Russian-Kalmyk contacts from Peter the Great’s era. Materials. The study focuses on related documentary material from the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts. Results. Such and similar publications shall significantly contribute to the study of Russian-Kalmyk relations throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The examined document mentions a variety of noteworthy facts dealing with the then military and political situation across Russia’s southern frontier. Conclusions. The 1718 letter missive of Peter I attests to the Russian government was well aware of the actual agenda along its southern and southeastern domains. The text clearly shows that Russian authorities were keeping a watchful eye on contacts between Kalmyk landlords and Sultan Bahti Giray of Kuban. The intelligence messages would be regularly delivered by Astrakhan and Tsaritsyn offices, Don Cossacks and princes of Kabardia.

Introduction. The paper introduces some newly discovered archival material and sources in different languages to examine the shaping of Kalmyk-Kazakh relations in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The concern about the issue is explained by its limited historiography, since only a few unconnected works have tackled it to date. Furthermore, decent research efforts therein do imply the need for interdisciplinary and cross-civilizational/cross-cultural approaches. Goals. The work attempts a comprehensive review of how relations between the Volga Kalmyks and Kazakhs developed throughout the mentioned period, which shall shed light on the dramatic events that would prove crucial to historical destinies of the nomadic peoples. Materials. To facilitate this, the publication introduces some related data contained in various sources (repositories) and supplemented with historiographic analyses by both Russian and foreign scholars. The identified period seems most instrumental in analyzing the evolution of Kalmyk-Kazakh relations and the latter’s impacts onto their then (and subsequent) historical agendas. Results. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, relations between the Volga Kalmyks and Kazakhs were somewhat controversial and ambivalent, which never excluded certain cultural ties then manifested in bilingualism of Kazakh elites that tended to make fluency in Kalmyk a useful rule of theirs, in dynastic marriages and mutual judicial influences traced in codes of laws (Jeti-Jargy and Iki Tsaadzhin Bitchig).

Introduction. The article examines some key stages of administrative governance evolution in the Inner Bukey Horde throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries — with due regard of the present-day historical research agenda and various methodological approaches adopted to interpret Imperial Russia’s policies toward Orientals across its southeastern domains. Materials and methods. The paper focuses on a number of related historical publications, namely: A Review of the Fifty-Year Long History (1837–1887) by the Ministry of State Property (Pt. 2: Guardianship. Land Affairs Management), and Russian Political Law by N. Korkunov, a renowned Russian lawyer of the prerevolutionary era. The latter reviews the Bukey Horde’s administrative structure as of the early twentieth century. Results. The work employs an institutional approach to the study of administrative governance evolution in the Inner Bukey Horde, and delineates a total of four stages therein: establishment of the Bukey Horde, institutional legalization of the Bukey Khanate, transformation and abolishment of native royal power of khans, integration of the Horde into Russia’s political and economic environments as part of Astrakhan Governorate. The staging model centers around the institution of khanship that did outlive ones in all other Kazakh communities, which is explained by the personal traits of Khan Jäñgir and a special ‘inner’ status of the Bukey Horde.

Introduction. The study deals with Russia Germans of Kalmykia and analyzes the state of the ethnic group (traditionally referred to as a minority across the designated territory) from 1897 to the late 1930s on the basis of census data (1897, 1926, 1939), archival documents, and published works. The relevance of the issue lies in its poor historiography: works examining census data as a historical source on Kalmyk Steppe are few enough, and they actually focus on the indigenous ethnic community (Kalmyks) with only fragmentary reviews of two-three other groups. Goals. The paper seeks to characterize the German ethnic group, which has been integral to Kalmyk Steppe’s population since the late nineteenth century, its demographic features, and social structure. Materials and methods. The study rest on the general scientific principles of historicism and objectivity, and employs the methods of historical reconstruction and system analysis that have proved instrumental in identifying certain demographic changes over time. Results. The German community in Kalmykia started taking its shape in the mid-1870s, and was closely connected with the history of local Estonians, the latter having arrived in Kalmyk Steppe almost simultaneously and founded a settlement next to the German one. The traced growth dynamics attests to the group was enjoying a constant increase since its foundation. Sound facilities and decent educational levels became key to the successful development of both farms (households) and villages joined by German settlers. On arrival in Bolshederbetovsky Ulus, the newcomers immediately built prayer houses in their villages and opened primary parish schools with teachers of their own. These would, on the one hand, facilitate the community’s consolidation in the new place and, on the other hand, ensure the younger generation be brought up in the spirit of ancestral values. Kalmykia’s ethnic Germans were part of the multinational society, but meanwhile tended to preserve some specifics of their culture. According to the Soviet Census of 1939, the size of this group increased 3.5 times compared to the early 1890s. The events witnessed by the following decade changed their history once and for all.

Introduction. The article deals with one interesting pattern of research heuristics tackled to create a unified empirical database on forced labor relocations of Rostov Oblast-based Soviet citizens to Nazi Germany. Goals. The source study primarily attempts a consistent reconstruction of individual elements to the ethnic stratification among the O starbeiter (‘Eastern workers’) from the selected region, the former to be facilitated by the current identification of ethnic Kalmyks among such displaced individuals. This specific epistemological perspective has never been addressed by the preceding historiographic tradition, which makes the research practice relevant enough. Materials and methods. The integrated use of traditional archival search methods at the Taganrog Office of Rostov Oblast Archive (Russia) and the City Archive of Lüdenscheid (Germany) made it possible to identify an approximate circle of Kalmyk Soviet citizens forcibly displaced from Taganrog. Results. The paper contributes to a consistent understanding of how Nazi Germany’s forced labor civilian deportations from occupied territories took place, and outlines the phenomenon’s dynamics. The undertaken reconstruction of the ethnic stratification among forcibly displaced Soviet citizens clearly illustrates the rigid universalism of the occupation authorities that were seeking to gain ‘living space’ for ‘true Aryans’. The integrated object for Nazi repressive actions was civilian populations of occupied regions viewed as inferior communities, with no special privileges for any certain ethnic group. A particularly valuable result is that the study has yielded preliminary verifications for a number of ethnic Kalmyks that experienced such forced labor relocations to Nazi Germany.

Introduction. The issue of Soviet medical assistance to Northeast China in combating plague in 1947–1949 remains understudied in Russia. However, the anti-epidemic teams dispatched by the Soviet Red Cross did make a significant contribution to the struggle against plague in China, and the medical assistance proper proved an efficient ‘soft power’ tool of the USSR. Goals. The article attempts an insight into how the Soviet Union managed to help China combat the plague in the harsh political situation caused by the Chinese Civil War. Materials and methods. The study examines documents contained in Collection Р-9501 (‘Union of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in the USSR’) of Russia’s State Archive, most of the former being reports by physicians of Soviet Red Cross affiliated sanitary/epidemiological teams. Special attention is also paid to related scholarly papers by China-based researchers. In terms of theory, the article rests on J. Nye’s concept of ‘soft power’ and a geopolitical approach to historical research. Results. The three years (from 1947 to 1949) witnessed a triumph of joint efforts by Soviet and Chinese medical specialists in their struggle against plague epidemics in Northeast China. Soviet physicians would selflessly tackle anti-epidemic measures in the spirit of internationalism to earn the respect of local communities and the gratitude of Chinese leaders. At the same time, the elimination of plague across the ‘liberated areas’ of Manchuria contributed to the region’s stabilization and increased the population’s confidence in the Chinese Communist Party. Conclusions. The anti-epidemic endeavors of the Soviet Red Cross were not only to demonstrate the achievements of Soviet medicine and promote a positive image of the country but also to guarantee epidemic safety along its borders. The medical assistance to the Communist government of Northeast China did as well serve the geopolitical interests of the Soviet Union, since it had a positive impact on the course of the Chinese Civil War — in favor of the USSR.

Introduction. The fundamental Buddhist treatise rGyud-bZhi is compiled mainly from Indian and Chinese sources, as well as elements of the oral healing tradition. The extensive range of commentary texts rGyud-bZhi gave rise to is dominated by the treatise Vaidurya-Onbo containing a series of unique illustrations — the ‘Atlas of Tibetan Medicine’. Tibetan healers considered embryology a most important part of medical practice and described it as the ‘making of the body’. Goals. The study seeks to consider the phenomenon of the making of the body — covering the pre-conception period, process of conception, fetal development, birth, postnatal growth, and infancy — in the context of the Buddhist healing treatise rGyud-bZhi and related commentaries. The paper examines conditions and causes of conception, processes of embryonic development, sex determination, karma-based birth to a certain family. Materials and methods. The work analyzes the embryology on the basis of rGyud-bZhi and Vaidurya-Onbo with the illustrations referred to as ‘Atlas of Tibetan Medicine’. One of the most impressive illustrations of the Atlas is titled ‘The Making of the Body’, and explains how under the influence of the vijñāna (‘consciousness’), the five primary elements and attachment to samsara, conception occurs and the fetus gets formed. Results. The making of the body is determined by karma and begins long before the embryo’s conception, since Buddhist texts pay much attention to the moral behavior of would-be parents. In Tibetan society, the influence of traditions manifested itself already at the stage of embryonic development, and women would often turn to mystical rites and rituals in the hope of giving birth to a male child. It was believed that prayers and certain rituals could influence the formation of the unborn child’s sex. Childbirth is basically viewed as a positive event for woman, since it is biologically and culturally natural. According to Tibetan sources, human health is rooted in harmony with environments and moral principles. Parents understand that it is necessary to follow internal and external prescriptions for procreation, to increase physical and spiritual strength in order to successfully conceive, maintain pregnancy, give birth to a healthy child, and provide him/her with proper care.

Introduction. The early twentieth century reforms in China gave rise to the issue of renovating fiction that profoundly influences collective consciousness. Chinese translators started actively addressing foreign fiction, including classic Russian literature. Goals. The study attempts an insight how Chinese reading audience’s interest in Russian classics — and particularly in the works of Nikolai V. Gogol — would take form and develop. Results. As for the reasons behind the Chinese translators’ appeal to Russian classical literature, the paper notes those are associated with the huge political and social changes in Russia after the October Revolution. The latter facilitated that Russian literature has firmly entered the cultural space of China, having yielded strong impacts on both readers and Chinese writers. The May Fourth Movement not only marked the beginning of a new era in the history of twentieth century China, but also served as an impetus for the development of new Chinese literature. The works of N. Gogol began to occupy a special place in this cultural space. Since 1920, when N. Gogol’s first work was published in a Chinese magazine, attention to his literary heritage has grown significantly. The translation activities of Qu Qiubai, Geng Jizhi, Ren Guangxuan, Bai Sihong, Bai Chunren and many other associates contributed to the widespread interest in N. Gogol’s works all across China. These efforts were paralleled by literary studies of the writer’s fiction techniques and style. The 1950s witnessed a ‘pause’. At the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, articles dedicated to N. Gogol disappeared from Chinese newspapers and magazines, but already in the 1970s publications about his works started reappearing. Since the 1990s, the research of Chinese specialists into N. Gogol’s narratives has become far more profound and diverse, and this work will continue, since Russian classical literature has had — and still does — a great influence on the development of contemporary Chinese literature.